ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION

22EC C08
B.E (ECE) – IV Semester

- Antenna Arrays
j

Dr. N. V. Koteswara Rao

Department of ECE
CBIT(A)
Prof. N. V. K. Rao 1
 Antenna Arrays
• There is a demand in long distance communications
that the Antenna (or) the Antenna system must have
very high directivity.
• To meet this demand, one of the solutions is
increasing the dimension of the antenna, which
results in increase in effective
j aperture area there by
directivity increases.
• The increase in size of the antenna has led to
fabrication and practical difficulties.
• The other solution for increasing the directivity of
the system is to go for an antenna array.

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 2
• An antenna array is a collection of similar kind of elements
grouped together.
• The antenna arrays increases the effective aperture area.
• In antenna arrays, dissimilar kinds of elements are not used
because there are no advantages found with dissimilar kind of
elements. .
• The over all radiation patterns of antenna arrays can be
controlled by :
Geometry j
Relative distance between the elements
Amplitude excitation
Phase excitation
Relative pattern of the individual element.
The above five controls, decides the overall
radiation pattern of the array.

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 3
 Antenna Arrays

Linear Arrays Planar Arrays

Uniform Non-Uniform
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Uniform linear arrays : Arranging the antenna elements over a line

and exciting with equal amplitudes and having progressive phase
shift.

In a non-uniform linear arrays, the elements are excited with non-

uniform amplitudes.
Ex: Binomial array and Chebyshev array
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 Infinitesimal dipole

Radiated fields :

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TWO-ELEMENT ARRAY

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Let us assume that the antenna under investigation is an array of two
infinitesimal horizontal dipoles positioned along the z-axis, as shown
in Figure. The total field radiated by the two elements, assuming no
coupling between the elements, is equal to the sum of the two and in
the y-z plane it is given by

Where β is the difference in phase excitation between the elements. The

magnitude excitation of the radiators is identical. Assuming far-field
observations and referring to Figure

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It is apparent that the total field of the array is equal to the
field of a single element positioned at the origin multiplied by
a factor which is widely referred to as the array factor. Thus
for the two-element array of constant amplitude, the array
factor is given by

j
The array factor is a function of the geometry of the array and
the excitation phase.

By varying the separation d and/or the phase β between the

elements, the characteristics of the array factor and of the total
field of the array can be controlled.

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It has been illustrated that the far-zone field of a uniform two-
element array of identical elements is equal to the product of
the field of a single element, at a selected reference point
(usually the origin), and the array factor of that array.

That is,
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Prof. N. V. K. Rao 11
• This is referred to as pattern multiplication for arrays of
identical elements.

• It has been illustrated only for an array of two elements,

each of identical magnitude.

• This is also valid for arrays with any number of identical

elements which do not necessarily have identical
magnitudes, phases, and/orj spacings between them.

• Each array has its own array factor.

• The array factor, in general, is a function of the number of

elements, their geometrical arrangement, their relative
magnitudes, their relative phases, and their spacings.

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• The array factor will be of simpler form if the elements
have identical amplitudes, phases, and spacings.

• Since the array factor does not depend on the

directional characteristics of the radiating elements
themselves, it can be formulated by replacing the
actual elements with isotropic (point) sources.

• Once the array factor has jbeen derived using the point-
source array, the total field of the actual array is
obtained easily.

• Each point-source is assumed to have the amplitude,

phase, and location of the corresponding element it is
replacing.

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Given the array of Figures of two infinitesimal dipoles, find the
nulls of the total field when d = λ/4 and

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 14
a. β = 0

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 (a)

j Element, array factor, and

total field patterns of a two-
element array of infinitesimal
horizontal dipoles with
identical phase excitation
(β = 0◦, d = λ/4).

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 16
 (b)

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Pattern multiplication of
element, array factor, and total
array patterns of a
two-element array of
infinitesimal horizontal dipoles
with (β = +90◦, d = λ/4)

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(c)

j
β = −90◦, d = λ/4

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 18
 N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY
UNIFORM AMPLITUDE AND SPACING
• Arraying of elements has been introduced and it was illustrated by
the two-element array.
• Let us generalize the method to include N elements.
• Let us assume that all the elements have identical amplitudes but
each succeeding element has a β progressive phase lead current
excitation relative to the preceding one (β represents the phase by
which the current in each elementj leads the current of the preceding
element).
• An array of identical elements all of identical magnitude and each
with a progressive phase is referred to as a uniform array.
• The array factor can be obtained by considering the elements to be
point sources.
• If the actual elements are not isotropic sources, the total field can be
formed by multiplying the array factor of the isotropic sources by the
field of a single element.
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 j

Since the total array factor for the uniform array is a summation of exponentials, it
can be represented by the vector sum of N phasors each of unit amplitude and
progressive phase ψ relative to the previous one.

The array factor can also be expressed in an alternate, compact and closed form
whose functions and their distributions are more recognizable.

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On Subtracting,

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The maximum value of AF is N and occurs when ψ tends to ZERO

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 To find the nulls of the
array, AF is set equal to
zero..

For n = N, 2N, 3N, . . ., attains its maximum values because it

reduces to a sin(0)/0 form. The values of n determine the order
of the nulls (first, second, etc.).
For a zero to exist, the argument of the arccosine cannot
exceed unity.
Thus the number of nulls that can exist will be a function of
the element separation d and the phase excitation difference β.
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The maximum values of AF occur when

This array factor has only one maximum

and occurs when m = 0 , i.e ,

(AF)n : Normalized array factor

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 The 3-dB point for the array factor of occurs when

Which can also be written as

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For the array factor , there are secondary
maxima (maxima of minor lobes) which
occur approximately when the numerator of
AF attainsj its maximum value. That is,

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 j

The maximum of the first minor lobe occurs approximately when

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At that point, the magnitude reduces to

Thus the maximum of the first minor lobe of the

array factor is 13.46 dB down from the
maximum at the major lobe.

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 30
 Broadside Array

In many applications it is desirable to have the maximum radiation of an array

directed normal to the axis of the array [broadside] θ0 = 90◦.

To optimize the design, the maxima of the single element and of the array
factor should both be directed toward θ0 = 90◦.
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The requirements that allow the array factor to “radiate” efficiently broadside
shall be presented.

The first maximum of the array factor occurs when

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 31
Since it is desired to have the first maximum directed toward θ0 = 90◦, then

At θ = 90◦ β= 0

Thus, to have the maximum of the array factor of a uniform linear array directed
broadside to the axis of the array, it is necessary that all the elements have the
same phase excitation(in addition to the same amplitude excitation).

The separation between the elements can

j be of any value.

To ensure that there are no principal maxima in other directions, which are
referred to as grating lobes, the separation between the elements should not be
equal to multiples of a wavelength (d = nλ, n = 1, 2, 3 . . .) when β = 0.

If d = nλ, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . and β = 0, then

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 32
This value of ψ when substituted in the above, makes the array factor
attain its maximum value.

Thus for a uniform array with β = 0 and d = nλ, in addition to having the
maxima of the array factor directed broadside (θ = 90◦) to the axis of the
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array, there are additional maxima directed along the axis (θ= 0◦ , 180◦) of
the array (endfire radiation).

One of the objectives in many designs is to avoid multiple maxima, in

addition to the main maximum, which are referred to as grating lobes.
Often it may be required to select the largest spacing between the
elements but with no grating lobes.

To avoid any grating lobe, the largest spacing between the elements
should be less than one wavelength (dmax < λ).
Prof. N. V. K. Rao 33
 Ordinary End-Fire Array
Instead of having the maximum radiation broadside to the axis of the array,
it may be desirable to direct it along the axis of the array (end-fire).

As a matter of fact, it may be necessary that it radiates toward only one

direction (either θ = 0◦ or 180◦).

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 34
EXAMPLES

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 35
Three-dimensional amplitude patterns for broadside, and
broadside/end-fire arrays (N = 10).

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 36
Three-dimensional amplitude patterns for broadside, and
broadside/end-fire arrays (N = 10). Contd…

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Maximum Element Spacing dmax to Maintain Either One or Two Amplitude
Maxima of a Linear Array

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 N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: DIRECTIVITY

Broadside Array

As a result of the criteria for broadside radiation, the array factor for this
form of the array reduces to..

which for a small spacing between the elements (d << λ) can be approximated by

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The radiation intensity can be written as

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 Umax is equal to unity (Umax = 1) and it occurs at θ = 90◦.

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By making a change of variable, that is,

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 the above can be approximated by extending the limits to infinity. That is,

The above reduces to

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 The directivity, can now be written as

where L is the overall length of the array, and above can be expressed as
j

which for a large array (L >> d) reduces to

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Given a linear, broadside, uniform array of 10 isotropic elements (N =
10) with a separation of λ/4( d = λ/4) between the elements, find the
directivity of the array.

ORDINARY END-FIRE ARRAY

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It should be noted that the directivity of the end-fire

array, is twice that for the broadside array.

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Given a linear, end-fire, uniform array of 10 elements (N = 10) with
a separation of λ/4 (d =λ/4) between the elements, find the directivity
of the array factor.

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Comparison of uniform Linear Arrays:

• Out of three types, uniform linear arrays posses

the lowest beam width followed Chebyshev and
then Binomial.
• Binomial arrays would result
j no side lobes
• Side lobes can be controlled in Chebychev array.
The designer’s choice is to choose what type of
array is to be adopted for the desired application.

Prof. N. V. K. Rao 53
TEXT BOOKS:

1. Constantine A. Balanis, “Antenna Theory: Analysis and Design”,

4th Edition, John Wiley, 2016.

2. Edward C. Jordan and Kenneth G. Balmain, “Electromagnetic

Waves and Radiating Systems”, 2nd Edition,PHI, 2001.

SUGGESTED READINGS:

1. John D. Krauss, Ronald J. Marhefka and Ahmad S. Khan, “Antennas

and Wave Propagation”, 4th Edition, TMH, 2010.

2. Dennis Roody and John Coolen, “Electronic Communications”, 4th

Edition, Prentice Hall, 2008.

3. I.J.Bhal and P.Bhartia, “Micro-strip antennas”, Artech house, 1980.

12-03-2024 Prof. N. V. K. Rao 54

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