FM Pure 2.
1 – Polar Coordinates
Pole, initial line, and angle
Polar coordinates are defined with reference to a fixed point, P (r, θ)
O, known as the pole and a direction from O known as the
r
initial line. Any point P in the plane can be specified by a
distance, r, from O and an angle from the initial line, θ.
Polar coordinates are written as an ordered pair, (r, θ) θ
The vector is known as the radius vector. O
We shall adopt the convention r ≥ 0 (given r = f(), if f() < 0 then r = 0) and that positive angles are measured
anticlockwise from the initial line.
Polar equations
We can define the locus of a curve using polar coordinates as functions of r and/or θ. For example, the curve
given by r = k (constant) is a circle, centred at the pole, with radius k. Alternatively, θ = k will be a semi-
infinite line from the pole at an angle k.
Cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates
y Using the Cartesian origin as our pole and the x-axis as our initial
P (r, θ)
line, the Cartesian coordinates of a point with polar coordinates (r, θ)
are:
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
Alternatively, r2 = x2 + y2 θ = tan-1 (y/x)
x
(although this last will only work for θ between –π/2 and π/2)
Example 1 Find the Cartesian equation of the curve with polar equation r = 2a cos θ
Solution Eg.1
Using and we have
Hence, since , we have so
Example 2 Find the polar equation of the parabola y2 = 4x
Solution Eg.2
Since and we have
Exercise 1
Q1. Find the Cartesian equation of the curve r2 = a2 sin 2θ.
Q2. Express the curve xy = 4 in polar form.
Q3. Find the distance between the points with polar coordinates (2, – 4π/9) and (3, 8π/9). [√19]
Q4. The points A and P have polar coordinates (10, π/2) and (4, π/6) respectively. Find the polar
coordinates of the point Q which is a reflection of P in the line OA, where O is the pole. [(4, 5/6)]
Q5. Find the polar coordinates of the points D and E given that OCDE is a square, O is the pole, C has
polar coordinates (2, π/6), and that D and E are both above the initial line. [(2√2, 5/12), (2, 2/3)]
FM Pure – Polar Coordinates 1 25/05/2024
Plotting polar curves
To plot a polar curve, first set up a table of values for r and θ for convenient values of θ. These can then be
plotted on a set of axes.
Example 3 Plot the graph of r = 2 |sin 2θ| for .
Solution First, calculate values of r for convenient values of θ (use 2 d.p. for your values of r) and then plot on
the axis (you will not be supplied with axes like these in the exams). Remember, when r < 0 we adopt
the convention that r = 0.
r
0
π/12
π/6
π/4
π/3
5π/12
π/2
2π/3
3π/4
5π/6
π
7π/6
5π/4
4π/3
3π/2
5π/3
7π/4
11π/6
Symmetry
If for all values of θ then the graph will be symmetrical about the line θ = 0
If for all values of θ then the graph will be symmetrical about the line θ = α
So, in the previous graph for example,
Maximum values of r, and direction of curve at origin
It is often useful to know the range of values which r will take (note: CIE adopt the convention r ≥ 0)
If but in the interval or then the line is a tangent to the
curve at the pole.
Example 4 Plot the following curves. Find the greatest and least values of r and the equations of the
tangents at the pole, and identify any lines of symmetry (a) r = 2 + sin θ + cos 2θ (b) r = 1 + cos θ cos 2θ
See also: Gaulter & Gaulter Further Pure Mathematics p.45 – 47, Exercise 3C p.48
FM Pure – Polar Coordinates 2 25/05/2024
The website Interactive Mathematics has some good examples of Curves in Polar Coordinates in its section on Plane Analytic
Geometry http://www.intmath.com/plane-analytic-geometry/8-curves-polar-coordinates.php
Multiples of 30 You may want to try
(/6 radians) some additional values
r r
0 π/12
π/6 π/4
π/3 5π/12
π/2 7π/12
2π/3 3π/4
5π/6 11π/12
π 13π/12
7π/6 5π/4
4π/3 17π/12
3π/2 19π/12
5π/3 7π/4
11π/6 23π/12
Fill in the values on the left to get an idea of the shape of the curve
You might want to use some of the extra values on the right
Multiples of 30 You may want to try
(/6 radians) some additional values
r r
0 π/12
π/6 π/4
π/3 5π/12
π/2 7π/12
2π/3 3π/4
5π/6 11π/12
π 13π/12
7π/6 5π/4
4π/3 17π/12
3π/2 19π/12
5π/3 7π/4
FM Pure – Polar Coordinates 3 25/05/2024
11π/6 23π/12
FM Pure 2.2 – Polar Coordinates & Areas
Recall the formula for the area of a sector of a circle of radius r and angle θ,
Suppose a polar curve is defined by the equation r = f(θ)
Let δA be the area of the region enclosed by the curve the line (r, θ) and the line (r + δr, θ + δθ)
According to the sector area formula, δA lies between and
Hence, lies between and
As δθ 0, δr 0 and
Integrate with respect to θ to obtain
(A diagram to accompany this argument can be found on Gaulter & Gaulter, Further Pure Mathematics, p.48)
Example Find the area enclosed by the following curves for :
(a) r = kθ (b) r = 2 + cos θ [4π3k2/3, 9π/2]
FM Pure – Polar Coordinates 4 25/05/2024
Exercise
Q1. Calculate the areas enclosed by the following curves between the given values of θ:
(a) r = eθ (0, π) [Ans: (e2π – 1)/4]
(b) r = a cos θ [Ans: a2(π +
2)/8]
(c) r2 = a2 sin 2θ [Ans: a2/2]
Q2. Show that the area of the loop of r = 2 sin 2θ for is
Q3. Express the curve in polar form and hence show that the area it encloses is a2.
See also: Gaulter & Gaulter, Further Pure Mathematics p.51 Exercise 3D Q1 – 4, 6, 7, 9
FM Pure – Polar Coordinates 5 25/05/2024
