Particulate Technology 3B

Dr Tebogo Mashifana

2020
Lecturer contact information

Dr Tebogo Mashifana
Room: 4136, John Orr Building
Phone: 011-559-6527
Email: [email protected]

Consultation times
Wednesday – 11:20 – 12:55

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Blackboard Online activity – Introduce yourself
Important information
• Study guide
• Blackboard
• Graduate Attributes
• Assessment dates (tests and exams)
• Assessment weight
• Learning units
• Textbook
• Classroom activities
• Attendance

4
Important information
• Study guide • Blackboard

❑To be uploaded on Blackboard by Thursday ❑Primary medium of communication

next week ❑Announcement
❑Assessment – online activities
❑Student collaboration/participation

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 • Assessment details

Important information ASSESSMENT WEIGHT DATE AND TIME

(Semester Mark)
• Graduate Attributes TEST 1 2/03/2020
40%
TEST 2 40% 6/04/2020
ASSIGNMENT 1 5% To be communicated
❑By participating and applying the principles that you will learn in this
course you will be able to master the following ECSA graduate ASSIGNMENT 2 5% To be communicated
attributes:
BB Activities 10% To be communicated

❑Graduate Attribute 2: Application of scientific

and engineering knowledge
SEMESTER 100%
Demonstrate competence to apply knowledge of mathematics, natural MARK
science and engineering sciences to defined and applied engineering
procedures, processes, systems and methodologies to solve well-
• Missing a test will jeopardize the class mark. If a learner is sick, contact the
defined engineering problems; lecturer within 3 days of the test date. You will be expected to produce a
medical certificate from an accredited doctor!

❑Graduate Attribute 9: Independent Learning • The pass mark for the course is 50% (except if you get less than 40% in the
exam – in this case you fail anyway).
Engage in independent and life-long learning through well- developed
• The practical component of this course is very important. The marks for
skills.
practical will be incorporated into your year mark. Failure of practical may
result in you not qualifying for exam.

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Important information • Classroom activities
• Participate in class
• Learning units
• Participate in the group discussion
• LU 1: Characteristics of Solid Materials
• LU 2: Production of Particulate Materials
• LU 3: Mixing Particulate Material
• LU 4: Relative Motion between Particles and fluids
• LU 5: Movement and storage of particulate Materials
• Attendance
• LU 6: Circular Motion of particles and the design of
• Attend most of the lectures
cyclones
• LU 7: Fluidisation
• LU 8: Sedimentation
• LU 9: Filtration

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 Textbook
• Introduction to Particle Technology – Martin Rhodes
• Additional sources: Chemical Engineering Vol. 2 - Coulson and Richardson
Definition – Particle Technology
❑Particle technology is a term used to refer to the science and technology related to the handling
and processing of particles and powders.

❑Particle technology is also often described as powder technology, particle science and powder
science.

❑Powders and particles are commonly referred to as bulk solids, particulate solids and granular
solids.

❑Today particle technology includes the study of liquid drops, emulsions and bubbles as well as
solid particles

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Application Particulate Material

What are the industries that uses particulate

materials

❑Particulate materials, powders or bulk solids are used widely in all areas of the process industries,
for example in the food processing, pharmaceutical, biotechnology, oil, chemical, mineral
processing, metallurgical, detergent, power generation, paint, plastics and cosmetics industries

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Particle Size and Particle Shape Analysis
❑In many powder handling and processing operations particle size and size distribution play a key
role in determining the bulk properties of the powder. Why?

❑Describing the size distribution of the particles making up a powder is therefore central in
characterizing the powder.

❑Particle size is important in that this affects properties such as the surface per unit volume and the rate at
which a particle will settle in a fluid.

❑A particle shape may be regular, such as spherical or cubic, or it may be irregular as, for example, with a piece
of broken glass.

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Particle characterization – Single Particles
❑The simplest shape of a particle is the sphere in that, because of its symmetry, any question of orientation
does not have to be considered, since the particle looks exactly the same from whatever direction it is viewed
and behaves in the same manner in a fluid. No other particle has this characteristic
❑A measure of particle shape which is frequently used is the sphericity, ψ, defined as:

[1]

❑Another method of indicating shape is to use the factor by which the cube of the size of the particle must be
multiplied to give the volume.

❑Other properties of the particle which may be of importance are whether it is crystalline or amorphous,
whether it is porous, and the properties of its surface, including roughness and presence of adsorbed films.

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Single Particles
❑ Hardness may also be important if the particle is subjected
to heavy loading

❑ Feret’s diameter (distance between two tangents on

opposite sides of the particle) and shear diameter (particle
width obtained using an image shearing device) and
equivalent circle diameters such as the projected area
diameter (area of circle with same area as the projected
area of the particle resting in a stable position)

Figure 1.1. Feret’s diameter

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 • Sieve analysis

Measurement of particle size • It is carried out using a nest of sieves, each lower sieve being
of smaller aperture size.
• Measurement of particle size and of particle size
distribution is a highly specialised topic, and
• The sieves may either be mounted on a vibrator, which
considerable skill is needed in the making of
should be designed to give a degree of vertical movement in
accurate measurements and in their interpretation.
addition to the horizontal vibration, or may be hand shaken.

• Before a size analysis can be carried out, it is

• The efficiency of screening is defined as the
necessary to collect a representative sample of the
ratio of the mass of material which passes
solids, and then to reduce this to the quantity which
the screen to that which is capable of passing
is required for the chosen method of analysis.

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 • Sedimentation and elutriation methods (>1 μm)

Measurement of particle size • These methods depend on the fact that the terminal
falling velocity of a particle in a fluid increases with
• Microscopic analysis (1–100 μm) size.
• Microscopic examination permits measurement of
the projected area of the particle and also enables • The largest particles are deposited preferentially and
an assessment to be made of its two-dimensional consequently the rate of increase of weight falls off
shape. progressively as particles settle out.

• In general, the third dimension cannot be • Sedimentation analyses must be carried out at
determined except when using special concentrations which are sufficiently low for
stereomicroscopes. interactive effects between particles to be negligible
so that their terminal falling velocities can be taken
• Automatic methods of scanning have been as equal to those of isolated particles.
developed.
• By using the electron microscope(7), the lower limit • The elutriation method is really a reverse
of size can be reduced to about 0.001 μm. sedimentation process in which the particles are
dispersed in an upward flowing stream of fluid.
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 Measurement of particle size
• Laser diffraction analysers • X-ray or photo-sedimentometers
• These instruments exploit the radial light scattering • Instruments such as X-ray or photosedimentometers
distribution functions of particles. serve to automate this method in a non-intrusive
manner
• A suspension of particles is held in, or more usually
passed across, the path of a collimated beam of • This technique is limited to the analysis of particles
laser light, and the radially scattered light is collected whose settling behaviour follows Stokes’ law and to
by an array of photodetectors positioned conditions where any diffusive motion of particles is
perpendicular to the optical axis. The scattered light • negligible.
distribution is sampled and processed using
appropriate scattering models to provide a particle
size distribution.

• Instruments are available which provide particle size

information over the range 0.1–600 μm.
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 Measurement of particle size
• Sub-micron particle sizing
• Particles of a size of less than 2 μm are of particular
interest in Process Engineering because of their
large specific surface and colloidal properties.

• Photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS), may be

used to provide information about particle diffusion

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Particle size distribution
• Most particulate systems of practical interest consist
of particles of a wide range of sizes and it is
necessary to be able to give a quantitative indication
of the mean size and of the spread of sizes.

Figure 1.1. Particle Size Distribution curve

• The results of a size analysis can most conveniently (cumulative basis)
be represented by means of a cumulative mass
fraction curve, in which the proportion of particles (x)
smaller than a certain size (d) is plotted against that
size (d).

• From these results a cumulative size distribution can

be built up and this can then be approximated by a
Figure 1.2. Particle Size Distribution curve
smooth curve provided that the size intervals are
(frequency basis)e
sufficiently small

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Mean particle size
• Mean size will describe only one particular
characteristic of the powder and it is important to
decide what that characteristic is before the mean is
calculated. Thus, it may be desirable to define the
size of particle such that its mass or its surface or its
length is the mean value for all the particles in the
system

Figure 1.4. Particle Size Distribution curve

❑ For naturally occurring materials the curve will

generally have a single peak.
Figure 1.3. Particle Size Distribution curve ❑ For mixtures of particles, there may be as many
peaks as components in the mixture.

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 • Mean sizes based on surface
Mean particle size
• Mean sizes based on volume

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Mean particle size
• Mean dimensions based on length

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Exercise 1.1
• The size analysis of a powdered material on a mass
basis is represented by a straight line from 0 per
cent mass at 1 μm particle size to 100 per cent
mass at 101 μm particle size as shown in Figure 1.5.

• Calculate the surface mean diameter of the

particles constituting the system.

Figure 1.5. Size analysis of podwer

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Solution 1.1

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Particulate solids in bulk
• The properties of solids in bulk are a function of the • A low voidage corresponds to a high density of packing of
properties of the individual particles including their shapes the particles.
and sizes and size distribution, and of the way in which the
particles interact with one another. • The way in which the particles pack depends not only on
their physical properties, including shape and size
• Particulate solids present considerably greater problems distribution, but also on the way in which the particulate
than fluids in storage, in removal at a controlled rate from mass has been introduced to its particular location.
storage, and when introduced into vessels or reactors
where they become involved • The more rapidly material
• in a process. • is poured on to a surface or into a vessel, the more densely
will it pack
• One of the most important characteristics of any particulate
mass is its voidage, the fraction of the total volume which is • The packing density or voidage is important in that it
made up of the free space between the particles and is determines the bulk density of the material, and hence the
filled with fluid volume taken up by a given mass:

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 (2) Surface attraction. Surface forces, including van der Waals’
Particulate solids in bulk forces, may give rise to substantial bonds between particles,
particularly where particles are very fine
• Agglomeration (<10 μm), with the result that their surface per unit volume is
high.

(3) Plastic welding. When irregular particles are in contact, the

forces between the particles will be borne on extremely small
surfaces and the very high pressures
developed may give rise to plastic welding.

• If the particles tend to agglomerate, poor flow properties (4) Electrostatic attraction. Particles may become charged as
they are fed into equipment and significant electrostatic charges
may again be expected.
may be built up, particularly on fine solids.
• Agglomeration arises from interaction between particles, as
a result of which they adhere to one another to form (5) Effect of moisture. Moisture may have two effects. Firstly, it
clusters. will tend to collect near the points of contact between particles
and give rise to surface tension effects.
• The main mechanisms giving rise to agglomeration are: Secondly, it may dissolve a little of the solid, which then acts as a
• (1) Mechanical interlocking. This can occur particularly if bonding agent on subsequent evaporation.
the particles are long and thin in shape, in which case large
masses may become completely interlocked. (6) Temperature fluctuations give rise to changes in particle
structure and to greater
cohesiveness.

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Particulate solids in bulk
Flow of solids in hoppers • Commonly experienced types of behaviour are shown in
Figure 1.6 taken from

• Bridging of particles may take place and sometimes stable

arches (b) may form inside the hopper and, although these can
usually be broken down by vibrators attached to the walls,
problems of persistent blockage are not unknown.

• A further problem which is commonly encountered is that of

“piping” or “rat-holing”(c), in which the central core of material
is discharged leaving a stagnant surrounding mass
of solids.

• As a result some solids may be retained for long periods in the

hopper and may deteriorate. Ideally, “mass flow” (a) is
required in which the solids are in plug flow and move
downwards together in the hopper.

Figure 1.6. Flow in hoppers (a) Mass flow (b) Arch

formation (c) Rat-holing shaft formation

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Particulate solids in bulk

• Flow of solids through orifices

• The discharge rate of solid particles is usually controlled by the size of the orifice or the
aperture at the base of the hopper, though sometimes screw feeders or rotating table
feeders may be incorporated to encourage an even flowrate.
• The flow of solids through an orifice depends on the ability of the particles to dilate in the
region of the aperture.

• Flow will occur if the shear force exerted by the superincumbent material exceeds the shear
strength of the powder near the outlet.

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Particulate solids in bulk
• Measurement and control of solids flowrate
• The flowrate of solids can be measured either as they leave the hopper or as they are conveyed.
• In the former case, the hopper may be supported on load cells so that a continuous record of the mass
of the contents may be obtained as a function of time.
• Alternatively, the level of the solids in the hopper may be continuously monitored using
• transducers covered by flexible diaphragms flush with the walls of the hopper.
• The problems associated with the measurement and control of the flowrate of solids are much more
complicated than those in the corresponding situation with liquids. The flow characteristics will depend,
not only on particle size, size range and shape, but also on how densely the particles are packed.
• In addition, surface and electrical properties and moisture content all exert a strong influence on flow
behaviour, and the combined effect of these factors is almost impossible to predict in advance.
• It is desirable to carry out a preliminary qualitative assessment before making a selection of the, most
appropriate technique for controlling and measuring flowrate for any particular application

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Particulate solids in bulk
• Conveying of solids
• The variety of requirements in connection with the conveying of solids has led to the
development of a wide range of equipment. This includes:
(a) Gravity chutes—down which the solids fall under the action of gravity.
(b) Air slides—where the particles, which are maintained partially suspended in a channel by the
upward flow of air through a porous distributor, flow at a small angle to the horizontal.
(c) Belt conveyors—where the solids are conveyed horizontally, or at small angles to the
horizontal, on a continuous moving belt.
(d) Screw conveyors—in which the solids are moved along a pipe or channel by a rotating helical
impeller, as in a screw lift elevator.
(e) Bucket elevators—in which the particles are carried upwards in buckets attached to a
continuously moving vertical belt.
(f) Vibrating conveyors—in which the particles are subjected to an asymmetric vibration and
travel in a series of steps over a table. During the forward stroke of the table the particles are
carried forward in contact with it, but the acceleration in the reverse stroke is so high that the table
slips under the particles. With fine powders, vibration of sufficient intensity results in a fluid-like
behaviour.
(g) Pneumatic/hydraulic conveying installations—in which the particles are transported in a
stream of air/water.

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 Blending of solid particles – why is this important?
In the mixing of solid particles, the following three mechanisms may be involved:

(a) Convective mixing, in which groups of particles are moved from one position to another,.
• mixing two groups of solid particles so that they are dispersed in each other.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=47Rowloh-Wo

(b) Diffusion mixing, where the particles are distributed over a freshly developed interface.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fl4f3y-9QKI

(c) Shear mixing, where slipping planes are formed

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CEDjlONvLxw

The mechanisms operate to varying extents in different kinds of mixers and with different kinds of
particles

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 Blending of solid particles – The degree of mixing
• It is difficult to quantify the degree of mixing, although
any index should be related to the properties of the
required mix, should be easy to measure, and should be
suitable for a variety of different mixers.

• When dealing with solid particles, the statistical variation

in composition among samples withdrawn at any time
from a mix is commonly used as a measure of the degree Fig. 1.17.Uniform mosaic Fig. 1.18. Overall but not point uniformity in
of mixing. mix

• The standard deviation s (the square root of the mean of

the squares of the individual deviations) or the variance
s2is generally used.
• No amount of mixing will lead to the formation of a uniform
mosaic as shown in Figure 1.17 but only to a condition, such
as shown in Figure 1.18, where there is an overall uniformity
but not point uniformity

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 Blending of solid particles – The degree of mixing
For a completely random mix of uniform particles distinguishable, say, only by colour, LACEY(18,19) has shown that:

where s2 is the variance for the mixture, p is the overall proportion of particles of one
colour, and n is the number of particles in each sample.
This equation illustrates the importance of the size of the sample in relation to the
size of the particles.

s
In an incompletely randomised material, 2 will be greater, and in a
completely unmixed system, indicated by the suffix 0, it may be shown that:

which is independent of the number of particles in the sample. Only a definite number
of samples can in practice be taken from a mixture, and hence s will itself be subject to random errors

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 When a material is partly mixed, then the

Blending of solid particles – The degree of mixing degree of mixing may be represented by
some term b, and several methods have
been suggested for expressing b in terms
This analysis has been extended to systems containing particles of different sizes by BUSLIK of measurable quantities.
If s is obtained from examination of a large
number of samples then, as
suggested by Lacey, b may be defined as
being equal to sr/s, or (s0 − s)/(s0 − sr ),
as suggested by KRAMERS(21) where, as
before, s0 is the value of s for the unmixed
material.
This form of expression is useful in that b =
0 for an unmixed material and 1
For diffusive mixing, b will be independent of sample size provided the sample is for a completely randomised material
small. where s = sr. If s2 is used instead of s,
For convective mixing, Kramers has suggested that for groups of particles randomly then this
distributed, each group behaves as a unit containing ng particles. As mixing proceeds expression may be modified to give:
ng becomes smaller.
The number of groups will then be np/ng, where np is the number of
particles in each sample. Applying equation 1.33:

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Blending of solid particles – The rate of mixing
Expressions for the rate of mixing may be developed for any one of the possible mechanisms.
Since mixing involves obtaining an equilibrium condition of uniform randomness, the relation between b and time
might be expected to take the general form:

where c is a constant depending on the nature of the particles

and the physical action of the mixer.
Considering a cylindrical vessel (Figure 1.20) in which one substance A is poured into
the bottom and the second B on top, then the boundary surface between the two materials
is a minimum.
The process of mixing consists of making some of A enter the space
occupied by B, and some of B enter the lower section originally filled by A.
This may be considered as the diffusion of A across the initial boundary into B, and of B into A.
This process will continue until there is a maximum degree of dispersion, and a maximum
interfacial area between the two materials.
This type of process is somewhat akin to that of diffusion, and tentative use may be made of the relationship given by
Fick’s law

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Classification of particles
• Separation of particles from solid–solid, solid–liquid, solid–gas, or other complex mixtures.
• In general, the separation of particles can be achieved by exploiting the difference in size, shape, physical, or chemical properties
of solid particles.

• The problem of separating solid particles according to their physical properties is of great importance with large-scale operations in
the mining industry, where it is necessary to separate the valuable constituents in a mineral from the adhering gangue, as it is
called, which is usually of a lower density.

• In this case, it is first necessary to crush the material so that each individual particle contains only one constituent.

• Separation depends on the selection of a process in which the behaviour of the material is influenced to a very marked
degree by some physical property. Thus, if a material is to be separated into various size fractions, a sieving method
may be used because this process depends primarily on the size of the particles, though other physical properties such
as the shape of the particles and their tendency to agglomerate may also be involved.
• Other methods of separation depend on the differences in the behaviour of the particles in a moving fluid, and in this
case the size and the density of the particles are the most important factors and shape is of secondary importance.
• Other processes make use of differences in electrical or magnetic properties of the materials or in their surface
properties.

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 Classification of particles – Gravity settling

Material is introduced in suspension into a tank containing a

relatively large volume of water moving at a low velocity,.
The particles soon enter the slowly moving water and, because
the small particles settle at a lower rate, they are carried further
forward before they reach the bottom of the tank.
The very fine particles are carried away in the liquid overflow.
Receptacles at various distances from the inlet collect different
grades of particles according to their terminal falling velocities,
with the particles of high terminal falling velocity collecting near
the inlet.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qtScIThaKus

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 Classification of particles – The elutriator

Elutriation is a process for separating particles based on their

size, shape and density, using a stream of gas or liquid flowing
in a direction usually opposite to the direction of sedimentation.

The particles are introduced, often through a side tube, and the
smaller particles are carried over in the fluid stream while the
large particles settle against the upward current.

Further size fractions may be collected if the overflow from the

first tube is passed vertically upwards through a second tube of
greater cross-section, and any number of such tubes can be
arranged in series

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kI97bw-TJv8

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 Classification of particles – Spitzkasten
• This plant consists of a series of vessels of conical shape arranged
in series.
• A suspension of the material is fed into the top of the first vessel and
the larger particles settle, while the smaller ones are carried over in
the liquid overflow and enter the top of a second conical vessel of
greater cross-sectional area.
• The bases of the vessels are fitted with wide diameter
outlets, and a stream of water can be introduced near the outlet so that
the particles have to settle against a slowly rising stream of liquid.
• The size of the smallest particle which is collected in each of the
vessels is influenced by the upward velocity at the bottom outlet of
each of the vessels.
• The size of each successive vessel is increased, partly because the
amount of liquid to be handled includes all the water used for
classifying in the previous vessels, and partly because it is desired to
reduce, in stages, the surface velocity of the fluid flowing from one
vessel to the next.
• The Spitzkasten thus combines the principles used in the settling
tank and in the elutriator.

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 Classification of particles – The double cone classifier
• This plant consists of a series of vessels of conical shape arranged
in series.
• A suspension of the material is fed into the top of the first vessel and
the larger particles settle, while the smaller ones are carried over in
the liquid overflow and enter the top of a second conical vessel of
greater cross-sectional area.
• The bases of the vessels are fitted with wide diameter
outlets, and a stream of water can be introduced near the outlet so that
the particles have to settle against a slowly rising stream of liquid.
• The size of the smallest particle which is collected in each of the
vessels is influenced by the upward velocity at the bottom outlet of
each of the vessels.
• The size of each successive vessel is increased, partly because the
amount of liquid to be handled includes all the water used for
classifying in the previous vessels, and partly because it is desired to
reduce, in stages, the surface velocity of the fluid flowing from one
vessel to the next.
• The Spitzkasten thus combines the principles used in the settling
tank and in the elutriator.

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Take home exercise – Particles size reduction equipment and their
operation

Name and description

Drawing
Video
Detailed Operation

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Take note of the changes

Graduate attributes
Assessment weight
Practical
Learning units

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