Chapter V.

THE STUDY OF MEANING: SEMANTICS

5.1. Word, sentence and utterance meaning
5.1.1. Meaning of words and sentences
- Words and sentences are 2 units of language that can carry meanings.
- Content word (nouns, verbs, prepositions, adjectives and adverbs) refer to
concrete objects and abstract concepts, are marked as being characteristics of
particular social, ethnic and regional dialects and of particular contexts; and
convey information about the feelings and attitudes of language users.
Ex:
+ "cat," "happy," and "beautiful" are all words.
+ "book," -> refers to a collection of written pages bound together.
- Function word (conjunctions and determiners)
Ex:
+ Determiner: There is an apple in the fridge
+ Conjunction: I love eating apples and oranges.
- A “sentence” is a group of words that express a complete thought. It typically
starts with a capital letter and ends with a punctuation mark like a period, question
mark, or exclamation mark.
5.1.2. Meaning of utterances
- An utterance is any stretch of spoken language produced by a single speaker.
- It is the third unit that carries meaning
- It can be as short as a grunt or sigh, or as long as a complex and nuanced speech.
*) Differences between sentences and utterances
Sentences Utterances
- Sentences are utterances - Not all utterances are sentences
- Sentences are grammatical units - Utterances can be shorter and
 that express complete thoughts non-syntactic
5.2. Lexical semantics
- Lexical semantics as a subfield of linguistic semantics, is the study of word
meanings. (Wikipedia)
5.2.1. Semantic field
- It is a set of words with an indentifiable semantic affinity.

Ex:

 Colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, pink, black, white, brown
 Animals: dog, cat, bird, fish, horse, cow, lion, tiger, elephant, zebra
 Body parts: head, face, eyes, nose, mouth, ears, arms, legs, hands, feet
 Food: bread, milk, cheese, meat, vegetables, fruit, pasta, rice, pizza, chocolate
 Emotions: happiness, sadness, anger, fear, love, hate, joy, surprise, excitement
 Nature: tree, flower, grass, sky, sun, moon, stars, mountain, river, ocean
 Time: second, minute, hour, day, week, month, year, decade, century
 Transportation: car, bus, train, plane, boat, bicycle, motorcycle, rocket, spaceship
 Professions: doctor, teacher, lawyer, engineer, scientist, artist, musician, writer,
actor, athlete
 Abstract concepts: love, justice, freedom, beauty, truth, knowledge, creativity,
power, peace

5.2.2. Types of relationship between words

1. Synonymy: These words, like harmonious twins, share a similar meaning.

Example: Happy & joyful (both convey positive emotions)

2. Antonymy: These words, locked in an eternal tango, express opposite meanings.

Example: Hot & cold (opposing temperature sensations)

3. Hyponymy: Imagine a family tree, where hyponyms are the specific offspring of a broader
term (hypernym).

Example: Dog is a hyponym of animal (dog is a specific type of animal)

4. Meronymy: Picture a car - its hood, door, and wheels are meronyms, parts that make up the
whole (holonym).

Example: Wheel is a meronym of car (wheel is a part of a car)

5. Homonymy: These words, wearing identical masks, sound the same but carry distinct
meanings.

Example: Bat (the flying mammal vs. the baseball equipment)

6. Polysemy: This chameleon-like word changes its meaning depending on the context.

Example: Bark (the sound a dog makes vs. the outer layer of a tree)

7. Collocation: Words that naturally go hand-in-hand, like peas in a pod.

Example: Strong coffee, heavy rain, burning question

8. Alliteration: When words begin with the same sound, creating a melodic echo.

Example: Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers

9. Onomatopoeia: Words that mimic sounds, painting vivid pictures with their pronunciation.

Example: Buzz, meow, sizzle, pop

10. Rhyme: Words that share similar or identical ending sounds, adding a musical touch.

Example: Twinkle, twinkle little star, how I wonder what you are...

5.3. Function words and categories of meaning

5.3.1. Tense and modality
 - Tense tells us when an event, action, or state occurs in relation to the speaker's
present moment.
Ex:

 Present tense: Indicates an action happening now or habitually ("I am writing," "She sings
beautifully").
 Past tense: Refers to actions or events completed in the past ("He ate lunch," "They visited
Paris").
 Future tense: Signals actions or events yet to happen ("We will learn," "The train will arrive
soon").

- Modality:
+ It is a category through which speakers can convey their attitude towards the
truth and reliability of their assertions or express obligation, permission, or
suggestion.
+ It can be expressed through auxiliary verbs (may, should, must); through modal
verbs (order, assume, allow); through modal adverbs (possibly, certainly)
Ex:

 May I borrow your book? (Possibility)

 You must finish your homework. (Necessity)
 He should be here any minute now. (Probability)
 I know the answer is 42. (Certainty)

*) Tense and modality often work together, painting a nuanced picture of the speaker's message.

Example:

She will have been working on the project for two hours by the time you arrive.

(past tense for the start of the work + future perfect tense for the completion, combined with a
present simple tense for the arrival)
 5.3.2. Reference
- Reference concerns the ability of linguistic expressions to refer to real-world
entities.
Ex:

- Referential Reference:

+ Points directly to a specific person, object, event, or idea in the real world or within the text
itself.

+ Establishes a clear link between the words and their referent.

Examples:

o "The apple on the table is red." (Refers to a specific apple.)

o "She is the woman I told you about." (Refers to a specific woman.)
o "I'm reading a fascinating book." (Refers to a specific book.)

- Nonreferential Reference:

+ Doesn't point to a specific entity but rather creates a general idea or feeling.

+ Often involves abstract concepts or emotions.

+ Plays a significant role in figurative language, such as metaphors and idioms.

Examples:

o "It's raining cats and dogs." (Refers to heavy rain, not literal animals.)
o "Life is a journey." (Refers to the metaphorical journey of life.)
o "I'm feeling down today." (Refers to a general feeling of sadness.)
*) Differences between Referential Reference and Nonreferential Reference
Referential Reference Nonreferential Reference
- is essential for clear and concise - adds richness and depth
communication - cannot be replaced in this way as they
- can be replaced with a more specific don't point to a specific entity.
noun or phrase without changing the
meaning of the sentence.
 5.3.3. Deixis
- Deixis is the marking of the orientation or position of entities and events with
respect to certain points of reference.

- Types of Deixis:

1. Personal Deixis: These words pinpoint the participants in a conversation, including:

o First Person: I, me, my, mine, myself

o Second Person: you, yourself, yours
o Third Person: he, she, it, they, him, her, them
2. Spatial Deixis: These words locate things in relation to the speaker's environment, including:

o Proximal: this, these, here, now

o Distal: that, those, there, then
3. Temporal Deixis: These words situate events in time relative to the moment of speaking,
including:

o Present: now, today, this week, this month

o Past: yesterday, last week, last month, then, before
o Future: tomorrow, next week, next month, soon, later
4. Discourse Deixis: These words connect parts of a conversation or text, including:

o this, that, one, these, those

o also, too, therefore, furthermore

Examples:

 I saw that bird singing over there earlier today. (combines personal, spatial, and temporal deixis)
 Let's do this tomorrow instead. (discourse deixis referring back to a previous suggestion)
 Can you pass me the book next to you? (spatial deixis relative to the listener)
5.4. Semantic roles and sentence meaning
- Semantic role refers to the way in which the referent of the noun phrase contributes to the state,
action, or situation described by the sentence.

- The semantic role of a noun phrase (as agent, patient, instrument, cause, experiencer,
benefactive or recipient, locative, and temporal) differs from its syntactic role (subject, object,
etc.)

5.4.1. Agents and patients

- Agents: They're the star performers, the doers, the initiators of actions. They take the spotlight
and propel the plot forward.

- Patients: They're the ones affected by the action, the recipients, the undergoers. They're the
objects of the verb's attention, often standing in the line of fire.

Ex:

The child ate the strawberry

Agent Patient

The strawberry was eaten by the child.

Patient Agent

5.4.2. Experiencer
- It is defined as that which receives a sensory input
Ex: My friend was scammed by a pickpocket thief
Experiencer

5.4.3. Instruments and causes

- Instruments and causes often appear intertwined in sentences, adding layers of
complexity and nuance to meaning.

- Instruments: These are the tools, objects, or means used to perform an action. Imagine them as
the trusty sidekicks, the ones enabling the agent to get the job done.
 Example:

The sculptor carved the statue with a chisel (the chisel is the instrument used for carving).

She opened the door with her key (the key is the instrument used for opening).

- Causes: These are the reasons, events, or circumstances that trigger an action or
bring about a state of being. Think of them as the hidden puppet masters, pulling
the strings and setting the wheels in motion.

Example: The heavy rain caused the flooding (the rain is the cause of the flooding).

My hard work led to my success (hard work is the cause of success).

5.4.4. Recipients, benefactives, locatives, temporals

- Recipients: that which receives a physical object
Ex: He donated the money to the charity
- Benefactives: that for which an action is performed
Ex: My mother baked a cake for my sister.
- Locatives: the location of an action or state
Ex: The cat was sleeping under the table this morning.
- Benefactives: the time at which the action or state occured
Ex: The cat was sleeping under the table this morning.

5.5. Semantic roles and grammatical relations

- Semantic Roles:

 Focus on the inherent meaning and function of participants in a sentence. Imagine

them as the actors in a play, each playing a specific role in the action or event
described.
 Common semantic roles: agent (doer), patient (undergoer), theme (affected entity),
instrument (tool used), location (place of action), beneficiary (receives benefit),
goal (intended outcome).

Example: "The chef (agent) cooked the soup (patient) in the kitchen (location)
with a ladle (instrument)."

- Grammatical Relations:

 Focus on the grammatical relationships and syntactic positions of different

sentence elements. Think of them as the stage directions, dictating how the actors
are positioned and connected within the structure.
 Common grammatical relations: subject, object (direct, indirect), predicate,
complement, modifier.

Example: "The chef (subject) cooked the soup (direct object) in the kitchen
(prepositional phrase).