16

Clutches, Brakes,
Couplings and Flywheels

A simplified dynamic representation of a friction clutch or brake is shown in

Fig.16.1a.Two inertias, I1 and I2, traveling at the respective angular velocities w1 and w2,
one of which may be zero in the case of brakes, are to be brought to the elements are
running at different speeds and energy is dissipated during actuation, resulting in a
temperature rise. In analyzing the performance of these devices we shall be interested in:

1. The actuating force

2. The torque transmitted
3. The energy loss
4. The temperature rise

The torque transmitted is related to the actuating force, the coefficient of friction, and the
geometry of the clutch or brake.
The various types of devices to be studied may be classified as follows:

1. Rim types with internal expanding shoes

2. Rim types with external contracting shoes
3. Band types
4. Disk or axial types

FIGURE 16-1
(a) Dynamic representation of a clutch or brake; (b) mathematical representation of a
flywheel
5. Cone types
6. Miscellaneous types
A flywheel is an inertial energy-storage device. It absorbs mechanical energy by
increasing its angular velocity and delivers energy by decreasing its velocity. Fig. 16-1b
is a mathematical representation of a flywheel. An input torque Ti, corresponding to a
coordinate θi, will cause the flywheel speed to increase. And a load or output torque To,
with coordinate θo, will absorb energy from the flywheel and cause it to slow down. We
shall be interested in designing flywheels so as to obtain a specified amount of speed
regulation.

FIGURE 16-2
Forces acting upon a hinged friction shoe

Step I. Since the shoe is short, we assume the pressure is uniformly distributed over the
frictional area.

Step 2. From step 1 it follows that

p = pa (a)

Step 3. Since the pressure of static equilibrium by taking a summation of moments about
the hinge pin. This gives

N = pa A (b)

We now apply the conditions of static equilibrium by taking a summation of moments

about the hinge pin. This gives

∑M A = Fb − Nb + fNa = 0 (c)
Substituting pa A for N and solving Eq. (c) for the actuating force, we get

pa A(b − fa )
F= (d)
b

Taking a summation of forces in the horizontal and vertical directions gives the hinge-pin
reactions
(e)
∑F x =0 Rx = fpa A

∑F y =0 Ry = pa A − F (f)

This completes the analysis of the problem.

The quantity (b − fa) / b in Eq. (d) is always less than unity. This effect is called self-
energizing, because friction is reducing the necessary actuating force. But note that a
certain critical value of the coefficient of friction f will cause the term (b − fa ) to become
zero.

16-2 INTERNAL EXPANDING RIM CLUTCHES AND BRAKES

The internal-shoe rim clutch shown in Fig. 16-3 consists essentially of three elements: the
mating frictional surface, the means of transmitting the torque to and from the surfaces,
and the actuating mechanism. Depending upon the operating mechanism, such clutches
are further classified as expanding-ring, centrifugal, magnetic, hydraulic, and pneumatic.

FIGURE 16-3
An internal expanding centrifugalacting rim clutch.
(Courtesy of the Hilliard Corporation.)
 The expanding-ring clutch is often used in textile machinery, excavators, and machine
tools where the clutch may be located within the driving pulley. Expanding-ring clutches
benefit from centrifugal effects; transmit high torque, even at low speeds; and require
both positive engagement and ample release force.
The centrifugal clutch is used mostly for automatic operation. If no spring is used, the
torque transmitted is proportional to the square of the speed. This is particularly useful for
electric-motor drives where, during starting, the driven machine comes up to speed
without shock. Springs can also be used to prevent engagement until a certain motor
speed has been reached, but some shock may occur.
Magnetic clutches are particularly useful for automatic and remote-control systems.
Such clutches are also useful in drives subject to complex load cycles (see Sec. 11-8).
Hydraulic and pneumatic clutches are also useful in drives having complex loading
cycles and in automatic machinery, or in robots. Here the fluid flow can be controlled
remotely using solenoid valves. These clutches are also available as disk, cone, and
multiple-plate clutches.
In braking systems, the internal-shoe or drum brake is used mostly for automotive
applications.
To analyze an internal-shoe device, refer to Fig. 16-4, Let us consider the unit
pressure p acting upon an element of area of the frictional material located at an angle θ
from the hinge pin (Fig. 16-4).

FIGURE 16-4
Internal friction shoe.

assumption (step 1) that the pressure at any point is proportional to the vertical distance
from the hinge pin. This vertical distance is proportional to sin θ , and (step 2) the relation
between the pressures is

p pa
= (a)
sin θ sin θ a
Rearranging,
sin θ
p = pa
sin θ a (16-1)
 p will be a maximum when θ = 90°, or if the toe angle θ2 is less than 90°, then p will
be a maximum at the toe. When θ = Eq. (16-2) shows that the pressure is zero.
A good design would concentrate as much frictional material as possible in the
neighborhood of the point of maximum pressure. Such a design is shown in Fig. 16-5.
Proceeding now to step 3 (Fig. 16-5), the hinge-pin reactions are Rx and Ry. The
actuating force F has components Fx and Fy and operates at distance c from the hinge pin.
At any angle θ from the hinge pin there acts a differential normal force dN whose
magnitude is
dN = pbr d θ (b)

where b is the face width (perpendicular to the paper) of the friction material.

Figure 16-5
Forces on the shoe.

Subtituting the value of the pressure from Eq. (16-1), the normal force is

pa br sin θ dθ
dN = (c)
sin θ a

The normal force dN has horizontal and vertical components dN cos θ and dN sin θ, as
shown in the figure. The frictional force f dN has horizontal and vertical components
whose magnitudes aref dN sin θ andf dN cos θ, respectively. By applying the conditions
of static equilibrium, we may find the actuating force F, the torque T, and the pin
reactions Rx and Ry.
We shall find the actuating force F, using the condition that the summation of the
moments about the hinge pin is zero. The frictional forces have a moment arm about the
pin of r - a cos θ. The moment Mf of these frictional forces is

fpa br θ2
M f = ∫ f dN ( r − a cos θ ) = sin θ ( r − a cos θ ) dθ
sin θ a ∫θ1
(16-2)

Which is obtained by substituting the value of dN from Eq. (c). It is convenient to

integrate Eq. (16-2) for each problem, and we shall therefore retain it in this form. The
moment arm of the normal force dN about the pin is a sin θ. Designating the moment of
the normal forces by MN and summing these about the hinge pin give

pa bra θ2 2
M N = ∫ dN (a sin θ ) =
sin θ a ∫θ1
sin θ dθ

The actuating force F must balance these moments. Thus

MN − M f
F= (16-4)
c

We see here that a condition for zero actuating force exists. In other words, if we
make MN = Mf self-locking is obtained, and no actuating force is required. This furnishes
us with a method for obtaining the dimensions for some self-energizing action. Thus the
dimension a in Fig. 16-5 must be such that

MN > M f (16-5)

The torque T applied to the drum by the brake shoe is the sum of the frictional forces
f dN times the radius of the drum:

fpa br 2 θ2
T = ∫ fr dN = ∫θ sin θ dθ
sin θ a 1

fpa br 2 (cos θ1 − cos θ 2 )

=
sin θ 2 (16-6)

The hinge-pin reactions are found by taking a summation of the horizontal and
vertical forces. Thus, for Rx’ we have

Rx = ∫ dN cos θ − ∫ f dN sin θ − Fx

=
pa br
sin θ a (∫
θ1
θ2 θ2
)
sin θ cos θ dθ − f ∫ sin 2 θ dθ − Fx
θ1
(d)

The vertical reaction is found in the same way

Ry = ∫ dN sin θ + ∫ f dN cos θ − Fy
 =
pa br
sin θ a (∫
θ1
θ2 θ2
)
sin 2 θ cos dθ + f ∫ sin θ cos θ dθ − Fy
θ1
(e)

The direction of the frictional forces is reversed if the rotation is reversed. Thus, for
counterclockwise rotation the actuating force is

MN + M f
F= (16-7)
c

and since both moments have the same sense, the self-energizing effect is lost. Also, for
counterclockwise rotation the signs of the frictional terms in the equations for the pin
reactions change, and Eqs. (d) and (e) become

Rx =
pa br
sin θ a (∫
θ1
θ2 θ2
)
sin θ cos θ dθ + f ∫ sin 2 θ dθ − Fx
θ1
(f)

Ry =
pa br
sin θ a (∫
θ1
θ2 θ2
)
sin 2 θ dθ − f ∫ sin θ cos θ dθ − Fy
θ1
(g)

Equations (d), (e), (f), and (g) can be simplified to ease computations. Thus, let

θ2
θ2 ⎛1 ⎞
A = ∫ sin θ cos θ dθ = ⎜ sin 2 θ ⎟
θ1
⎝2 ⎠θ1
(16-8)
θ2
θ2 ⎛θ 1 ⎞
B = ∫ sin 2 θ dθ = ⎜ − sin 2θ ⎟
θ1
⎝ 2 4 ⎠θ1

Then, for clockwise rotation as shown in Fig. 16-5, the hinge-pin reactions are

pa br
Rx = ( A − fB ) − Fx
sin θ a
(16-9)
pa br
Ry = ( B + fA) − Fy
sin θ a

For counterclockwise rotation, Eqs. (f) and (g) become

p br
Rx = a ( A + fB ) − Fx
sin θa
(16-10)
pa br
Ry = ( B − fA) − Fy
sin θ a
 In using these equations, the reference system always has its origin at the center of the
drum. The positive x axis is taken through the hinge pin. The positive y axis is always in
the direction of the shoe, even if this should result in a left-handed system.
The following assumptions are implied by the preceding analysis:

1. The pressure at any point on the shoe is assumed to be proportional to the distance
from the hinge pin, being zero at the heel. This should be considered from the
standpoint that pressures specified by manufacturers are averages rather than maxima.
2. The effect of centrifugal force has been neglected. In the case of brakes, the shoes are
not rotating, and no centrifugal force exists. In clutch design, the effect of this force
must be considered in writing the equations of static equilibrium.
3. The shoe is assumed to be rigid. Since this cannot be true, some deflection will occur,
depending upon the load, pressure, and stiffness of the shoe. The resulting pressure
distribution may be different from that which has been assumed.
4. The entire analysis has been based upon a coefficient of friction which does not vary
with pressure. Actually, the coefficient may vary with a number of conditions,
including temperature, wear, and environment.
The brake shown in Fig. 16-6 is 300 mm in diameter and is actuated by a mechanism that
exerts the same force F on each shoe. The shoes are identical and have a face width of 32
mm. The lining is a molded asbestos having a coefficient of friction of 0.32 and a
pressure limitation of 1000 kPa.

(a) Determine the actuating force F.

(b) Find the braking capacity.
(c) Calculate the hinge-pin reactions.
(a) The right-hand shoe is self-energizing, and so the force F is found on the basis that the
maximum pressure will occur on this shoe. Here θ1 = 0°, θ 2 = 126°, θ a = 90°, and sin
θ a = 1. Also,
a = (112)2 + (50)2 = 123 mm

FIGURE 16-6
Brake with internal expanding shoes; dimensions in millimeters.
Integrating Eq. (16-2) from 0 to θ 2 yields

θ2
fpa br ⎡ ⎛1 2 ⎞ ⎤
⎢( −r cos θ )0 − a ⎜ sin θ ⎟ ⎥
θ2
Mf =
sin θ a ⎣⎢ ⎝2 ⎠0 ⎥⎦

fpa br ⎛ a 2 ⎞
= ⎜ r − r cos θ 2 − sin θ 2 ⎟
sin θ a ⎝ 2 ⎠

Changing all lengths to meters, we have

Mf = ( 0.32 ) ⎡1000 (10 ) ⎤ ( 0.032 )( 0.150 )
3
⎣ ⎦
⎡ ⎛ 0.123 ⎞ 0⎤
x ⎢0.150-0.150 cos 1260 − ⎜ ⎟ sin 2 126 ⎥
⎣ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎦

= 304 N ⋅ m
The moment of the normal forces is obtained from Eq. (16-3). Integrating from 0 to θ 2
gives

θ
p bra ⎛ θ 1 ⎞
2

MN = a ⎜ − sin 2θ ⎟
sin θ a ⎝ 2 4 ⎠0
p bra ⎛ θ 2 1 ⎞
= a ⎜ − sin 2θ 2 ⎟
sin θ a ⎝ 2 4 ⎠
⎡ π 126 1 ⎤
= ⎡1000 (10 ) ⎤ ( 0.032 )( 0.150 )( 0.123) ⎢ − sin ( 2 )(126° ) ⎥
3
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ 2 180 4 ⎦
= 790 N ⋅ m

From Eq. (16-4), the actuating force is

MN − M f 790 − 304
Answer F= = = 2.29 kN
c 100 + 112

(b) From Eq. (16-6), the torque applied by the right-hand shoe is

fpa br 2 ( cos θ1 − cos θ 2 )

TR =
sin θ a
0.32 ⎡1000 (10 ) ⎤ ( 0.032 )( 0.150 ) ( cos 0° − cos126° )
3 2

= ⎣ ⎦ = 366 N ⋅ m
1
The torque contributed by the left-hand shoe cannot be obtained until we learn its
maximum operating pressure. Equations (16-2) and (16-3) indicate that the frictional and
normal moments are proportional to this pressure. Thus, for the left hand shoe,

790 pa 304 pa
MN = Mf=
1000 1000
The, from eq. (16-7)
M +Mf
F= N
c
or

2.29 =
( 790 /1000 ) pa + ( 304 /1000 ) pa
100 + 112

Solving gives pa = 444 kPa. Then, from Eq. (16-6), the torque on the left-hand shoe is
fpa br 2 ( cos θ1 − cos θ 2 )
Tl =
sin θ a

Since sin θ a = 1 ,we have

TL = 0.32 ⎡ 444 (10 ) ⎤ ( 0.032 )( 0.150 ) ( cos 0° − cos 126° ) = 162 N ⋅ m

3 2
⎣ ⎦

The braking capacity is the total torque:

T = TR + TL = 366 + 162 = 528 N ⋅ m

(c) In order to find the hinge-pin reactions, we note that sin θ a = 1 and θ1 = 0. Then Eq.
(16-8) gives

1 1
A = sin 2 θ 2 = sin 2 126° = 0.3273
2 2
θ 1 π (126) 1
B = 2 − sin 2θ 2 = − sin(2)(126°) = 1.3373
2 4 2(180) 4

Also, let

pa br 1000(0.032)(0.150)
D= = = 4.8 kN
sin θ a 1

where Pa = 1000 kPa for the right-hand shoe. Then, using Eq. (16-9), we have
Rx = D( A − fB) − Fx = 4.8[0.3273 − 0.32(1.3373)] − 2.29 sin 24°
= −1.414 kN
Ry = D( B + fA) − Fy = 4.8[1.3373 + 0.32(0.3273)] − 2.29 cos 24°
= 4.830 kN

The resultant on this hinge pin is

R = (1.414) 2 + (4.830) 2 = 5.03 kN

The reactions at the hinge pin of the left-hand shoe are found using Eqs. (16-10) for a
pressure of 444 kPa. They are found to be Rx = 0.678 kN and Ry = 0.535 kN. The
resultant is
R = (0.678) 2 + (0.535) 2 = 0.864 kN
The reactions for both hinge pins, together with their directions, are shown in Fig. 16-7.
This example dramatically shows the benefit to be gained by arranging the shoes to
be self-energizing. If the left-hand shoe were turned over so as to place the hinge pin at
the top, it could apply the same torque as the right-hand shoe.

FIGURE 16-7

This would make the capacity of the brake (2)(366) = 732 N . m instead of the present
528 N ⋅ m , a 30 percent improvement. In addition, some of the friction material at the
heel could be eliminated without seriously affecting the capacity, because of the low
pressure in this area. This change might actually improve the overall design because the
additional rim exposure would improve the heat-dissipation capacity.
16-3 EXTERNAL CONTRACTING RIM CLUTCHES AND BRAKES
The patented clutch-brake of Fig. 16-8 has external contracting friction elements, but the
actuating mechanism is pneumatic. Here we shall study only pivoted external shoe brakes
and clutches, though the methods presented can easily be adapted to the clutch-brake of
Fig. 16-8.
Operating mechanisms can be classified as:

1 Solenoids
2 Levers, linkages, or toggle devices
3 Linkages with spring loading
4 Hydraulic and pneumatic devices
The static analysis required for these devices has already been covered in Sec. 2-7. The
methods there apply to any mechanism system, including all those used in brakes and
clutches. It is not necessary to repeat the material in Chap. 2 that applies directly to such
mechanisms.

FIGURE 16-8
An external contracting clutchbrake that is engaged by expanding the flexible tube with
compressed air. (Courtesy of Twin Disc Clutch Company.)

Omitting the operating mechanisms from consideration allows us to concentrate on brake

and clutch performance without the extraneous influences introduced by the need to
analyze the statics of the control mechanisms.
The notation for external contracting shoes is shown in Fig. 16-9. The moments of the
frictional and normal forces about the hinge pin are the same as for the internal expanding
shoes.
 FIGURE 16-9
Notation for external contracting shoes.

Equations (16-2) and (16-3) apply and are repeated here for convenience:

fpa br θ2
Mf = ∫ θ1 sin θ ( r − a cos θ ) dθ (16-2)
sin θ a
fpa br θ2
MN =
sin θ a ∫ θ1 sin θ dθ (16-3)

Both these equations give positive values for clockwise moments (Fig. 16-9) when used
for external contracting shoes. The actuating force must be large enough to balance both
moments:

MN + M f
F= (16-11)
c
The horizontal and vertical reactions at the hinge pin are found in the same manner as
for internal expanding shoes. They are

RX = ∫ dN cos θ + ∫ f dN sin θ − Fx (a )

Ry = ∫ f dN cos θ − ∫ dN sin θ + Fy (b )
By using Eq. (16-8), we have
pa br
RX = ( A + fB ) − Fx
sin θ a
(16-12)
p br
Ry = a ( fA − B ) + Fy
sin θ a

If the rotation is counterclockwise, the sign of the frictional term in each equation is
reversed. Thus Eq. (16-11) for the actuating force becomes

MN − M f
F= (16-13)
c

and self-energization exists for counterclockwise rotation. The horizontal and vertical
reactions are found, in the same manner as before, to be

pa br
RX = ( A − fB ) − Fx
sin θ a
(16-14)
p br
Ry = a ( − fA − B ) + Fy
sin θ a

It should be noted that, when external contracting designs are used as clutches, the effect
of centrifugal force is to decrease the normal force. Thus, as the speed increases, a larger
value of the actuating force F is required.
A special case arises when the pivot is symmetrically located and also placed so that the
moment of the friction forces about the pivot is zero. The geometry of such a brake will
be similar to that of Fig. 16-10a. To get a pressure-distribution relation, we
assume that the lining wears so as always to retain its cylindrical shape. This means that
the wear Δx in Fig. 16-10b is constant regardless of the angle θ. Thus the radial wear of
the shoe is Δr = Δx cos θ. If, on any elementary area of the shoe, we assume that the
energy or frictional loss is proportional to the radial pressure, and if we also assume that
the wear is directly related to the frictional loss, then, by direct analogy,

p = pa cos θ (c)

and p is maximum at θ = 0°.

Proceeding to the force analysis, we observe from Fig. 16-l0a that

dN = pbr dθ (d )
or
dN = pa br cos θ dθ (e )
The distance a to the pivot is to be chosen such that the moment of the frictional forces Mf
is zero. Symmetry means that θ1 = θ2, and so

θ2
M f = 2∫
0
(f dN )( a cos θ − r ) = 0

Substituting Eq. (e) gives

( a cos θ − r cosθ ) dθ = 0
θ2
2 fpa br ∫ 2
0

from which

4r sin θ 2
a= (16-15)
2θ 2 + sin 2θ 2

FIGURE 16-10
(a) Brake with symmetrical pivoted shoe; (b) wear of brake lining.

With the pivot located according to this equation, the moment about the pin is zero, and
the horizontal and vertical reactions are

θ2 pa br
Rx = 2 ∫ dN cos θ = ( 2θ 2 + sin 2θ 2 ) (16-16)
0 2
Where, because of symmetry,

∫f dN sin θ = 0
Also,
θ2 pa brf
Ry = 2 ∫ f dN cos θ = ( 2θ 2 + sin 2θ 2 ) (16-17)
0 2
where

∫ dN sin θ = 0
also because of symmetry. Note, too, that Rx = -N and Ry = -fN, as might be expected for
the particular choice of the dimension a. Therefore the torque is

T = afN (16-18)

16-4 BAND-TYPE CLUTCHES AND BRAKES

Flexible clutch and brake bands are used in power excavators and in hoisting and other
machinery. The analysis follows the notation of Fig. 16-11.
Because of friction and the rotation of the drum, the actuating force P2 is less than the
pin reaction P1. Any element of the band, of angular length dθ, will be in equilibrium
under the action of the forces shown in the figure. Summing these forces in the

FIGURE.16-11
Forces on a brake band; r dθ is an arc distance.
vertical direction, we have
dθ dθ
( P + dP ) sin + P sin − dN = 0 (a )
2 2
dN = P dθ (b)
since for small angles sin dθ /2=dθ /2. Summing the forces in the horizontal direction
gives
dθ dθ
( P + dP ) cos − P cos − f dN = 0 (c)
2 2
dP − f dN = 0 (d )
Substituting the value of dN from Eq. (b) in (d ) integrating,
P1 dP φ P1
∫P2 P
= f ∫ dθ
0
In
P2
= fφ

and
P1
= e fφ (16-19)
P2
The torque may be obtained from the equation
D
T = ( P1 − P2 ) (16-20)
2
The normal force dN acting on an element of area of width b and length r dθ is
dN = pbr dθ (e)
Where p is the pressure. Subtitution of the value of dN from Eq. (b) gives
P dθ = pbr dθ
Therefore
p 2P
p= = (16 − 21)
br bD
The pressure is therefore proportional to the tension in the band. The maximum pres-
sure pa will occur at the toe and has the value
2P1
pa = (16-22)
bD

16-5 FRICTIONAL-CONTACT AXIAL CLUTCHES

An axial clutch is one in which the mating frictional members are moved in a direction
parallel to the shaft. One of the earliest of these is the cone clutch, which is simple in
construction and quite powerful. However, except for relatively simple installations, it
has been largely displaced by the disk clutch employing one or more disks as the
operating members. Advantages of the disk clutch include the freedom from centrifugal
effects, the large frictional area which can be installed in a small space, the more effective
heat-dissipation surfaces, and the favorable pressure distribution. Figure 16-12 shows a
single-plate disk clutch; a multiple-disk clutch-brake is shown in Fig. 16-13. Let us now
determine the capacity of such a clutch or brake in terms of the material and geometry.
Figure 16-14 shows a friction disk having an outside diameter D and an inside
diameter d. We are interested in obtaining the axial force F necessary to produce a certain
torque T and pressure p. Two methods of solving the problem, depending upon the
construction of the clutch, are in general use. If the disks are rigid, then the greatest
amount of wear will at first occur in the outer areas, since the work of friction is greater
in those areas. After a certain amount of wear has taken place, the pressure distribution
will change so as to permit the wear to be uniform. This is the basis of the first method of
solution.
Another method of construction employs springs to obtain a uniform pressure over
the area. It is this assumption of uniform pressure that is used in the second method of
solution.

Uniform Wear
After initial wear has taken place and the disks have worn down to the point where
uniform wear becomes possible, the greatest pressure must occur at r = dl2 in order for
the wear to be uniform. Denoting the maximum pressure by Pa, we can then write

d d
pr = pa or p = pa (a)
2 2r

FIGURE 16-12
Cross-sectional view of a singleplate clutch; A, dnver; B, driven plate
(keyed to driven shaft); C, actuator
 FIGURE 16-13
An oil-actuated multiple-disk clutch-brake for enclosed operation in an oil bath or spray.
It is especially useful for rapid cycling. (Courtesy of Twin Disc Clutch Company.)

which is the condition for having the same amount of work done at radius r as is done at
radius d/2. Referring to Fig. 16-14, we have an element of area of radius rand thickness
dr. The area of this element is 27πr dr, so that the normal force acting upon this element
is dF = 2πpr dr. We can find the total normal force by letting r vary from d/2 to D/2 and
integrating. Thus

D/2 D/2 π pa d
F =∫ 2π pr dr = π pa d ∫ dr = (D − d ) (16-23)
d /2 d /2 2

The torque is found by integrating the product of the frictional force and the radius

π fpa d
(D − d2)
D/2 D/2
T =∫ 2π fpr 2 dr = π fpa d ∫ r dr = 2
(16-24)
d /2 d /2 8

By substituting the value of F from Eq. (16-23) we may obtain a more convenient
expression for the torque. Thus

FIGURE 16-14
Disk friction member.
 Ff
T= (D + d ) (16-25)
4

In use, Eq. (16-23) gives the actuating force for the selected maximum pressure Pac
This equation holds for any number of friction pairs or surfaces. Equation (16-25),
however, gives the torque capacity for only a single friction surface.

Uniform Pressure

When uniform pressure can be assumed over the area of the disk, the actuating force F is
simply the product of the pressure and the area. This gives

π pa
F=
4
(D 2
− d2) (16-26)

As before, the torque is found by integrating the product of the frictional force and the
radius:

2π fp 3
(D − d3 )
D/2
T = 2π fp ∫ r 2 dr = (16-27)
d /2 24

Since p=.Pa, we can rewrite Eq. (16-27) as

Ff D 3 − d 3
T= (16-28)
3 D2 − d 2

It should- be noted for both equations that the torque is for a single pair of mating
surfaces. This value must therefore be multiplied by the number of pairs of surfaces in
contact.

16-6 DISK BRAKES

As indicated in Fig. 16-13, there is no fundamental difference between a disk clutch and a
disk brake. The analysis of the preceding section applies to disk brakes too.
We have seen that rim or drum brakes can be designed for self-energization. While
this feature is important in reducing the braking effort required, it also has a disadvan-
tage. When drum brakes are used as vehicle brakes, only a slight change in the coefficient
of friction will cause a large change in the pedal force required for braking. A not unusual
30 percent reduction in the coefficient of friction due to a temperature change, or
moisture, for example, can result in a 50 percent change in the pedal force required to
obtain the same braking torque obtainable prior to the change. The disk brake has no self-
energization, and hence is not so susceptible to changes in the coefficient of friction.
 Another type of disk brake is the floating caliper brake, shown in Fig. 16-15. The
caliper supports a single floating piston actuated by hydraulic pressure. The action is
much like that of a screw clamp, with the piston replacing the function of the screw. The
floating action also compensates for wear and ensures a fairly constant pressure

over the area of the friction pads. The seal and boot of Fig. 16-15 are designed to obtain
clearance by backing off from the piston when the piston is released.

16-7 CONE CLUTCHEST AND BRAKES

The drawing of a cone clutch in Fig. 16-16 shows that it consists of a cup keyed or
splined to one of the shafts, a cone which must slide axially on splines or keys on the
mating shaft, and a helical spring to hold the clutch in engagement. The clutch is
disengaged by means of a fork which fits into the shifting groove on the friction cone.
The cone angle a and the diameter and face width of the cone are the important geometric
design parameters. If the cone angle is too small, say, less than about go, then the force
required to disengage the clutch may be quite large. And the wedging effect lessens
rapidly when larger cone angles are used. Depending upon the characteristics of the
friction materials, a good compromise can usually be found using cone angles between 10
and 15°.
To find a relation between the operating force F and the torque transmitted, designate
the dimensions of the friction cone as shown in Figure 16-17. As in the case of the axial
clutch, we can obtain one set of relations for a uniform-wear and another set for a
uniform-pressure assumption.

FIGURE 16-16
A cone clutch.

Uniform Wear
The pressure relation is the same as for the axial clutch:

d
p = pa (a)
2r

Next, referring to Fig. 16-17, we see that we have an element of area dA of radius r and
width dr/sin α. Thus dA = (2πr dr)/sin α. As shown in Fig. 16-17, the operating force will
be the integral of the axial component of the differential force p dA. Thus

FIGURE 16-17
 D/2 ⎛ d ⎞ ⎛ 2π r dr ⎞
F = ∫ p dA sin α = ∫ ⎜ pa ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ( sin α )
d /2
⎝ 2r ⎠ ⎝ sin α ⎠

D/2 π pa d
= π pa d ∫ dr = (D − d ) (16-29)
d /2 2

which is the same result as in Eq. (16-23).

The differential friction force is fp dA, and the torque is the integral of the product of
this force with the radius. Thus

d ⎞ ⎛ 2π r dr ⎞
( rf ) ⎛⎜ pa
D/2
T = ∫ rfp dA = ∫ ⎟⎜ ⎟
d /2
⎝ 2r ⎠ ⎝ sin α ⎠

π fpa d π fpa d 2
(D − d2 )
D/2
=
sin α ∫d /2
r dr =
8sin α
(16-30)

Note that Eq. (16-24) is a special case of Eq. (16-30), with α = 90°. Using Eq. (16-29),
we find that the torque can also be written

fp
T= (D + d ) (16-31)
4sin α

Uniform Pressure
Using p = pa, the actuating force is found to be

2π r dr ⎞ π pa 2
( pa ) ⎛⎜ ( D −d2)
D/2
F = ∫ pa dA sin α = ∫ ⎟ ( sin α ) = (16-32)
d /2
⎝ sin α ⎠ 4

The torque is

2π r dr ⎞ π fpa
( rfpa ) ⎛⎜ ( D3 − d 3 )
D/2
T = ∫ rfpa dA = ∫ ⎟= (16-33)
d /2
⎝ sin α ⎠ 12sin α

or, using Eq. (16-32) in Eq. (16-33),

Ff D 3 − d 3
T=
3sin α D 2 − d 2 (16-34)