GUIDELINE

on
Protecting & Developing Springs in Hill and Mountain areas

Local Road Development

Government of Nepal

Ministry of Federal Affairs and General Administration

Department of Local Infrastructure

(DoLI)
Pulchowk, Lalitpur
 GUIDELINE
on
Protecting & Developing Springs in Hill and Mountain areas
Local Road Development
Preface

After federalization, responsibility of formulating technical documents that are applicable for
implementation of Local infrastructures at local level is assigned to Department of Local Infrastructure
(DoLI) as DoLI is the only one engineering department within Ministry of Federal Affairs and General
Administration (MoFAGA) which take care of maintenance, construction, and upgrading of Local Road
Network (LRN).
This mandate has triggered to the revision of the Nepal Rural Road Standards, 1999. In 2014, revised
version of Nepal Rural Road Standard (NRRS) was published, and that proved to be a milestone for LRN
initiatives.
However, springs and seeps formed while constructing roads in hill and mountain terrain, on several
occasions, are completely omitted. In this context, the mandate to safely dispose or drain off this
induced water to minimize damage that to road body requires addressing judiciously. Lacking the
intervention, it will damage roads directly by forming depressions in the road surface and grow during
monsoon causing uncontrolled and erosive runoff on the road surface. To tackle such nuisance,
water from road springs and seeps can be tapped for domestic water supply and agriculture use in
hill and mountain areas of Nepal, which is equally pertinent in the context of changing climate and
managing roadside springs by including the seeps and springs integral part of road construction. This
has prompted the development of a guideline to protect and manage springs and seeps in local road
development.
This guideline is prepared with financial support from NUFFIC and Technical Assistance (TA) by
MetaMeta (MM). As a result of coordinated efforts by professionals both within and outside the
Government of Nepal, I would like to thank the members of the DoLI Technical Working Committee
members namely, Maheswor Ghimire (SDE), Coordinator, Krishna Bahadur Katwal (SDE), Homnath
Poudel (SDE), Maheshwori Khadka (Engineer), Janak Raj Pant (Engineer), Kushalata Nyoupane
(Engineer) and Shristi Bhattarai (Engineer).
I am also grateful for the direction and guidance of the DDG, Ashok Kumar Shah, and MetaMeta Team
led by Dr. Frank van Steenbergen (Director), whose input has been instrumental in developing and
shaping this guideline. I would like to express my gratitude to all the DoLI team and representatives
from different stakeholders who had provided comments to take it into this level
I am confident that this guideline shall be beneficial for proper management of springs along the road.
Any comments or suggestion will be highly appreciated.

Ishwor Chandra Marahatta

Director General
DoLI
Acknowledgements Table of Content
Table of Content....................................................................................................................................7
This report was written by a team led by Ashok Shah (Deputy Director General), coordinated by 1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................................9
Maheswor Ghimire (Senior Divisional Engineer) and comprising consultants from MetaMeta - Frank
van Steenbergen, Saroj Yakami, Anastasia Deligianni, under the overall guidance and leadership of 1.1 Mountain aquifer: basics – recognizing water bearing strata.........................................................9
Ishwor Marahatta, Director General. The document benefited from useful comments and contribution
1.2 Importance of springs/ seeps in mountain areas............................................................................9
from Krishna Katwal (Senior Divisional Engineer), Hom Nath Poudel (Senior Divisional Engineer),
Maheshwori Khadka (Engineer), Janak Raj Pant (Engineer), Shristi Bhattarai (Engineer), and Kushalata 1.2.1 Spring types...............................................................................................................................11
Nyoupane (Engineer).
1.3 Understanding small stream crossings..........................................................................................12
We would like to acknowledge the following people for their ideas, insights, contributions, and
inspirations: Gordon Keller, Geotechnical Engineer from GENESEE GEOTECHNICAL, Simon Chevalking, 2. Protecting and developing springs and seeps as part of road development...................................14
Luwieke Bosma, Rudolph Cleveringa, Esmee de Quant.
2.1 Improved Road planning and road development..........................................................................14
The team is grateful to its partner who has funded and co-funded for this work: Orange Knowledge
Programme funded by NUFFIC (OKP-TMT, https://www.nuffic.nl/en/subjects/orange-knowledge- 2.2 Preventing damage to aquifer systems.........................................................................................15
programme/institutional-collaboration-projects-orange-knowledge), MetaMeta (MM, https:// 2.2.1 Spring protection and preservation...........................................................................................15
metameta.nl/).
2.2.2 Techniques for capturing Springs and seeps..............................................................................18
2.2.3 Application of Spring Water Management along LRN...............................................................26
2.3 Techniques for Groundwater Recharge and spoil heaps management........................................28
2.4 Roadside Bioengineering..............................................................................................................31
3. Protecting and improving small streams as part of road development..........................................35
3.1 Optimized cross drainage..............................................................................................................35
3.1.1 Practices for optimized cross drainage.......................................................................................35
4. Role and Responsibility of different stakeholders...........................................................................38
4.1 Department of Local Infrastructure (DoLI)....................................................................................38
4.1.1 Role of DoLI ................................................................................................................................38
4.2 Municipality...................................................................................................................................38
4.2.1 Role of Municipality....................................................................................................................38
4.3 Community....................................................................................................................................38
4.3.1 Role of Community.....................................................................................................................38
4.4 I/NGOs...........................................................................................................................................39
4.4.1 Role of I/NGOs............................................................................................................................39
References...........................................................................................................................................40

Annex 1: Summary of technologies recommended for springs/seeps, streams, recharge, and spoil
management
Annex 2: Design and Dimension of spring chamber

7
List of Figures 1. Introduction
Figure 2.1: (a) Increased air-surface exposure of hill slope; (b) Interrupted subsurface flow due to The guide is meant to make the use of very important source of water in hill and mountain areas of
road openings along Mugu Humla Road (West Nepal).......................................................................14 Nepal i.e., springs and seeps that are developed along the roadside and that need protection while
constructing roads. To provide ideas and intervention for protection and management of such water
Figure 2.2: (a) Road opening a seep that next damages the road surface (Mugu, Nepal); (b)&(d) seep sources.
from road construction in Mugu and Kathmandu respectively; (c) spring at roadside formed after road
construction in Mugu; (d) water from seep in the upstream side of road is tapped and collected in In this guideline we describe the importance of springs and seeps in hill and mountain areas of Nepal.
the bucket (Kathmandu, Nepal)......................................................................................................15 We first explain how springs and seeps can be protected and managed, the tools or techniques to
manage such resources to improve livelihood of people living along roadside. This guideline also
Figure 2.3: (a)spring from weep hole at roadside; (b) collecting spring water through pipe at Mugu, touches upon the techniques to use spoil from road construction that helps to recharge groundwater
Nepal....................................................................................................................................................17 and roadside bioengineering to protect road slopes. The guideline is written for different stakeholders
related local roads and water management along roadsides. It gives an idea on what steps to take to
Figure 2.4: A schematic overview of a spring protection area.............................................................19
protect springs and seeps along roadside, techniques to make use of such resources.
Figure 2.5: A schematic picture of a barrage dam in a spring catchment............................................20
1.1 Mountain aquifer: basics – recognizing water bearing strata
Figure 2.6: A schematic picture of the spring box/spring chamber.......................................................20
The natural springs represent the groundwater storage within the catchments, which form an important
Figure 2.7: a) a cut-away view of a seepage spring and b) an overhead view of seepage spring.........21 component of the Himalayan water budget (Andermann et al. 2012). Groundwater springs in the
mountain areas are poorly understood and insufficiently mapped, and the potential occurrence of
Figure 2.8: Schematic picture of a spring-water pond..........................................................................22
groundwater springs in the Himalayas are not well studied (Chinnasamy and Prathapar 2016; Sharma
Figure 2.9: Pond types based on construction methods: a) dug-out pond, b) embankment pond and et al. 2016). Lack of adequate data on geology and structure, soil, geomorphology, and groundwater
c) cut- and-fill pond..............................................................................................................................22 hydrology make spatial prediction or mapping groundwater spring potential zones even more difficult.

Figure 2.10: A schematic picture of French mattresses........................................................................23 Geology controls occurrence, movement, and storage of groundwater. The petrography, stratigraphy,
structure, lithology, and thickness of a given rock type control the porosity and permeability that
Figure 2.11: A drainage blanket or French Mattress using perforated geocells or aggregate/gravel define the storage capacity of an aquifer (Higgins et al. 1985; Winter 1998; Crawford and Kath 2005;
wrapped in geotextile...........................................................................................................................23 Chinnasamy and Prathapar 2016). The shape, sorting and packing of grains layer in the rocks during
their formation determine primary porosity. Secondary porosity, such as joints, fractures, and solution
Figure 2.12: Eyebrows in Ethiopia........................................................................................................28 opening, is formed after the rock has been deposited. The number and arrangement of fracture
Figure 2.13: Schematic of Eyebrows in the hill slope..........................................................................29 openings and the degree to which they are filled with fine-grained material control secondary porosity.

Figure 2.14: Side view of stone strips...................................................................................................30 Highly sheared and fractured rocks of gneiss, schist, and quartzite beneath the soil and saprolite in
these geological unit favor high infiltration rates and groundwater storage, which yield to discharge
Figure 2.15: Schematic of Brush Layering.............................................................................................32 of ground spring water (Kerrich 1986; Florinsky 2000). Moreover, geological contacts, faults, joints,
soil, and other deposition characteristics (Higgins et al., 1985; Marklund and W¨orman, 2007; Younger
Figure 2.16: Components of live check dam........................................................................................33 2007) intersecting the topographic features control the recharge and discharge of groundwater.
Figure 2.17: Fascine..............................................................................................................................34 Another phenomenon influencing the potential occurrence of groundwater is the presence of
lineaments in crystalline hard rock (Nag 2005; Kolawole et al., 2016). The presence of lineaments
Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram for dissipation block placement on the road.......................................36 generally represents the major joints and faults in the tectonically active areas, where bedrock is
Figure 3.2: Schematic picture of a reinforced tilted causeway..............................................................37 intensely deformed (Dhital et al., 2002; Dhital, 2015). These lineaments act as a conduit for groundwater
movement, which result in increased secondary porosity and can serve as the groundwater potential
zone.

List of Tables Although knowledge and study of mountain aquifers are especially important for sustainable water
resources management and build climate resilience in mountain areas, there are limited studies on
Table 1: Summary of different springs..................................................................................................12 mountain aquifers. These mountain aquifers come out from surface as a spring from weathered,
jointed, or fractured rock aquifers in the high-grade metamorphosed rocks. Some of the influencing
Table 2: Effect of Road development in different type of springs.........................................................16 factors for assessing the groundwater spring potentials are altitude, slope gradient, slope shape,
Table 3: Recommended practices for spring management along roads...............................................17 relative relief, flow accumulation, drainage density, geology, lineament density, land use and vegetation
density (Ghimire et al., 2019).
Table 4: Roadside spring water management ......................................................................................26
Table 5: Sizes of Eyebrows with gradient..............................................................................................29
1.2 Importance of springs/ seeps in mountain areas
Springs and seeps are the primary and often the only accessible sources of water and is lifeline for
Table 6: Preferred distance between lines of eyebrows terraces.........................................................29
millions of people living in the hills and mountain areas of Nepal (Gurung et al., 2019). Both rural and
Table 7: Basic Parameters for Stone at different gradients............................................................. .........30
8 9
urban communities depend on springs and seeps to meet their drinking, domestic and agricultural of local meteorology, hydrology, geology, and surface-water/groundwater dynamics, imperative to
water needs. Villages sit far above streams and rivers and the cost of carrying or pumping water to designing climate resilient interventions for spring management, are scarce for the Nepalese mid-
the hill settlements from rivers are not necessary as springs emerge all around the hill slopes close hills). The lack of understanding of fundamental processes in governing springs in the Himalayan
to the villages (Tambe et al., 2012; Sharma et. al., 2016). Most of the drinking water supplies the catchments is a key reason for limited impact, or even failure, of watershed interventions (Sharma et
hill and mountain areas are through gravity flow system from natural springs, which represent the al. 2000; Vashisht 2008). Rapid socio-economic and demographic changes and infrastructure like roads
groundwater storage within the catchment, and form an important component of the Himalayan and dams have also impacted springs. But the exact nature of change is difficult to understand.
water budget (Andermann et al., 2012).
In Nepal, research on groundwater is very limited and hence little known, both in the Terai plain or
The ultimate source of the springs is rainwater and snowmelt. Rainwater infiltrates in the soil and hilly mountain areas. Until recently, very little research work has been done to map spring sources in
seeps through cracks and fissures in the rock before accumulating above impervious layers. Water is the middle mountain areas of Nepal. To address the issue related to water availability, water supply
stored both in the soil and rock fissures creating a water tower. The water emerges where impermeable and distribution, having a longer-term impact database would be required inclusive of geology and
material blocks the groundwater flow and intersects the sloping ground, or where groundwater flows structure, geomorphology and groundwater and hydrology. Generating knowledge on mapping of
along a rock fracture and the fracture intersects the hill slope. The resultant springs are found on water resources and monitoring water flow and factors associated with change in water availability
slopes of all angles and with different types of geology and land use. are prerequisites for effective management of scarce water resources.
Springs can be seasonal (relatively short-lived) or perennial (year-round discharge of water). The 1.2.1 Spring types
amount of discharge from springs depends on the water availability of the water tower depending on
local recharge. Rainfall in Nepal is highly seasonal, as about 80% of the total rainfall occurs during the A spring is the point at the land surface where groundwater discharges from an aquifer creating a
monsoon season (June-September). So, during the monsoon season the main groundwater recharge visible flow. When the flow is not observed, but the area has become wet it is a diffuse discharge of
takes place and this can also provide water for a certain period of time after the monsoons. However, water. This is called seep. The discharge of groundwater is created by the difference in elevation of
in the dry season (October-May), there is often water scarcity, as rainfall is negligible during these the hydraulic head and the elevation of the land surface where the discharge takes place. (Kresic &
months. Stevanovic, 2009)
Springs used to provide sufficient water to meet the modest requirements of the villages, but since There are of lot different spring types which can be distinguished by different factors. Looking at the
the early 1980s, people have started to face increasing shortages of water. The study of springs in the hydraulic head of the underlying aquifer, there are two main groups of springs: gravity springs and
Tanahun district of Nepal shows that 63% springs had reduced flow by an average of 21% between artesian springs. Gravity springs are a result of descending water where the water table of an aquifer
2004-2014. The preliminary analysis of 693 springs over ten districts of the Far West showed 187 intersects the land surface. Artesian springs are a result of ascending discharge, as the water is under
springs had their average discharge decline by 60% between 2013-2016 (Dixit, 20191). There are pressure due to confined conditions in the underlying aquifer such as an impermeable layer. (Kresic &
many factors involved, including anthropogenic activities like degradation of catchments, land use Stevanovic, 2009)
changes (deforestation, agricultural development, etc.), infrastructure development such as road
network disrupting the hill slope hydrology in middle mountains (Ghimire et al., 2019), and climate There are several types of springs. Geomorphology, rock type, and tectonic history determine the
change factor (Alcamo et al., 2008; Du Plessis, 2017). This led to drying up of spring sources and the type of spring that occurs. Two broad categories of springs are namely 1. springs with concentrated
discharge through one or more clear orifices, and 2. springs with more diffuse discharge. Different
reduction of regular flow regimes, especially during the dry season (ICIMOD, 2015; Chapagain et al.,
from a spring, a seep does not have a clear orifice and water exits over a localized area or the entire
2019; Ghimire et al., 2019). water bearing strata.
Climate change has brought changes in weather patterns. Winter rain and snow are deficient when Moreover, springs can be distinguished by the way they are formed as a result of geomorphology and
compared to 10 years back. Rainfall comes in bursts, is erratic and the steady, relentless rain of the geological factors. A fracture, joint or tubular spring will be formed when the groundwater flowing
past is a fading memory. The decreasing winter and pre-monsoon rainfall have negatively affected along an impermeable layer meets a fracture (crack) or joint in the rock (USDA, 2010). Springs can
the springs recharge, and thereby the water volume of springs has gradually decreased. In a research also form on faulting rock. Due to geotechnical movement a permeable layer is moved on top of
study made in Melamchi, local people in the study area have also perceived increasing temperature, an impermeable layer, which causes the water to discharge. This is called a fault spring (Kresic &
late and less rainfall, and a more frequent cloudburst. Apart from a decrease in winter rainfall, the Stevanovic, 2009). A contact spring occurs mostly in sloping areas where a water-bearing permeable
amount of snowfall in winter has also drastically decreased which has directly affected the water layer overlays an impermeable layer (USDA, 2010). This forces water to come out. A depression spring
volume in springs as well. More than 80% of communities have experienced increased water stress is formed by a topographical low or cutting in the surface. The land surface will be cut out, giving
and decreased rainfall and a corresponding delay in the monsoon season along with high intensity the water freedom to flow out (Kresic & Stevanovic, 2009). A special kind of spring is a karst spring
and uneven rainfall distribution over the last 10–15 years. Tambe et al. (2012) study from the Sikkim which is formed in karst landscapes where water erodes calcium. Water can discharge at places
Himalayas has revealed a 50% decline in spring discharge in drought-prone areas in the last 50 years where the erosion has formed openings in the land surface. Karst springs often have a high discharge
and a 35% decline of discharge in other areas due to decreasing winter rainfall and anthropogenic rate, because carbonate rock (the main type of rock in karst areas) has a high hydraulic conductivity,
activities. However, there are no studies on how the anthropogenic activities like road development forming large groundwater reservoirs. Karst springs can be categorized into warm and cold, based on
and other construction activities have affected the springs in the hills and mountain areas of Nepal. their water temperature. (Shah et al., 2018). Ebb-and-flow or periodic springs are often present in
Though climate change and change in bio-physical landscape (land-use and vegetation) are widely limestone areas. These springs have a uniform time interval of discharging water, as the system works
implicated in the drying of the springs, there is very little systematic knowledge to effectively link these as a siphon (discharge will happen when the tube or reservoir overflows after being filled) (Kresic &
two phenomena to spring discharge, especially due to large data uncertainties (i.e. data and knowledge Stevanovic, 2009). An estavelle is a spring which forms during high hydraulic heads or when there is
sink hole in the land surface during a low hydraulic head (Kresic & Stevanovic, 2009). Finally, a seep
1 Nepal’s silent emergency: springs going dry by Ajaya Dixit published in Nepali Times on January 4, 2019 is a type of spring which has a diffuse discharge of water, which mostly happens in unconsolidated
10 11
sediments (sand, gravel) or loose soil. significantly low during non-monsoon period.
The time the spring discharges depends on the weather and climate, but also on the type of spring. Majority of Nepal’s total precipitation occurs during the monsoon (June-September). The south and
A spring is perennial when it constantly discharges. Springs with a perennial flow are fracture, fault, east of Nepal generally receives 80% of the total precipitation during monsoon while north and west
contact, depression, and karst springs (USDA, 2010). Warm karst springs have a steadier flow than of Nepal receives 55-80% of the total precipitation (Shrestha, 2000)
cold karst springs. However, cold springs show a faster hydraulic response to hydrological events
In mountainous and mid-hill regions, due to steep slopes, that promote rapid runoff resulting in a
and seasonal variability, whereas warm springs have a weak response to input signal, which can be sense network of small, steep streams that drain into major tributaries (Bricker et al. 2014). Water
explained by the deep circulation of the aquifer connected to warm springs (Shah et al., 2018). streams are common in the mid-hills and mountain areas in Nepal. The main characteristics of
When the discharge is not constant a spring has an intermittent flow. Depression, ebb-and-flow and mountain streams is their steep gradient, sharply varying rates of flow within a short period of time
and high-speed flow down a mountain side. Streams can have different sources. The water can come
estavelle springs are intermittent. These springs are mostly dependent on the recharge of the aquifer
from precipitation runoff, seepage, and groundwater (also including springs). In the high mountains,
by precipitation (LaMoreaux & Tanner, 2001). the source is likely a location where snow collects in the winter and melts in the summer. In the mid-
Table 1: Summary of different springs hills several streams which form from rain can be observed. They are seasonal and form during the
rainy season.
Another source could be groundwater. There are two different types of groundwater streams: a losing
Spring Type Description stream and a gaining stream. The channel of a losing stream lies above the water table and loses
water into the unsaturated zone through which it is flowing. This water then migrates down which can
Springs with concentrated discharge (through one or more orifices) induce the local water table to rise. In drier climates a losing stream may disappear underground as
its water content becomes progressively diminished downstream (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2020).
Fault, fractures, and cleavage in semi-permeable and permeable formations A gaining stream is a stream from which groundwater flows from the saturated zone. The channels
Fracture springs
connected with a water source (seepage, flow, shallow or deep aquifer) of gaining streams are usually at or below the level of the water table. Bodies of water and marshes
Permeable layer overlays an impermeable layer, forcing water to come out – form when the water table intersects the land surface over a broad, fairly flat area (Houghton Mifflin
Contact spring Harcourt, 2020).
often in a line of springs
Due to geotectonic movement a permeable layer is moved on top of an im- It is important to understand mountain streams, as they can damage the roads by causing erosion for
Fault spring
permeable layer instance. Road construction changes the hydrology of the mountain area. This also includes the flow
Depression direction of mountain streams. Streams are interrupted by the road, which can lead to road damage,
The groundwater table reaches the surface in topographical low or they will flow in another direction to a point where water might not be wanted. Therefore, it is
springs
important to have cross-drainage practices to protect both the flow of the streams and the roads.
Relatively large flow from large openings – typically in karst areas where water
Karst springs
erodes the calcium formation
Ebb-and-flow or Uniform time interval of discharging water as system work as siphon and
periodic springs present in limestone areas.
forms during high hydraulic heads or when there is sink hole in the land sur-
Estavelle Spring
face during a low hydraulic head
Springs with diffuse discharge
Diffuse direct discharge of water usually from soils or unconsolidated sedi-
Seep
ments (sand or gravel)
Water issued from a primary spring that is typically covered by debris or
Secondary springs
rockfall

1.3 Understanding small stream crossings

Nepal is a part of the Ganga Basin. It is estimated that there are altogether over 6000 rivers (including
rivulets and tributaries), with cumulative length of 45000 km, in Nepal and its drainage density is
about 0.3 km/km2. Rivers in Nepal are classified in three broad group based on their origin.
i. Snow fed.
ii. Rivers originate from mountains and hilly region.
iii. Rivers originate from Siwalik zone.
The third type of river is majorly dependent on monsoon rain and their flow level could deplete

12 13
2. Protecting and developing springs and seeps as part of road 2.2 Preventing damage to aquifer systems
development 2.2.1 Spring protection and preservation
2.1 Improved Road planning and road development In mountain areas, the development of roads—either though the removal of unconsolidated material
or the cutting of rock formations—will affect the occurrence of seeps and springs (see figure 2.2). The
Road development in mountain regions presents many engineering, logistical, and financial challenges. management of such springs and seeps is important: in many hilly and mountain regions they are the
If done carelessly, the development of roads in these environments can have a heavy negative impact main source of domestic water supply and small-scale irrigation, especially in dry periods.
on the surrounding environment and undermine climate resilience. Road development can change
runoff patterns and cause areas to further dry out. They can transfigure the face of mountain regions,
leaving behind huge erosion scars and accelerate the rate of sedimentation.   
It is unavoidable that the development of a road changes the environment of mountain areas, mainly
the hydrology, microclimate, and sedimentation patterns. The changes in hydrology concern several
dimensions. First important consideration in selecting the road alignment is that it should not disturb
natural runoff patterns. The high speed of runoff on steep slopes commonly found in mountain regions
can create havoc in unstable slopes. The Nepal Rural Road Standards (NRRS) uses 7 percent as the
ruling gradient (for a maximum of 300 meters). The recommended limiting longitudinal gradient in
mountain roads is 10 percent. Beyond that, the road will act as a drain, collecting water during rainfall
events, resulting extensive cutting in road surface that increases erosion.

(a) (b)

(a) (b)
Figure 2.1: (a) Increased air-surface exposure of hill slope; (b) Interrupted subsurface flow due to road openings
along Mugu Humla Road (West Nepal). Source: MetaMeta (www.roadsforwater.org).

The development of a road typically changes surface runoff patterns. Rather than flowing down a
smooth gradient, the runoff is interrupted once or several times while descending from the newly (c)
cut hillside. As the runoff touches the road surface it may concentrate and accumulate along the road (d)
surface, effectively changing the natural drainage pattern. Runoff pattern changes can be minimized Figure 2.2: (a) Road opening a seep that next damages the road surface (Mugu, Nepal); (b)&(d) seep from road
by outward sloping road (camber cross slope) a criterion developed by the NRRS, good water exit at construction in Mugu and Kathmandu respectively; (c) spring at roadside formed after road construction in Mugu;
hairpin bends, using frequent road-surface cross-drainage, and ensuring that each natural drainage has (d) water from seep in the upstream side of road is tapped and collected in the bucket (Kathmandu, Nepal).
a structure crossing (i.e. causeways) the road to keep the flow in its natural channel.  These are the part
Source: MetaMeta (www.roadsforwater.org).
of good road alignment and design. Secondly, in a similar fashion the subsurface flows are interrupted
in road construction (see figure 2.1.). The degree to which water travels in the upper soil layers and
Table 2.1 shows the effect of opening of new road alignment on different spring types. The development
geological formations differs from place to place and from road section to road section. Roads disrupt
these shallow moisture flows and, in many areas, cause new springs and seeps to emerge. of roads may distort existing springs but may also create new ones. Given the importance of springs
for domestic water supply and agricultural use, the management of hill and mountain springs in road
development should be an integral part of road construction. On the other hand, these springs and
seeps are also main sources of road damage (figure 2.2 a), either by affecting the road surface directly
or by creating (minor) depressions in the roads that grow during the monsoon and cause uncontrolled
and erosive runoff from road bodies.

14 15
Geomorphology, rock type and tectonic history determines the type of springs that occur. Two broad Managing the springs along mountain roads is important for safeguarding road quality and ensuring
categories are springs with concentrated discharge through one or more clear orifices, and spins with water supply for domestic and agricultural use. It is recommended that before the road is built, the
more diffuse discharge. Table 2 shows the effect of road development on the different types of springs route should be investigated, the geology must be understood and the areas where springs occur
or are likely to occur should be mapped. Unstable areas should be avoided, both because they are
. often associated with groundwater, and because of problems and costs created for the road. When
roads are being constructed, they affect the location of the spring if not handled carefully. The use of
Table 2: Effect of Road development in different type of springs bulldozers or excavators in areas of potential springs should be avoided and manual labor should be
used to excavate the road in such sections.
What roads development will do Once the road is developed, the presence of springs and seeps will be evident (figure 2.3). A choice
Spring Type Description
to springs must be made whether the spring or seep will be used or not. The table 3 suggests methods for
managing different types of springs in different circumstances.
Springs with concentrated discharge (through one or
more orifices)

Fault, fractures, and cleavage in

Road development may expose the
semi-permeable and permeable
spring; rock cutting may change the lo-
Fracture springs formations connected with a
cation of the orifices – either blocking
water source (seepage, flow,
old or creating new ones
shallow or deep aquifer)

Permeable layer overlays an Road may distort the outflow of the

impermeable layer, forcing water spring, causing orifices to be blocked or
Contact spring
to come out – often in a line of new ones to be created – much depen-
springs dent on the geological faulting
Road may distort the outflow of the
Due to geotectonic movement a
spring, causing orifices to be blocked or
Fault spring permeable layer is moved on top
new ones to be created – much depen-
of an impermeable layer
dent on the geological faulting
(a) (b)
Road may create new depression Figure 2.3: (a)spring from weep hole at roadside; (b) collecting spring water through pipe at Mugu, Nepal.
The groundwater table reaches springs where the roads are made in Source: MetaMeta (www.roadsforwater.org).
Depression springs
the surface in topographical low cut or dry existing one by lowering the
groundwater table
Relatively large flow from large
openings – typically in karst areas Roads may expose new springs and Table 3: Recommended practices for spring management along roads.
Karst springs
where water erodes the calcium expose new cavities
formation Spring
Description Spring management
Type
Springs with diffuse discharge
Retaining wall with weep holes or with longitudinal drain to collect ex-
Not used
Diffuse direct discharge of water Road development may create many cess water and traverse drains (French mattresses) underneath the road
Seep usually from soils or unconsoli- seeps, especially where roads are de-
dated sediments (sand or gravel) veloped in areas with deep soil profiles Used for Retaining wall with longitudinal drain to collect excess water and traverse
Spring agriculture drains (French mattresses) underneath the road
Road development may expose springs with
Water issued from a primary
or change the outlet, particularly concen-
Secondary springs spring that is typically covered by Used for
where unconsolidated material is trated Spring box (capture) and conveyance to benefit community, or tap fitted
debris or rockfall domestic
removed dis- on protected spring
Source: MetaMeta (www.roadsforwater.com). water supply
charge
Used for
Spring box (capture) and conveyance to benefit community. Include pos-
domestic
sibility of spring closure (tap) to store water inside the mountain aquifer
water supply
(especially in karst areas)
and storage

16 17
 - filter package
Develop road drainage in up-road section to collect seepage and convey - spring box
Not used
to safe place, such as a pond - impermeable coat if concreting
Spring/ - (concrete) supply pipe
seep Used for Use gravel section in road with underdrain to convey water to agricultural - overflow pipe
with agriculture land (Source: Meuli & Wehrle, 2001)
diffuse
dis-
charge Used for
Develop a seepage spring to capture the water in a safe place (spring box
domestic
or pond)
water supply

Source: MetaMeta (www.roadsforwater.org).

By controlling the outflow of the springs, water can be better retained in the area. Equipping the
orifice of a spring with a gated outlet and even a tap makes it possible, in some cases (especially karst
springs or fracture springs), to store water in the mountain aquifer and prolong its availability.
To ensure that water quality is not threatened and that roads are not damaged, springs need to be
protected. The following tasks should be considered when a potential spring source is investigated:
• Understand the nature of the spring.
• Ensure that the spring is not a stream that has gone underground and is reemerging.
• Ensure that the source and the collection area are not likely to be polluted by surface runoff.
• Check that there are no latrines within 30 meters, particularly upstream of the spring.
• Fence the area around the spring tank to prevent pollution.
• Make sure that if the spring is to be connected to a piped water system, it is on higher ground
Figure 2.4: A schematic overview of a spring protection area. Source: Meuli & Wehrle, 2001, as adapted by
than the area to be supplied so that the water will flow with gravity.
MetaMeta (www.roadsforwater.com).
• Take care that the spring tank is not built on swampy ground or on land that is subject to
erosion or flooding, and that the flow from the protected spring will not cause erosion or
damage the road.
• Develop a collecting structure to collect the water from the spring. It is important to know the characteristics of the source before designing the spring box. This includes
(Source: van Steenbergen et al. 2021) the discharge of the spring and land use characteristics surrounding the spring, such as vegetation.
Before designing a spring catchment, the area should be excavated, which means cleaning, digging a
2.2.2 Techniques for capturing Springs and seeps furrow following the flow spring above the impermeable layer, implementing drainage, and refilling it
again when the earth cover is thick enough to provide protection.
2.2.2.1. Spring box in a spring catchment A barrage (catchment dam) is necessary to prevent the spring box from flooding (figure 2.5). It is
Protecting the catchment of the spring and the spring head from pollution is crucial, as is arranging constructed to an in front of the water flowing into the catchment.
for the spring water to be delivered at an appropriate height so that water falls with gravity directly
into the container. Springs can be protected by installing a spring tapping, a spring box, and a drainage
system. Moreover, a surface water drainage ditch should be dug above and around the spring area to
keep surface water runoff from polluting the source. If the area around a spring intake is unstable or
exposed to erosion, gabions or dry-stone masonry can be used to stabilize the area.
Protection boxes (figure 2.4) for newly opened springs collect the spring water, which can either be
diverted to infiltration structures (such as soak ways) or used directly in storage structures such as
open ponds or cisterns. Estimating the spring’s flow rate is important for properly determining the
dimensions of the collection tanks and creating spillover structures.
The function of spring box is for regular control of water quality and quantity and can function as a
sedimentation tank. It is mostly part of a spring protection zone (figure 2.4), which include:
- water bearing layer
- coverage of source
- catchment dam

18 19
 2.2.2.2. Seepage spring
(Jennings, 1996)
A seepage spring is a practice to capture water from seeps. More seeps are being formed because of
the road construction, which makes collecting water from seeps even more important.
The following steps are important in the developing of a seepage spring (see also figure 2.7).
1. Dig test holes uphill from the seep to find a point where the impervious layer below the
water-bearing layer is about 3 feet (90 cm) underground. Water flows on top of this layer in
sand or gravel toward the surface seep.
2. Dig a 2-foot-wide (60 cm) trench across the slope to a depth of 6 inches below the water-
bearing layer and extending 4 to 6 feet (120-180 cm) beyond the seep area on each side.
Install a 4-inch (10 cm) collector tile and surround the tile with gravel.
3. Connect the collector tile to a 4-inch (10 cm) line leading to the spring box. The box inlet must
be below the elevation of the collector tile.
The collection box (also a spring box here) should be watertight (most are made of reinforced concrete)
and have a tight-fitting “shoebox” cover. The size of the spring box depends on the amount of storage
needed.
Figure 2.5: A schematic picture of a barrage dam in a spring catchment. Source: Meuli & Wehrle, 2001.
The spring box should have and outlet pipe and an overflow pipe. The overflow pipe should be
A permeable construction is needed to be able to drain the maximum yield of a spring without screened and located below the collector pipe or tile so that water will not back up behind the spring.
obstructing its natural flow. It consists of a filter package using dry stone masonry and gravel or a The overflow may be a floating device connected to the outlet pipe. Install a drain for cleaning the box.
perforated pipe with a gravel filter package.
There are different types of spring boxes, but the most easy and common one is a simple inspection
chamber (figure 2.6). It can yield a few thousand liters per day, and it can be built with a second basin
as collection chamber. However, it is important to use watertight covers to prevent contamination. A
sketch/drawing of spring chamber of spring yield 2-20 liters per minute is presented in Annex 2.

a) b)
Figure 2.7: a) a cut-away view of a seepage spring and b) an overhead view of seepage spring. Source:
Jennings, 1996.

2.2.2.3. Ponds

Spring-water ponds can also be used as a practice to collect spring water (figure 2.8). Barrage ponds
are the most common in capturing spring water. The pond is directly fed from a nearby spring (or
stream) and the water enters from a point called the inlet. When the water is needed, it can flow out
from an outlet, or the water can be collected directly from the pond.
Figure 2.6: A schematic picture of the spring box/spring chamber. Source: Meuli & Wehrle, 2001.

20 21
 through which water can freely pass. They are used in saturated soils, such as in wetlands to support
the roadbed while allowing unrestricted water movement. French mattress stabilizes the road base in
the areas where road is weakened by the water saturation. It also allows the free movement of water
through road base. Further it effectively insulates the road surface from water under the road, keeping
the travel-way high and dry.

Figure 2.8: Schematic picture of a spring-water pond. Source: FAO.

The pond can be constructed by different methods and with different materials. There are different
types of ponds based on the constructed method (figure 2.9). These are a) dug-out ponds, b) Figure 2.10: A schematic picture of French mattresses.
embankment ponds and c) cut- and-fill ponds.

a) b)

c)
Figure 2.11: A drainage blanket or French Mattress using perforated geocells or aggregate/gravel wrapped in
Figure 2.9: Pond types based on construction methods: a) dug-out pond, b) embankment pond and c) cut- and-fill geotextile.
pond. Source: FAO.
Criteria for French Mattress use
- Areas where roadside springs and low gradient road ditches result in road base saturation.
Ponds can also be made of different materials. The most common ones are earthen, walled, and lined - Areas where springs under the road saturate the road base or come to the surface in the
ponds. Earthen ponds are purely made of soil materials. Walled ponds are surrounded by blocks, road.
bricks, stone or a concrete wall. Lastly, lined ponds are lined by impervious material such as plastic or
a rubber sheet.
Important consideration for French Mattress
2.2.2.4. French Mattress
- French mattress should be covered by a minimum of 12” of compacted fill material.
French mattress is a structure under a road consisting of clean coarse rock wrapped in geotextile - It should provide unrestricted flow through the road.

22 23
 - Mattresses are not suitable replacements for road drainage pipes and underdrains, or
anywhere concentrated overland flow carries sediment. These flows will clog the mattress
over time and are able to be handled by drainage pipes.
- The mattress or underdrain rock should be wrapped in a geotextile to provide for filtration,
letting the water in but keeping soil out. Without other testing, a 6 ounce/square yard
needle punch-nonwoven fabric is recommended. A slit film woven fabric, commonly used
in grain sacks, should not be used since they have very little permeability and ability to pass
water.
Construction steps
- Excavate to make a trench. Make a trench along the width of road in such a way to allow
minimum of 12 inches of compacted cover over the mattress. Place geotextile fabric in
the trench. Allow enough fabric on the end s to overlap the top piece of geotextile in the
finished mattress.
- Place porous stone on the top of the fabric and spread into uniform bed of the desire depth.
- Place a piece of fabric overtop of the installed stone. Make sure that the overlap fabric
joints by at least 12 inches. Leave the stone exposes along the road edges.
- Shape and compact fill overtop of the finished mattress. Place enough fill to ensure a
minimum of 12 inches of compacted cover once to fill and surface select material or
aggregate are installed.

24 25
2.2.3 Application of Spring Water Management along LRN
We provide a menu of techniques which can be used to implement protection and management
of springs and seeps along the roadsides (Table 4). The table provides techniques for spring water
management for different situation. You can pick and choose, based on your local issues, needs, and
conditions. These techniques form the backbone for spring protection and management and provide
idea regarding the measure to take.

Table 4: Roadside spring water management

Context Techniques Advantages Technical Requirements

- Spring box + Easy to construct - Measure discharge of Springs
- Conveyance means (pipe) + Easy and increased access to domestic water supply - Depending upon the discharge from springs, number
of water storage tank at community level or household
Roadside - Water storage tank + water available at community/household level level can be determined.
spring near
settlement + Cascades of storage tank depending on the water - Storage tank should be closed to maintain good
area for discharge in spring, whereby surplus of storage 1 flows water quality
domestic use into storage 2
+ reduce uncontrol runoff on road surface
+ increase durability of road surface
- Retaining wall with weep hole + easy access to agriculture water - Measure discharge of Springs
- longitudinal drain + provide good amount of water for agriculture during - The size of the pond(s) depends on the discharge of
the dry season from water stored in the pond the spring and available land plots.
Roadside - French mattress (traverse drain)
spring near + reduce uncontrol runoff on road surface - Use of impermeable layers such as plastics or clay
agriculture - Conveyance means (pipe) material (which one easily available) at the base and
area. + increase durability of road surface side of the pond to interrupt infiltration.
- small storage pond/tank nearby farm area

- Retaining wall with weep hole + Strengthens aquifer recharge - The slope of the downstream side of springs is
important to determine recharge.
- longitudinal drain + reduce uncontrol runoff on road surface
- Recharge pits/trench are good for slope less than
- French mattress + increase durability of road surface 45-50 degrees
Roadside - cascades of recharge pits at downstream
spring in forest
area

- Retaining wall + safe drain of spring water.

- Longitudinal drain + reduce uncontrol runoff on road surface
Roadside - French Mattress + increase durability of road surface
spring not in
use

26 27
2.3 Techniques for Groundwater Recharge and spoil heaps management Table 5: Sizes of Eyebrows with gradient

The different changes that come with the road construction are changed hydrology, opened up hill Backwall
slopes and more exposure to sunlight and wind. They add up to a severe effect on the micro-climate Stone ring diam- Inner cross Reinforced back-
Gradient
that could affect the forest stands or the quality of the pasture. The impact on the microclimate will be eter width height wall
less water retention, hence loss of moisture, an increase in temperature and more dissipating effects.
30 30 cm 220 cm 70 -
To counterbalance this effect, the capacity of the affected area to retain moisture should be increased. 45 30 cm 180 cm 120 10 cm
This will also reduce the risk of erosion and degradation of forest hill slopes. This will contribute
to the regreening of the area, including the compensation of those trees removed during the road 60 30 cm 140 cm 180 20 cm
construction. The presence of large quantities of spoils (rocks and boulders) from the road construction
again presents the material for these measures. Proposed is the use of eyebrow/ half-moons and Abundant spoil material can be used to build up the semi-circular eyebrows. The topsoil that was
stone strips/rock bunds for groundwater recharge and spoil heap management. removed whilst making the road can be used to fill the inner side of the semi-circular stone structure.
This can be used for tree planting and can contribute to the regreening of the area. Around the
1. Eyebrows/half-moon terraces eyebrows/, controlled grazing is essential if the area is regreened. In the forest areas, it is good to have
high density of eyebrows (see figure 2.13). The preferred distance between lines of eyebrow terraces
Eyebrows or half-moons are small, semi-circular, and stone-faced structures that open in the direction is given in table 6.
of the run-off (figure 2.12). They can be built on steep slopes, usually with a maximum preferred
slope of 50 degrees. Steeper gradients are possible, especially when rainfall is not torrential, as in the Table 6: Preferred distance between lines of eyebrows terraces
project area. On a slope also the steepest sections should be avoided where the eyebrows may be
reconstructed.
Gradient Distance between lines of eyebrow terraces (meter)
The steeper the gradient, the more the bunds have to be reinforced (by stone) in the downward toe
and the higher the downward toe section becomes. The typical diameter of the eyebrow should be 30 15-20
between 1.4-2.5m with an infiltration or planting pit of size 40 cm wide by 50 cm deep. The suggested
45 10-15
size of eyebrows with different gradients are given in table 5 below.
60 8-10

Figure 2.12: Eyebrows in Ethiopia . Source: MetaMeta (www.roadsforwater.org).

Figure 2.13: Schematic of Eyebrows in the hill slope. Source: MetaMeta (www.roadsforwater.org).

28 29
 2. Stone strips 2.4 Roadside Bioengineering
The eyebrows can be complemented by stone strips or rock bunds, on slopes that are relatively even Bioengineering is the use of living plants for engineering purposes. Vegetation is carefully selected for
and not too steep. They are built from coarse stones and boulders. These stone strips will slow down the functions it can serve in stabilizing roadside slopes and for its suitability to the site. It is used in
run-off, intercept sediment and built-up soil layers. They will stretch over the width of the slopes, combination with civil engineering structure.
allowing water to filter through as they are permeable. See figure 2.14 and table 7 for layout and
design of the stone strips for different gradients. - Bioengineering is used to protect slopes against erosion
- It can be used to improve surface drainage and reduce slumping.
The minimum criteria of the stone strips are:
The engineering function of vegetations are catch eroding materials like debris, armour, reinforce,
Table 7: Basic Parameters for Stone at different gradients anchor, and support the soil in the slope. Some of the bio-engineering techniques for roadsides are.
i. Brush Layering:
Distance between stone
Gradient Heigth (m) Vertical Interval (m)
strips (m) Woody cuttings are laid in lines across the slope following the contour. These form a strong barrier,
30 1 2.8 6 preventing the development of rills, and trap material moving down the slope. In the long term, a
small terrace will develop. The main engineering functions are to catch debris, and to armour and
40 1 2.8 5 reinforce the slope. This technique can be used on wide range of sites up to about 45 degrees. It is
50 1 2.8 4 effective on debris site and fill slopes. Avoid using this technique in poorly drained sites.

Note: Though the table shows the possibility to build stone stripes even in 50% slope, the field situation needs Material
to be observed carefully when the slope increases.
- Woody materials (6-10 months) of 20-40 mm in diameter and 400 to 600 mm long,
- shovels and pickaxes to make the trenches for planting,
- hessian and water to keep the cuttings moist until planting,
- string,
- measuring tape,
- forest topsoil in gravel areas
Spacing
Spacing between brush layers depends on the steepness of the slope.
Slope below 30 degree – 2 m interval
Slope 30 to 45 degree – 1 m
Within the brush layers, cuttings should be at 50 mm center to center (c/c)
Figure 2.14: Side view of stone strips. Source: Lakew et al., 2015.
Construction Steps
- Mark the planting lines, from 500 mm above the base of the slope
- Install brush layers starts from bottom of the slope and work upward
- Form a 400 mm wide with 20% terrace into the slope
- In gravel fill road embankment, lay 50 mm thick forest soil along the terrace
- Lay the first layer of cuttings 50 mm c/c with one bud and 1/3rd protruding outside the slope
- Lay 20 mm thick soil in between the cuttings to provide a loose cushion,
- Lay the second layer of cuttings on top of it– staggered with first layer

30 31
 Figure 2.16: Components of live check dam. Source: DoR, 1999.

Construction steps
- Choose a location for the live check dam so that the maximum effect can be achieved in
terms of gully stabilization
- Make a hole deep and big enough to insert vertical hardwood cuttings of the largest size
Figure 2.15: Schematic of Brush Layering. Source: DoR, 1999. available
- Insert the vertical cuttings into the holes and firm the soil around them; try not to damage
ii. Live Check Dams the bark; they should protrude about 300 mm above the ground surface
- Place fascines or long hardwood cuttings on the uphill side of the vertical stakes
Large woody cuttings are planted across a gully, usually following the contour. A strong barrier is - Key these horizontal members into the wall of the gully
formed and trap material moving downwards. In the longer term, a small step will develop in the floor
of the gully. The main engineering function are to catch debris and to reinforce and armor the gully
floor.
iii. Fascines
This technique can be used on a wide range of gully sites, on slopes of up to 45 degrees. This method
cannot be used for large and very active gullies. Fascine means a bundle of sticks. In this techniques, bundle of live branches is laid in shallow trenches.
They put out roots and shoots after burial forming strong line of vegetation. It is also called live
Material contour wattling. The main engineering function is to catch debris, and to reinforce, and armor the
slope. Facines are best suited on consolidated debris or soft cut slopes. Growth will be very slow if the
- Large woody material (2m long and 20 to 50 mm in diameter) of 6 to 30 months old materials is too hard. The maximum slope is about 45 degrees with preferably well drained
- Truncheon cuttings 2m long and 30 to 80 mm diameter, preferably Simali, Dabdabe and
Phaledo. Material
- shovels and pick-axes
- Hessian and water to keep cuttings moist until planting - Large woody materials at least 1 m long and 20-40 mm diameter
- Hessian and water to keep the cuttings moist until planting.
Spacing - Tools to dig trenches
- Jute string or wire to bind the fascines
Spacing between check dam depends on the steepness of the gully and the profile of the gully floor.
Normally, 3 to 5m interval along the slope. The cuttings should be about 30 to 50 mm apart, depending Spacing
on the slope. A double offset line also possible if required for much stronger check dam.
For less than 30-degree slope, the spacing between fascines laid is 4m and for slope 30 to 45 degree,
2m spacing need to be maintained.

32 33
Orientation: On well drained materials, contour fascines are used. On poorly drained materials, a
herringbone pattern is used to improve drainage.
3. Protecting and improving small streams as part of road
Construction steps
development
When a road is opened up, many new road water crossings are created. These may be of regular
- Prepare the site, clear loose material, and firmly infill depressions. streams that are interrupted or of torrents that only flow during the rainy season and now descend
- Mark the lines on the slope so that they follow the contour or desired angle precisely. on the road body. Where a road crosses a natural watercourse, provision must be made to carry the
- Work from the bottom of the slope and work upwards. water under or across the road. The selection of the best and most appropriate stream crossing design
- Dig about 5 m trench (100 mm deep and 200 mm wide) at a time depends on several factors. Moreover, a poor design choice can result in a costly installation that is
- Lay the cuttings together with their ends overlapping subject to failure and significant environmental damage. If not managed properly, streams crossing the
- Bind the fascines with string to keep the cuttings together (optional) roads can degrade roads very rapidly and aggressively.
- Backfill the trench as soon as possible, lightly covering the cuttings, and tamp the soil down
firmly around it
- For slopes greater than 25 deg, peg the fascine by placing a large cutting at right angles into
3.1 Optimized cross drainage
the slope immediately below the slope at 500 mm c/c Road drainage structures include those features of a road, other than road shape, designed to drain the
road surface and cutbank runoff off or away from the road prism. The purpose of drainage structures
is to get water off, and away from, the roadbed as quickly as possible so roadbed materials do not
become saturated, and roadbed/ditch erosion is minimized. During the monsoon season, streams
are formed and create extensive wet road sections which are easily damaged under traffic impact.
Moreover, erosion may easily extend to the land alongside the roads. To reduce the damage from the
water crossings or streams, some good practices are listed below.
1. Dissipation blocks
2. Tilted Causeways
3. Check dams and down-road protection.

3.1.1 Practices for optimized cross drainage

3.1.1.2. 3.1.1.1. Dissipation blocks
Streams and torrents during the rainy season, especially where rain concentrates and flows, have a
high tendency to erode the surface. In steep slopes, the eroding capacity of torrents increases rapidly,
as the velocity is very high. Where the minor stream descends on the road, the use of dissipation
blocks is recommended (figure 3.1). The block may be created by stacking up stones and rocks that
become available when a mountain road is opened. If placed where the streams and torrents hit the
roads, these stockpiled stone blocks will dissipate the force of the water flows. This measure comes at
no extra costs, as the stone blocks are available during road construction and are stockpiled for use in
future repairs. These blocks are best placed 30-40 cm away from the upstream side-slope. Flat stones
may be placed in between the torrent coming from the hillslope and the dissipation block in order to
break the velocity impact of the descending water. The stockpiled stones will further baffle the force
of the mountain stream After this, the stockpiled stones will further ‘baffle’ the force of the mountain
stream.
Figure 2.17: Fascine. Source: DoR, 1999.

34 35
 Figure 3.2: Schematic picture of a reinforced tilted causeway.
Figure 3.1: Schematic diagram for dissipation block placement on the road.

The depression should be at angle of maximum 5 degrees so it will not be able to interfere with the
road. Where the road water exits the tilted causeway, it may be useful in many places to armour the
3.1.1.2. Reinforced tilted causeways downstream parts of the stream.
Roads are traversed by several streams. Prior to the construction of the road such a stream followed 3.1.1.3. Check dams and downstream protection
their natural course. With the construction of the roads the stream flows are interrupted, and the
gradient is broken. Depending on the local topography and the nature of the stream, a hydraulic In the accented terrain most, streams will flow at high velocity. The development of a road section
impact is created on the road surface. The streams differ – some are perennial, some seasonal -, but creates chutes that can do considerable damage to the road surface and side slopes. Placing check
they will all increase their discharge, velocity, and erosive/ torrential power during monsoon season. dams in the upstream section of these road streams reduces the velocity of water crossing the road.
The spoils i.e. spare stone blocks from road construction may be used to build up small check dams
Another practice to reduce damage of roads because of streams are reinforced tilted causeways. The in the upstream (figure 3.3). The excess material may also be used to armour the down road part of
reinforced causeways made of flat stone, – like the entire road – are tilted at a slight angle (max 4 to the stream by placing some stones there. This technique will prevent damage from erosion to the
5 degrees2) towards the downhill side to facilitate the drainage of the water from the stream. Such landscape and avoids upward gully development that could affect the road body. The general criteria
technology supports using locally available material or the spoil formed, especially stone, during road (Desta et al., 2005) for such check dams are:
construction and it is easy to maintain.
• Spacing between check dams = height * 1.2/ slope of stream in decimals
To improve and guide the water, it is proposed to make a depression in the middle of such a
causeway. This depression should be modest. In case the causeway has a width of 25 meter, • Side key of check dams 0.7-1 meter each side
the lowered section should be 25 to 50 cm. This will have two main benefits: • Bottom key and foundation 0.5 meter deep
• It forces the stream and torrent flows towards the middle of the causeway and continue • Height of check dams 1 m (maximum excluding foundation)
their flow – among others avoiding erosion of the banks of the down road part of the water • Stone face vertical to horizontal ratio 1:3 to 1:5
course. • Spill way (preferably in trapezoidal shape) width 0.75-1 m; depth/ freeboard 0.25 m
• It will reduce the chance of side-spills from the causeway during high discharges that may • Using rock rubble for apron immediately downstream: length 1 m and width 0.5 m
damage the road body.

2 As per the Nepal Rural Road Standard (NRRS), the maximum cross slope is different for different on
the road types. For, earthen road: 5%, Gravel road: 4% and Bituminous seal coat road: 3%

36 37
4. Role and Responsibility of different stakeholders prescribed interventions are not possible at community level or if the damages are big,
the community or the committee need to interact with the municipality for funds or
4.1 Department of Local Infrastructure (DoLI) support.

The objective of DoLI is to undertake infrastructure development programmes in accordance with 4.4 I/NGOs
decentralization policies for attaining the goals set forth by the GON’s National Strategy for local
Infrastructure Development by making the local authorities technically capable and competent and Internationals and national NGOs working in development sector focusing on road and water sectors
ensuring their accountable participation. are important stakeholders.

4.1.1 Role of DoLI 4.4.1 Role of I/NGOs

1. Dissemination of the guidelines to the municipalities. 1. Support in up taking or upscaling of the work.
2. Organizing workshops or trainings for municipalities to make them better understand how 2. Implement it in their programs or projects.
the guideline works, how to implement it, and how to own it. 3. Replicate the actions in their projects.
3. Monitoring: policy level monitoring to observe the implementation process and practicality
of the guidelines in the given context along with the municipality and community.

4.2 Municipality
The municipality is a local government unit which is responsible for the overall development in the
municipality. Development activities such as road construction, in a large scale, are done by excavators,
dozers and do not meet the basics such as the mass balancing methods, slopes, use of free drainage
road surface. The impacts of such construction on the surrounding landscape in many cases are
negative.

4.2.1 Role of Municipality

1. To raise awareness about spring protection and conservation among the people and
community.
2. To disseminate the guideline.
3. Municipalities conduct trainings, workshops, and programmes to technicians and
communities with the technical support from DoLI.
4. To create environment for the easy dissemination of guideline among the communities.
5. Monitoring: A periodic monitoring.

4.3 Community
Communities are important stakeholders and their engagement in the conservation and protection of
springs and seeps, developing roads for socioeconomic development and livelihoods, environmental
rehabilitation and climate resilience are crucial. Local communities have good knowledge of the water
sources and water management practices in the locality. The whole process of the implementation
if made, community centric, would create more livelihood opportunities, integrate indigenous and
good techniques and easy to access opportunities in the community. A group or committee from
the community can be formed for protection and management of the springs and spring-shed.
This may include a member from the existing committee or groups like Road Maintenance Groups
(RBGs) or Water Users’ Group (WUGs) etc. Those committees will also have a representative from the
municipality.

4.3.1 Role of Community

1. Support in every step of the process from springs mapping to spring-shed conservation
work.
2. Frequent monitoring and maintenance of the spring conservation intervention.
3. Frequent communication with the municipality on the issues and progresses. If

38 39
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Annex 1: Summary of technologies recommended for Small Streams
springs/seeps, streams, recharge, and spoil management - It breaks the speed and erosive
power of the streams or
SN Technology Detail Condition to fulfill Dissipation Place 30-40 cm away from upstream torrents.
7
Block side-slope - Use of stones from the
Spring/Seep spoil generated during road
construction.
• Where natural streams meet road - Use of locally available
section. material (stones) during road
Spring box
1 (Spring • Causeways gradient towards construction.
- Protection around the spring Reinforced
Chamber) downhill= 4-5 degrees. - Stream and torrents flow
and spring box is required. 8 tilted
towards the middle of
- From the spring box water can causeways • Depression in the middle: if causeway.
be transported to water tank causeways width is 25 m, the
lowered section should be 25-50 - Reduces damages of road
- Area where roadside springs cm body.
result in road base saturation.
• Overlap of geotextile at joint: 12 - Area where springs under the • Height of check dam: 1 m excluding
inches road saturate the road base foundation
French - Use of stone blocks that
2 • Minimum 12 inches compacted or come to the surface in the
Mattress 9 Check dams • Foundation: 0.5m generate from spoil from road
material overtop of finished road.
construction
mattress. - use of clean coarse rock from • Rock rubble apron in the
the spoil develop during road downstream: L=1m & B= 0.5m
construction.
Roadside
Recharge
and spoil • Maximum slope: 45 degrees
management • Wood material: L=40-60 cm & dia-
maximum preferred slope is 50 degrees 20-40mm
typical diameter= 1.4-2.5 m; 10 Brush Layering
• Spacing between layers: 2m (30
- Use of coarse stones and degree gradient)
For 30-degree gradient: boulders available from spoil.
- The steeper the gradient, the • Cutting spacing: 50 mm c/c
• Stone ring diameter: 30 cm
Eyebrows/half- more the reinforcement in the • Maximum slope: 45 degrees
5
moon terraces • Inner cross width: 220 cm downward toe.
- Topsoil removed while making • Wood material: L=2m & dia: 20-
• Backwall height: 70 cm 50mm
road can be used to fill inner
• Distance between eyebrows: 15- side of structure. Live Check
20m 11 • Truncheon cutting: L=2m & dia:
dam
30-80 mm

maximum preferred slope is 50 degree • Spacing between check dam: 3-5m

For 30-degree gradient: • Cutting spacing: 50 mm c/c

• Maximum slope: 45 degrees
• Height: 1m - Use of coarse stones and
boulders available from spoil. • Wood material: L= 1m & dia: 20-
6 Stone Strip • Vertical interval: 2.8m 40mm
- Help to slow down runoff, and
• Distance between stone strips: 6m intercept sediments and soils. 12 Fascine • Spacing between layers: 4m (30
degree gradient)
• Dig 5m trench (100 mm deep & 200
mm wide)

42 43
Annex 2: Design and Dimension of spring chamber Table: Measurement of spring chamber for different discharges. Source: Meuli & Wehrle, 2001.

For the springs with the yield roughly between 2-20 liters per minute.

Figure: Simple spring chamber (Source: Meuli & Wehrle, 2001)

44 45
www.doli.gov.np www.metameta.nl www.roadsforwater.org www.nuffic.nl