pAQA74 Discrete Mathematics Ie tS a eee! 1. Define a graph with an example. @ Solution: A graph G=(V,£) consists of V, a non-empty set of vertices (or nodes) and E, set of edges. Each edge has either one or two vertices associated with it called its endpoints. An edge is said to connect its end points. Example: ‘1 uel Xp © & M4 = V3 2. Define finite and infinite graphs. @ Solution: A gtaph with a finite vertex set is called a finite graph and a graph with an infinite vertex set is called an infinite graph. — eee 3. Define a simple graph with an example. Solution: ee A graph in which each edge connects two different vertices and no two edges connect the same pair of vertices is called-a simple graph. (Or) A simple graph is a graph which does not have any loops or. multiple edges. _ Example: ‘3 °%3Part A - Questions and Answers PA 947s 4, Define multi-graph with an example. # Solution: Graphs that may have multiple edges Connecting the same vertices are called multigraphs. (je) Any graph which contains some parallel edges ang loops is called as multigraph. Example: y e 4 4 Me 5. Define the term Pseudograph with an example. # Solution: : Sate et may include loops and multiple edges ‘onnecting the same pair of vertices are called pseudographs. Example: ‘ pe : “pages 6 Define directed and Undirecteg graphs p Solution: With eames, Jn a graph G=G(V,B) an edge wh: r 18¢ Which j s ordered pairs of vertices is called a ae G, while an edge which is associated wit ces is called an undirected edge Pier Matheny ics SSOCiated with ‘ edge of pranh a 0 unordered pair A graph in which every edge jg di f Girected graph or simply a digraph, hese is eed A graph in which every edge is undirected is ced an an undirected graph. Examples: : ¢ % aft 2 4 %, et % 4h Ye % 4 eee y 6 4 Directed graph adie gph 7.. Define simple directed graph. & Solution: . When a directed graph hes no lops ands no mute directed edges, it is called a simple directed graph. Since a simple directed graph has atmost one edge associated toyeach ordered pair of vertices (u 1) we cl (4) an edge if fee is an edge associated to it in the graph multiple directed edges Solution: : : ve the same) ate cle 8 Directed graphs that may he a vertex to a second vertex (O _ directed multigraphs..Part A - Questions and Answers PAQAny 9. Define adjacent vertices with an example. # Solution: : Any pait of vertices which are connected by an edge jy a graph is called adjacent vertices. Example: From the below given graph, ¥yV2,¥1 ¥3 and v1 vy are adjacent vertices. 2 Ya 10. Define adjacent edges with an example. # Solution: If two distinct edges are incident with a common vertex then they are called adjacent edges. Example: 5 a Here from the followin; the incident edges with a cor 18 staph, the edges e, and e, are ymmon vertex v2. Discrete Mathematics 2 vis > y, Y% js called an isolated vertex. 72. Define a Label graph. #2 Solution: ‘A graph in which each vertex is assigned a unique name or label is called a label graph. ——————————$£{_ 13. Define the term mixed graph. # Solution: gee If some edges are directed and some are undirected in a graph, then the graph is called as a mixed graph. ——— 14. Define parallel edges (or) multiple edges with an example. # Solution: _ ; it Parallel (multiple) edges are edges having the ‘same pat of vertices. Example: aftsstions and Answers PAQA79 pAQASO i lscrete Mathematicg 15, Define an underlying simple graph with an exampje 47. Define the size of the graph wit, g Solution: an example, # Solution: e finite h G, ti . In a finite graph G,|V| (or) absolute value gf: Underlying simple graph: the number of vertices of the graph Gang ue of V denotes ‘A graph obtained by deleting all loops and parallel ed, fatue at E denotes the number of eu (0x) absolute from a graph is called underlying simple graph. jmown as the size of G. graph G, is _ Example: % y, Example: S % % (| : : D © — = From this graph, the total number of vertices =|4=5 ‘Underlying simple graph = and the total number of edges =|E|=6. Oh 48. Define an underlying undreced graph with an example. “16. Define the term weighted graph, with an example. # Solution: Fe scintion: A graph in which weights are assigned to every edge is A graph obiained by ignoring the detion of edges in called a weighted graph, “== ~ a directed graph is called an underlying undirected graph, A : = graph with directed edges and its udeyng unde eh Example: : “have the same number of edges. 5, s es ne < 3 3 ieee . the weights assigned to each elt Here 1, 2, 3, 4 are respectively, |Part A - Questions and Ai 19, Define Null graph with an example. & Solution: A graph wi 4 (ie) E(G) is empty and VG) is ith only isolated vertices is called a null graph, non-empty. Ee Example: See eae ENGST Saran 20. Explain the in degree and out degree of a graph with an example. pa & Solution: The number of edges terminates in any vertex is called indegree of the vertex v and the number of vertex starts from the vertex v is called the outdegree of the vertex v. Indegree is represented by- the notation .deg:-(v) (or) TW). Outdegree is represented by deg* (v) (or) d* (v) and Total degree is presented by deg (v) (or) d(v) Example: 2. Define the term regular graph with ob Solution: an Jn any graph G, if all the vert ices of degrees thea the graph is called ee the same Begmenicreys ve G) ma A(@)=mac| egy. G ot §(@=A(G)=" then the graph G is called a ros ch of degree 7, ular graph ‘A graph at which each vertex has k degree js ~ regular graph. gree is called fxample, Example: y i) Vy ¥ & “ a a A a G Nee 3 % »* Regular graph ‘Nota regular graph oe \ 22, Define the term complete graph with an example. #. Solution: In a graph G, if any pair of vert the graph G is said to be a complete gr - having n vertices is denoted by Ky. Example: Ait >< % % % ices are adjacent, then ph, A complete graph % % K,- GarbPart A - Questions and Answers PA Ag 23, Given V={ab,e,d} and E={(@,b) (@,0),(a,@)) Draw-a graph for this given information. & Solution: Let G=(V, B) +. Vertices are V=4 and the edges are E=3, a as b ced: In this graph the vertices a and b, a and ¢, a and d are adjacent vertices, whereas b ‘and c,c and q are not adjacent vertices. ————— ee 24. For the given graph, a b c d what can you say about this graph? 4 Solution: Here V={ a,b, c,d} and E={ (a,b) (a,d), (c,d) } Here the vertices aandb, aandd and candd ae adjacent vertices, The vertices aandc,bandd, and bande are non-adjacent vertices, + The number of vertices in G is |V}=4 and the number of edges in Gis |EJ=3, + Gis a (4, 3) graph, —————— Discrete Mathematics “Let v=(1,2,3,4} and B={ (1,2) (1,3) (1,423.24) 6,4), Represent this information in the form of a graph, ie Solution: G=(V,B) is a (4, 6) graph, <. The graph is 1 2 4 3 In this graph the edges (1, 3) and (2, 4) intersects each other. “+ Their interseetion is not a vertex of the graph. "The above graph can also be represented as follows. 1 2 oesuestions and Answers PAQAss Part A-Q 15). What informati ader the graph (10, = e ou fen the following graph? cay & Solution: 27. Draw () a multigraph and (ii) a pseudograph 4 Solution: Discrete Mathematics Find the degree of each vertex fo ‘ B. %e oe following graph: 5 ¢ % ‘i Te % @ Solution: From the above graph, we have d(vy)=2, 4 (V2) =4, d(v3)=4, d(vy)=2, d(vs)=4, 4 (v9) =4 —— 29, Find the degree of each vertex for the following graph. % x2 2% M4 # Solution: d(v)=5, d(v,)=3, d(v9)=5 Loop is considered as degree 2) d(vg)=4, d(vs)=1 and d(vp)=0. ee ah 30. Find the indegree, outdegree and total degree of each vertex of the graph given below. % V5 urPart A - Questions. and Answers PAQAg, 4 Solution: The given graph is a directed graph. We can write thy indegrees out degrees and total degrees as given below. Tndegree | Outdegree | Total degree Cy=0| ep)=3 go) =3 £)=2| ao)=1 Zo2)=3 fo ee Cwpj=i1| dwy=3 | 200=4 —E————————7 31. What type of the following graph is? a ; % ¥, "2 vy # Solution: = in the graph each edge connects two different ices and no two edges connect the same pair of vertices, it is a simple graph, 3 2. Mention the name of the 1 the fe S following graph. po Discrete Mathematics A Solution: since the graph has multiple edges connecting the same yertices, the graph is a multigraph, —— 33. Determine the vertex set and edge set for the ~~ following graph. a ws “ # Solution: From the above graph, we have ~_V={¥4, V2, v3, v4) and E={ (V4, 2), (V2, ¥3)s (3, V4) Wa M1) I 34. Determine the degree of each vertex for the following graph.Part A - Questions and ANSW*™ 29489 SS a. # Solution: deg) =4, dex (2)=4; deg (3)= . EEOE§ any deg (vs) =4 (or) d (vy) =4,4 (2) =4,d(¥3)=4, d (4) =4 ang d(vs)=4. ae eee having degrees {1,3,3, 4,5, 6,6}? # Solution: No. since two vertices have degree 3, and two vertices have degree 6, each of these four vertices are adjacent ‘with every other vertex. Se 36. Explain Niche overlap graphs in ecology:...; 4 Solution: A niche overlap graph is a simple graph because no loops or multiple edges are needed in this model. For example let us construct a niche overlap. graph for: six species of birds, where the hermit thrush competes -with the robin and with the blue jay, the-robin also competes with the mocking-bird, the mockingbird also competes with the blue jay, and the nuthatch competes with the hairy woodpecker. ‘The corresponding graph for the above statement is 37. Explain Acquaintanceship graph. Solution: ! In this.type of, graph multiple edges and loops are not tsed. The acquaintanceship graph of all people in: the world has finitely large number of vertices ‘and edges. 438. Explain Influence graphs, @ Solution: A directed graph is called an j : nfl be used to study interms of group ‘aoe and it can of the BrOUP Fepresented by a vertex. Ther ne ea Beton from Vertex @ tO vertex b when the person directed edge vertex @ influences the person represented ears by This graph does not contain loops and also it oes oat e multiple directed edges, oa # Solution: The Hollywood graph represents actors by vertices and connects two vertices when the actors represented by these vertices have acted together in a movie. This. graph is a simple graph since its edges are undirected, and also it contains no multiple edges, and loops. 40. Explain Round - Robin tournaments. 4 Solution: Ina toumament each team plays with other team exacily one i ere eae ka graphs where each team is represented by a vertex. Note that (a is an edge if team a beats team b. This graph is a simple directed graph, which contains no loops or multiple directed edges. ee 41. Explain collaboration graphs. *® Solution: a This. graph is a simple graph ee ee Undirected edges and has no loops oF multi Sate “In collaboration graph, veins pen FRE Connect two people if they have jointly ee aswers PAQAo) Part A= Questions and An 42. Explain the web graph 4 Solution: - ‘The world wide web can be mode each web page is represented bye and Jed as a directed grap, ertex and Where an edge starts at the web page @ at the web pape ‘9p? if there is a link on “a” pointing to? - Since new wet, pages are created and others removed somewhere on the web almost every moment, the web graph changes often. SS —__.—aaeeemems, 43, Explain precedence graphs and concurrent processing # Solution: : The dependence of statements on previous statements can be represented by a directed graph. Each statement is represented by a vertex, and there is an edge from one vertex to a second vertex if the statement represented by the second vertex cannot be executed before the statement represented by the first vertex has been executed. This graph is called a precedence graph. where 44, State the Handshaking theorem. a Solution: : = Let G=(V,£) be an undirected graph ‘with ¢ edges. Then 2e= YS) “deg (w) (or) Y dw) wey wey | This theorem also applies even if multiple edges and loops are present, : 45. Prove that an undirected graph has an even number of vertices of odd degree, , ae rea fs "m8 be the set of vertices of even degree g of vertices of odd degree respectively, in aM : undirected graph G=(V,B). = nag B= 2X = Y agiy, uev X bee, vey, Mey, =o Because deg (u) is even for y Pe ey git hand side i8 even. The sum of lyr! 1 onthe hand side of the equality is even, because ae n the tight the second term in the sum is also even, Resse Hence, Be jn this sum are odd, there Must be an even ne ems terms. Thus, there are an even number of eee such SSS Define initial and final vertices in graph, “fe Solution? : When (u,v) is an edge of the ‘graph’ G, with directed edges, u is said to be adjacent to v and v is said to ‘be adjacent from u. The vertex u is called the initial vertex of (u,3) and called the terminal or end vertex of (u,»). The initial and terminal vertex of a loop are the same. — 47. Define the term complete graph with examples. & Solution: The complete graph on n vertices, denoted by K, is the graph that contains exactly one edge between each pair inct vertices. The graphs K,, for n=1;2,3,4,5,6 are ed as follows. ahPart A - Questions @ ple. 48. Define bipartite graph with an exam a ea graph G is called bipartite if its vertex seq y can be partitioned into two disjoint sets Vi and V2 such that every edge in the graph connects a vertex 1n V, and a vertex in Vy (0 that no edge in G connects either two vertices in V, or two vertices in Vp), then it is said to be the pair (Vj, Vo) a bipartition of the vertex set V of G. Example: 49. What are the degrees of the vertices from the given graph? 4 Solution: % Ba Ny es Ys Ys y From the above graph, we have deg (vy) =2, deg (v9) = 4, deg (v9)=4, Geunet 48 (5)=4, deg (9) =3 and deg (7) =0. ee pAagay ‘: the de, 0, What are Brees of the verti graph? Nerles from the given “4 Vs # Solution: From the above graph, we have deg (vj) =4, deg (v)=6, deg (v3)=1, deg(v4)=6 and deg (vs) = 5. 51: How -many edges are there in a graph with 10 ‘vertices’éach of degree 6? ~ & Solution: Because the sum of the degrees of the vertices is §x10= 60. It follows that 2e=60 = ¢=30. Here 30 edges are there in a graph with 10 vertices each of degree 6. 52. “Find the indegree, outdegree and total degree of each vertex in the given graph G with directed edges.Part A - Questions and Answers PAQAos 4 Solution: Indegree Outdegree Total degree dogs) =2 | deston=4 | ee=6 deg” (v9)=2 | deg* (x)=! deg (v2) =3 deg =3 | deg’ 3=2 | 88 03)=5 deg” (v4)=3 | deg’ (v4) =3 deg (v4) =6 deg (v3)=2 | deg* (vs)=2 deg (vs) =4 deg” (v6)=0 | deg* (v)=0 deg 6) = 0 53, Is Cg bipartite, for the given graph. == 4 Solution: This C¢.graph is-bipartite, Because its vertex set can be partitioned -into the sets V2 = (Vp, V4 V6.) and every edge of Cy connects a vertex in V, and a vertex in Vj. Hence, Cg is a bipartite graph. Vial yp v3.V5} and 54. Is the graph Ky a bipartite. raph? 4 Solution: Kz is not a bipartite graph. To Verify this, if we divide the vertex set of K3 into two disjoint sets, one of the {W? ~ pAQA96 sets must contain two vertices, 1p ‘ » TE the these two vertices could not be concen 8 bipent, Kz each vertex is connected tg every other SY ated, but in Vertex. by an edge. 55. Is the given graph bipartite a ® a # Solution: This graph is bipartite, because its vertex set is-the union of two disjoint sets { a,b,d) and { c,¢,f,) and each edge connects a vertex in one of these subsets to a vertex in the other subset. ees 56. Is the given graph bipartite? # Solution: "This graph is not bipartite, because its vetex st cannot be Partitioned into two subsets so that edges do not connect 0 Vertices from the same subset eePart A - Questions and Answers. 51, Show that the sum of degree of ll the verties ing graph. Gris even. Bach edge has'2 degrees in a graph. And also cach edge has one degree to each of the vertices on which it is inciden, ‘Therefore, if there are, n_edges in a graph G, then nad (vy) +4 (v2) +4 (19) + +4 On) Hence, 2n is always even. = 58 Prove that the number of odd degree vertices is always even. & Solution: Let G=(V, E) be a graph with n vertices and e edges. Let v4, V3 Yy be the vertices. of odd degree and V4. ¥24¥%3 op og be the vertices of even degree. " ein Yd) =2 |B =2. ist k = : = LY 40+ Y d= ints j=l, : Ws = Each of d(v) is even => x “dQ and 2e we oe numbers, jate. salle ~ k S ae SS : = (0)+ an even number = an even number Solution: ™ cren numbe, SINCS each term i=l ay) is 044. Hence, the number of tems in LHS my : is even, ven, _—— 59, Verify the handshaking theorem for the % S Ps following graph. %s 4 Ce . 3 hy # Solution: ‘= To prove E deg (v))=2 (no. of edges) deg (v) =20)=18 un Me deg (v) = deg (v,)+ deg v2) de8 (3) + deg (V4) +' deg (vs) + deg, (%) (lap Me w i a24de4e3e4tl=l8 Hence the theorem is verified 60. Prove that a simple graph a has atleast two vertices of same re Let G be a simple graph egee of each G has no loop and parallel #8** Hot te ee Vettices is onc: €.) (vif) C8: pAgalo2, @ flow many vertices and ho 2 graphs have? () 9, (iy Cian i 86S do these sel ix Solution: @ 2” vertices and nth) ae (i) 27=8 vertices and () 2) 12 ete ii) 2° =32 vertices and (5) (24) =80 edges —— : ,. For which values of : - regular? es of m, are these following graphs -@ Ky Gi) Cy Gil) Wy) Op _- # Solution: — @ Foralln21, ~ Gi) For all n23 * ii) For'n=3 * (iv) For all n20. ———— ee 70. What is the sizeof an rreglar (7.4) eh? a Solution: By the definition of regular graph, we have ~ deg G (4) =r forall 1 ¥@ But 2g=EdegG(n))=21=Pr 5 2g=pr BeePAQA1O; Part A - Questions and Answers 3 Part A ~ Questions and Answers__"""A3 71. How many vertices does a regular graph of degree four with 10 edges have? Solution: i =4,q=10 Given that r=4,q ai We know that 2¢=pr = p=“ 20) 4 = p= 5 +. A regular graph of degree 4 with 10 edges has 5 vertices, SS Eee 72. How many vertices and edges of the graph K,,, , have? 4 Solution: There are m+n vertices and mn edges, in Ky,» graph, 7h ie na 73. For which values of m and n is Kn,n Tegular? # Solution: A complete bipartite graph Kn,n isnot regular if m#n, + If m=n then Kp, » is a regular graph, 74. Define a sub-graph of a graph, 4 Solution: : A’ subgraph of a graph “G=(V,E). is a graph BOW.) whee We Vad P= EA asbsrapli Hot G is @ proper subgraph of GifH#G. For example, for a given graph Ky 8 ag eve i 3 y __& Solution: Let G=(V, £) be a simple graph where [y= 1n. Suppose that the vertices of G are listed as Vp % Vye The: ency matrix A’ [aj] of G with respect to these vertices, the nxn symmetric matrix defined by E Solution: : : = rected graph. Suppose: that pe G=(V.A). be at inked . Then thePart A - Questions and Answers PAQAI05 71. Definé. Isomorphic’ graph. # Solution: The simple graphs G,=(V1, £1) and Go=(V>, E>) are isomorphi there is a one-to-one and onto function f from Vj to V2 with the property that a and b are adjacent in G, if and only if f(a) and f(B) are adjacent in Gp for all a and b in y,. Such a function f is called an isomorphism. jc) Two simple graphs G and G’ are said to isomorphic, if there is a function f:V(G)—> VG) from the vertices of the graph G to the vertices of the graph G’ such that : @ fis one-to-one Gi) fis onto (ii) For each pair of vertices (u,v) of G, then [u,v] € E(G) if and only if Ff E EG). 78. Write down the adjacent matrix for the given graph. a b # Solution: PS 5s Crom ¢ aAaos ae e fi eS i a _@ Solution: The corresponding incidence matrix ig FL & €3 4 es %=2T1 0000 w=b}0 1110 wy=c}1 1001 y=d|0 0111 eee 80. Define cut vertices and cut edges in graph. “A: Solution: : > The removal of a vertex and al edges incident with it produces © a subgraph with more connected componens than in the original “graph. Such vertices are called cut vertices or articulation points. — The removal of a cut. vertex from a connected graph _ produces a subgraph that is not connected. An edge whose removal produces a graph with more ni graph is called a connected cofaponents than in the original “cut edge or bridge. Se eee Bi, Tixplnin strongly comet and weakly comeced erp * | # Solution: ae : Adee graph is sont ome Dee 87 “from a to b and from b to a whenever @ and in the graph.fr, P: Part A - Questions and Answers AQAIO7 A directed graph is weakly connected, if there between every two vertices in the underlying undirected graph, ee 82, Explain strong components with an example. # Solution: ‘The ‘subgraphs of a directed graph G that are strongly connected but not contained in larger strongly connected subgraphs, (ie) the maximal strongly connected subgraphs are called the strongly .connected components or strong components of G. Example: a b a b ee > e d = e 4 G H From the graphs, the graph H has three strongly connected components, consisting of the vertex a, the’ vertex e and the graph consisting of the vertices b,c and d and edges (b,c), (c,d) and (d, b). 83, Define Euler circuit and Euler path with examples. # Solution: An Euler circuit in a graph G is a simple circuit containing every edge of G. An Buler path in G is a simple path containing every edge of G. Example: : Let us consider the following three graphs. ‘The graph Gj has a Euler circu : 9,6,0,d,¢,b,a, Neither of the graphs G, and G, abe have an Euler ciruit. Gy “has an Euler path, namely a, ¢, d,e,5,d.a,b a eee Ce Gy does not pave an Euler path. —_——o .}3>x $4. Define Eulerian trail and circuit in graph, & Solution: A trail in G is called an Eulerian the edges of G exactly once and it contains all the vertices of G. ‘A closed Eulerian trail is called the Eulerian circuit. A graph having an Eulerian circuit is called an Eulerian graph. : ————S 85. Define Hamilton path and circuit with examples. 4 Solution: : < i i through every ‘A simple graph in a graph G that passes e Vertex exactly once is called a Hamilton path, and a on circuit in a graph G that passes through every vertex exactly once is called a Hamilton circuit (ie) The simple path 21-72% sas PER ey G=\V, if vb 8 4 Hamilton iat i = {.Xq, X15 X95 = Mn- and x #4 for osi0) is a the simple circuit Xq, xjs22,%3 «+ %n— 1% *0 ¢ 2 an is a Hamilton path. Hamilton circuit if x9, 2,2 -+- %u-1%n 'S & P “1 e ae} 2 Vv; & 3 8 Vs % “4 This graph has a Hamilton circuit namely, vj V2 v3 V4 V5 V4. = = Mi 2 : Yq & V5 This graph does not contain a Hamilton circuit, since every Circuit must contain every vertex. Here such a circuit is not possible. Example 1; Example 2: ee