Different Sections of a Foundry

Sand

Metal
2.Sand additives

5. Melting
2. Sand mixing & preparation

5. Handling
molten metal

3.Core making & 4.Moulding

baking

4.Mould assembly &

handling

6. Pouring
7. Shaking out
8. Fettling & Finishing
9. Heat Treatment
10. Inspection and Testing

1
 Pattern
Model / replica / duplicate of product – little larger in size to
the final casting
Functions of the Pattern
 prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a
casting.
 contains projections known as core prints if the casting
requires a core and need to be made hollow.
 Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal
in the mould cavity may form a part of the pattern.
 properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces
reduce casting defects.
 properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost
of the castings.
2
 Pattern allowances
1. Shrinkage or contraction - Metallurgical
2. Machining or Finishing - Mechanical
3. Draft or Taper - Mechanical
4. Distortion or Camber - Metallurgical
5. Shake or Rapping - Mechanical

3
 Pattern Allowances
1. Shrinkage / Contraction allowance:
- Shrinkage is the property of the cast metal or
alloy
- Different metals shrink at different rates
Metal shrinkage depends upon
1. Cast metal or alloy
2. Pouring temp.
3. Casting dimensions
4. Casting design aspects CI - Casting

5. Moulding conditions
Steel-20.8mm/m;
Al-17mm/m;
malleable CI-10.4mm/m Pattern
4
 Pattern Allowances…
2. Machining / Finishing allowance:
i) To remove the oxidized surface
ii) To remove surface roughness and other imperfections
iii) To achieve exact dimensions
iv) Depend upon how much surface finish required
Influencing factors:
a) Nature of metal – ferrous / non-ferrous
b) Size and shape of the casting
c) Type of machining operation
d) Casting conditions
e) Moulding process employed
f) Number of cut to be taken
g) Degree of surface finish required

5
 Pattern Allowances…
3. Draft / Taper allowance:
- Given perpendicular to the parting line
- To remove the pattern easily
Depends upon:
i) Shape and size of pattern
ii) Moulding method
iii) Mould materials
External surfaces-10 to 25mm/m
Internal surfaces- 40 to 65mm/m

6
 Pattern Allowances…
4. Distortion / Camber allowance:
Distortion due to
i) Irregular shape
ii) Not uniformly shrinking
iii) U or V shaped
iv) Long arms
v) Long flat casting
vi) Arms possess unequal thickness
Allowance range: 2 to 20mm depending
upon the size, shape and material
7
 Pattern Allowances…
5. Shake or Rapping allowance:
- Pattern is shaken or rapped by striking
the same with a wooden piece from side
to side
- Provided only to large castings
- Negligible in case of small castings

8
 Core and Core prints
- required to have holes, recesses, etc.
- impressions can be obtained by using cores
- provision (Core prints) should be made to support the core inside the
mould cavity
- core print - added projection on the pattern - forms a seat in the mould
- core print - adequate size and shape – to support the weight of the core
- placed horizontal, vertical and hanged inside the mould cavity

9
 Core Chaplets
-Used to support the core
- metal with higher melting temp. than the casting
- steel chaplets - for CI castings
-On pouring and solidification chaplets become bonded into
the castings
-Portion of the chaplets protruding from the casting is
subsequently cut off

10
 Types of Pattern
1. One piece or solid pattern
2. Two piece or split pattern
3. Cope and drag pattern
4. Three-piece or multi- piece pattern
5. Loose piece pattern
6. Match plate pattern
7. Follow board pattern
8. Gated pattern
9. Sweep pattern
10. Skeleton pattern
11. Segmental or part pattern

11
 Types of Pattern
1. One piece or solid pattern
-Solid
pattern - single piece without joints -
simplest form of the pattern.

12
 Types of Pattern…
2. Two-piece or split pattern

- solid pattern - difficult for withdrawal from the mold

cavity - split in two/three parts.
-Split pattern - joined at the parting line - dowel pins.
-split at the parting line facilitates the withdrawal of the
pattern.

13
 Types of Pattern…
3. Cope and drag pattern
 cope and drag part of the mould - prepared
separately.
 Used for too heavy mould and handled by one
operator.
 pattern made into two halves - mounted on
different plates.

14
 Types of Pattern…
4. Three-piece or multi-piece pattern
 Used for complicated kind in shape - can not be
made in one or two pieces because of difficulty
in withdrawing the pattern.
 made in either three or multi pieces.
 mould prepared using multi molding flasks.
 middle flask used for three piece pattern is
called Cheek

15
 Types of Pattern…
5. Loose-piece Pattern
 used when pattern is difficult for withdrawal from the
mould.
 Loose pieces provided on the pattern - part of pattern.
 main pattern is removed first leaving the loose piece
portion of the pattern in the mould.
 Finally the loose piece is withdrawal separately leaving
the intricate mould.
 Eg: dovetail guide ways

A & B are loose pieces

16
 Types of Pattern…
6. Match plate pattern
 made in two halves and mounted on the
opposite sides of a wooden or metallic plate,
known as match plate.
 gates and runners are also attached to the plate.
 used in machine molding.

17
 Types of Pattern…
7. Follow board pattern
 use of solid or split patterns becomes
difficult, a contour corresponding to the
exact shape of one half of the pattern is
made in a wooden board, which is called a
follow board and it acts as a molding
board for the first molding operation

18
 Types of Pattern…
8. Gated pattern
- used in mass production of casings - multi cavity moulds
are used.
-moulds are formed by joining a number of patterns and
gates and providing a common runner for the molten
metal.
-patterns are made of metals and metallic pieces to form
gates and runners are attached to the pattern.

19
 Types of Pattern…
9. Sweep pattern
 used for forming large circular moulds of symmetric kind
by revolving a sweep attached to a spindle.
 sweep is a template of wood or metal - attached to the
spindle at one edge - other edge has a contour.
 pivot end is attached to a stake of metal in the center of
the mould.

20
 Types of Pattern…
10. Skeleton pattern
- Used for small number of large and heavy castings
-ribbed construction of wood which forms an outline of the
pattern to be made.
- frame work is filled with loam sand and rammed.
-surplus sand is removed by strickle board.
-For round shapes, the pattern is made in two halves which
are joined with glue or by means of screws etc.

21
 Types of Pattern…
11. Segmental pattern
 used for circular castings, for example wheel
rim, gear blank etc.
 section of a pattern so arranged as to form a
complete mould by being moved to form each
section of the mould.
 movement of segmental pattern - guided by a
central pivot.

22
 PATTERN MATERIALS
1. Wood
 cheap, easily available in abundance, repairable and easily
fabricated in various forms using resin and glues.
 very light and can produce highly smooth surface.
 shellac coating for longer life of the pattern
 susceptible to shrinkage and warpage
 Short life - highly affected by moisture
 warps and wears out quickly - having less resistance to sand
abrasion.
 can not withstand rough handling - weak in comparison to
metal
 preferred for less numbers of castings

woods used for pattern making - shisham, kail, deodar, teak

and mahogany.

23
 PATTERN MATERIALS
Advantages of wooden patterns
 1. easily worked.
 2. light in weight.
 3. easily available.
 4. very cheap.
 5. easy to join.
 6. easy to obtain good surface finish.
 7. wooden laminated patterns are strong.
 8. easily repaired.
Disadvantages
 1 susceptible to moisture.
 2 tends to warp.
 3 wears out quickly due to sand abrasion.
 4 weaker than metallic patterns.

24
 PATTERN MATERIALS
2. Metal
 preferred for large numbers of castings
 not much affected by moisture
 Very less wear and tear - posseses longer life
 easier to shape
 good precision, surface finish and intricacy in
shapes.
 withstand against corrosion and handling for
longer period.
 excellent strength to weight ratio
 disadvantages - higher cost, higher weight and
tendency of rusting
 commonly used metals - cast iron, brass and
bronzes and aluminum alloys
25
 PATTERN MATERIALS
2.a. Cast Iron
 cheaper, stronger, tough, and durable and produce a
smooth surface finish.
 possesses good resistance to sand abrasion
 drawbacks - hard, heavy, brittle and get rusted easily in
presence of moisture.
Advantages
 1. cheap
 2. easy to file and fit
 3. strong
 4. good resistance against sand abrasion
 5. Good surface finish
Disadvantages
 1. heavy
 2. brittle and hence it can be easily broken

26
 PATTERN MATERIALS
2.b. Brasses and Bronzes
 heavier and expensive than cast iron
 preferred for small castings
 good strength, machinability and resistance to corrosion and wear
 Produces better surface finish.
 Application - match plate pattern
Advantages
 1. Better surface finish than cast iron.
 2. Very thin sections can be easily cast
 3. Easily worked and machined
 4. no rust problem
 5. resistance to abrasive action
 6. high strength and toughness
 7. easily repaired
Disadvantages
 1. costly
 2. heavier than cast iron.

27
 PATTERN MATERIALS
2.c.Aluminum Alloys
 popular and best - high lightness, good surface finish,
low melting point and good strength.
 good resistance to corrosion and abrasion - longer life
 not withstand rough handling.
 poor repairability
 preferred for large castings.
Advantages
 1. no rust problem
 2. easy to cast
 3. light in weight
 4. easily machined
Disadvantages
 1. damaged by sharp edges.
 2. softer than brass and cast iron.
 3. storing and transportation needs proper care. 28
 PATTERN MATERIALS
2.d. White Metal (Alloy of Antimony, Copper and Lead)

Advantages
1. best material for lining and stripping plates
 2. low melting point around 260°C
 3. cast into narrow cavities
 4. low shrinkage
 5. light weight
 6. intricate and fine shapes obtained

Disadvantages
 1. too soft
 2. storing and transportation needs proper care
 3. wears away by sand or sharp edges

29
 PATTERN MATERIALS
3. Plastic
 lighter, stronger, moisture and wear resistant,
non sticky, durable, unaffected by the moisture
 Imparts smooth surface finish
 fragile, less resistant to sudden loading, thin
section may need metal reinforcement.
 plastics used - thermosetting resins (Phenolic
resin plastics)

30
 PATTERN MATERIALS
3. Plastic
Advantages:
1. Durable
2. Smooth surface
3. Moisture resistance
4. Light weight
5. Good strength
6. Wear and corrosion resistant
7. Not stick with sand
8. Low solid shrinkage
9. Easy to make
10. Good compressive and flexural strength
11. Good abrasion strength
12. More impact strength
13. Adhesive qualities
Disadvantages
1. Fragile
2. For light section reinforcement required
3. Can not be used for m/c moulding

31
 PATTERN MATERIALS
4. Plaster
 belongs to gypsum family - easily cast - preferable for
producing highly intricate casting
 Advantages - high compressive strength, high thermal
expansion - compensate shrinkage allowance of the
casting metal
 pattern prepared - by directly pouring the slurry of
plaster and water in moulds
 preferred for production of small size intricate castings
and making core boxes.

32
 PATTERN MATERIALS
4. Plaster

 Advantages
1. Easily worked
2. Intricate shapes can be made
3. High compressive strength
4. Expands in solidification
5. No shrinkage allowance
Eg. Plaster of paris or gypsum cement

Disadvantages
1. Short life
2. To be handled smoothly

33
 PATTERN MATERIALS
5. Wax
 investment casting process
 materials used - blends of several types of waxes –
additives act as polymerizing agents, stabilizers, etc.

 commonly used waxes - paraffin wax, shellac wax,

bees-wax, cerasin wax, and micro-crystalline wax.
 good properties – low ash content up to 0.05 per cent,
high tensile strength and hardness

 imparting a high degree of surface finish and

dimensional accuracy
 patterns prepared by pouring heated wax into split
moulds or a pair of dies.

34
 PATTERN MATERIALS
5. Wax
Advantages:
1. Good surface finish
2. High accuracy
3. Can be removed by heating

Diasadvantages
1. Single time use
2. Can not be used for rough work
3. Not intended for m/c moulding
4. Heating is required for removal of wax

35
 FACTORS EFFECTING SELECTION OF
PATTERN MATERIAL

 1. Number of castings
 2. Type of mould material
 3. Kind of molding process
 4. Method of molding (hand or machine).
 5. Degree of dimensional accuracy and surface
finish
6. Minimum thickness required
 7. Shape, complexity and size of casting
 8. Cost of pattern and chances of repeat orders

36
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN
PATTERN MAKING
 1. avoid abrupt changes in section
 2. Parting line selected - to allow small portion in the
cope area
 3. maintain uniform thickness
 4. Avoid sharp corners and edges - use fillets / rounded
off – facilitates easy withdrawal of pattern - smooth flow
of molten metal and ensure a sound casting
 5. use full cores instead of cemented half cores –
reduces cost & for accuracy.
 6.use of several patterns in a mould with common riser -
for mass production
 7. have very good surface finish pattern - it directly
affects the finish of the casting

37
 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN
PATTERN MAKING…
 9. based on the casting - the size and location of the
core prints decided

 10. Proper material selected for the pattern –

considering all factors

 11. gates, runners and risers - properly located –

avoid sudden variation in dimensions

 12. Proper allowances provided - wherever

necessary

38
 Moulding Sand
The main ingredients of any moulding sand
are:
 (a) Silica sand (SiO2) 80.8%
 (b) Alumina (Al2O3) 14.9%
 (c) Iron oxide(Fe2O3) 1.3%
 (d) Combined water 2.5%
 (e) Other inert materials 1.5%
 Besides, some other materials are also
added to these to enhance the specific
properties of moulding sand.
39
 Moulding Sand Constituents
Silica sand

 Silica sand -in the form of granular quartz - main

constituent - having enough refractoriness -
imparts strength, stability and permeability

 excessive amounts of iron oxide, alkali oxides

and lime – lower the fusion point - undesirable

 specified according to the size (small, medium

and large silica sand grain) and the shape
(angular, sub-angular and rounded).

40
 Moulding Sand Constituents…
 Binder
 inorganic or organic substance
 inorganic group: clay sodium silicate and port
land cement etc. - clay acts as a binder -
Kaolonite, Ball Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s
earth and Bentonite.
 organic group: dextrin, molasses, cereal binders,
linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde,
urea formaldehyde etc.
 Organic binders: mostly used for core making.
 most common - bentonite variety of clay
 this clay alone can not develop bonds among
sand grains without the presence of moisture in
molding sand and core sand. 41
 Moulding Sand Constituents…
 Moisture
 content: 2 to 8%
 added to the mixture of clay and silica sand for
developing bonds
 water required to fill the pores between the particles of
clay without separating them
 held rigidly by the clay - responsible for developing the
strength
 increasing clay and moisture content - decreases
permeability
 green compressive strength first increases with the
increase in clay content, but after a certain value, it starts
decreasing
 To impart specific properties - some other additional
materials added - known as additives

42
 Moulding Sand Additives
 1 Coal dust
 produces reducing atmosphere during casting - results to
prevent oxidation
 Appln.: making moulds for production of grey iron and
malleable cast iron castings

 2 Corn flour
 belongs to the starch family of carbohydrates - used to
increase the collapsibility
 completely volatilized by heat - leaving space between the
sand grains
 allows free movement of sand grains - gives rise to mould
wall movement and decreases the mould expansion and
hence defects in castings
 improves significantly strength

43
 Moulding Sand Additives…
 3 Dextrin
 belongs to starch family of carbohydrates - similar like
corn flour - increases dry strength

 4 Sea coal
 fine powdered bituminous coal - positions its place among
the pores of the silica sand grains
 fills the pores while heating - unaffected by water - the
sand grains become restricted - cannot move into a dense
packing pattern
 reduces the mould wall movement and the permeability
and hence makes the mold and core surface clean and
smooth

 5 Pitch
 distilled form of soft coal - added from 0.02 % to 2%
 enhances hot strengths, surface finish - behaves exactly in
a manner similar to that of sea coal 44
 Moulding Sand Additives…
 6 Wood flour
 fibrous material mixed with a granular material like sand -
relatively long thin fibers prevent the sand grains from
making contact with one another.
 added from 0.05 % to 2%
 volatilizes when heated - allowing the sand grains room to
expand
 increase mould wall movement and decrease expansion
defects
 increases collapsibility

 7 Silica flour
 called as pulverized silica - added up to 3% - increases
the hot strength and finish
 reduces metal penetration

45
 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND
 Classified according to their use into number of
varieties
 1 Green sand
 known as tempered or natural sand - mixture of
silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay - moisture
content from 6 to 8%.
 clay + water = bond for green sand
 fine, soft, light, and porous.
 Damp when squeezed in the hand - retains the
shape and the impression to give to it under
pressure
 backing not required
 easily available, low cost - employed for
production of ferrous and non-ferrous castings 46
 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND…
2 Dry sand
 Green sand dried or baked in suitable oven
after the making mold and cores
 possesses more strength, rigidity and
thermal stability.
 mainly suitable for larger castings

47
 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND…
3 Loam sand
 mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin
plastic paste
 contains high clay as much as 30-50% and
18% water
 Patterns not used - shape given by sweeps
 employed for loam molding used for large
grey iron castings

48
 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND…
4 Facing sand

 forms the face of the mould

 used next to the surface of the pattern - comes
into contact molten metal
 Subject to the severest conditions - must possess
high strength refractoriness
 silica sand and clay, without the use of used sand
 Different forms of carbon used to prevent the
metal burning into the sand.
 sand mixture for green sand of cast iron - 25%
fresh and specially prepared and 5% sea coal
 layer of facing sand ranges from 22-28 mm

49
 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND…
5 Backing sand Floor sand
 used to back up the facing sand - used to fill
the whole volume of the molding flask
 Used molding sand - mainly employed
 sometimes called black sand - repeatedly
used - black in color due to addition of coal
dust - burning on coming in contact with the
molten metal

50
 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND…
6 System sand
 Used in mechanized foundries - machine
molding
 no facing sand used
 used sand - cleaned and re-activated by the
addition of water and special additives.
 Since the whole mold is made of this
system sand, the properties such as
strength, permeability and refractoriness of
the molding sand must be higher than those
of backing sand.
51
 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND…
7 Parting sand
 without binder and moisture - used to
keep the green sand not to stick to the
pattern - to allow the sand on the
parting surface of the cope and drag to
separate without clinging
 clean clay free, silica sand - serves the
purpose as parting dust

52
 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND…
8 Core sand
 used for making cores - sometimes known
as oil sand
 highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders
such as core oil which composed of linseed
oil, resin, light mineral oil and other bind
materials
 Pitch or flours and water may also be used
in large cores for the sake of economy

53
 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING
SAND
 1 Refractoriness
 ability of molding sand to withstand high
temperatures without breaking down or fusing
 increased to a limited extent
 poor refractoriness sand may burn on to the
casting surface and no smooth casting surface
obtained
 degree of refractoriness depends on the SiO2 i.e.
quartz content, and the shape and grain size of
the particle
 higher the SiO2 content - rougher the grain
volumetric composition - higher the refractoriness
 measured by the sinter point of the sand rather
than its melting point 54
 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING
SAND…
2 Permeability / porosity
 to allow the escape of any air, gases or
moisture present or generated in the mould
when the molten metal is poured into it
 function of grain size, grain shape, and
moisture and clay content
 extent of ramming directly affects the
permeability
 further increased by venting using vent rods

55
 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING
SAND…
 3 Cohesiveness
 property of molding sand by virtue
which the sand grain particles interact
and attract each other within the
molding sand
 Thus, the binding capability of the
molding sand gets enhanced to
increase the green, dry and hot
strength property of molding and core
sand.
56
 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING
SAND…
 4 Green strength
 Water is added – to have sufficient strength and
toughness to permit the making and handling of the mould
 sand grains must be adhesive - capable of attaching
themselves to another body - sand grains having high
adhesiveness will cling to the sides of the molding box
 sand grains must be cohesive - ability of the sand grains
to stick to one another
 virtue of these properties - the pattern can be taken out
from the mould without breaking the mould and also the
erosion of mould wall surfaces does not occur during the
flow of molten metal
 depends upon the grain shape and size, amount and type
of clay and the moisture content
57
 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING
SAND…
5 Dry strength
 As soon as the molten metal is poured into
the mould, the moisture in the sand layer
adjacent to the hot metal gets evaporated
and this dry sand layer must have sufficient
strength to its shape in order to avoid
erosion of mould wall during the flow of
molten metal.
 The dry strength also prevents the
enlargement of mould cavity caused by the
metallostatic pressure of the liquid metal.
58
 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND…

6 Flowability or plasticity

 ability
of the sand to get compacted and
behave like a fluid
 flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when
rammed and distribute the ramming
pressure evenly all around in all directions

 resistmoving around corners or projections

 varies with moisture and clay content

59
 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING
SAND…
 7 Adhesiveness
 to get stick or adhere with foreign
material such sticking of molding
sand with inner wall of molding box

60
 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING
SAND…
8 Collapsibility
 After the solidification, the sand mould must
be collapsible so that free contraction of the
metal occurs and this would naturally avoid
the tearing or cracking of the contracting
metal
 In absence of this property the contraction
of the metal is hindered by the mould and
thus results in tears and cracks in the
casting
 This property is highly desired in cores
61
 PROPERTIES OF MOULDING
SAND…
9 Miscellaneous properties
 In addition to above requirements, the
molding sand should not stick to the casting
and should not chemically react with the
metal.
 Molding sand should be cheap and easily
available.
 It should be reusable for economic reasons.
 Its coefficients of expansion should be
sufficiently low.

62
 Moulding sand testing
 1. Moisture content Test
 2. Clay content Test
 3. Chemical composition of sand
 4. Grain shape and surface texture of sand.
 5. Grain size distribution of sand
 6. Specific surface of sand grains
 7. Water absorption capacity of sand
 8. Refractoriness of sand
 9. Strength Test
 10. Permeability Test
 11. Flowability Test
 12. Shatter index Test
 13. Mould hardness Test. 63
 Moulding sand testing
 1. Moisture content Test
 Sample 20 to 50 g - heated to a temperature 100°C in a
oven for about one hour.
 cooled to a room temperature and reweighed - loss in
weight due to loss of moisture - gives the amount of
moisture which can be expressed as a percentage of the
original sand sample.
 measured by an instrument known as moisture teller.
 Working principle - water and calcium carbide react, they
form acetylene gas – amount of gas directly proportional to
the moisture content
 instrument provided with a pressure gauge calibrated to
read directly the percentage of moisture present
 Other instruments - based on the principle that the electrical
conductivity of sand varies with moisture content in it. 64
 Moulding sand testing
 2. Clay content Test
 Clay is principal binder
 Apparatus – mud or clay content tester
 50g sample – dried about an hr. at 105 C
 Dried sample + 400ml water + few drops of NaOH
– boiled for 3 to 4 min stirred for 10 min
 More water added to fill the beaker – sand settled
down – water containing clay syphoned out
 Procedure continued till the water becomes quite
clean
 Settled sand taken out and weighed
 Difference in weight = loss of moisture + clay 65
 Moulding sand testing
 3. Grain fineness test
 Significant effect on permeability
 Tested by Boswell method or Sieve shaker method
 Sample free from clay is used
 American Foundrymen’s Society
 = Sum of the products / Total sum of the % retained on
each sieve and pan
 Weight of the sand on each sieve and pan is multiplied by a
STD multiplying factor and then added for numerator
 Denominator – total sum of sand retained on each sieve or
pan

66
 Moulding sand testing
 3. Grain fineness test

67
 Moulding sand testing
 4. Permeability Test
 Permeability depends on the shape, size of sand grains, moisture
content and clay content
 Also affected by the degree of ramming

68
 Moulding sand testing
 4. Permeability Test

69
 Moulding sand testing
5.Refractoriness Test
-Depends on the poring temp. and required wall thickness of
the castings
-Determined by its sintering temperature – temp. at which
appearance of first signs of fusing of loose grains of sand
-Sintering temp. should be higher than the pouring temp.
-Sp. Designed furnaces are used to determine the sintering
temp.
-Sample kept in a porcelain boat
-Inserted into the furnace thru a tube – preheated to 1000 C
-Tube mouth is sealed
-Temp. raised in steps of 100 C upto 1300 C
-Temp. raised in steps of 50 C upto 1500 C
-At each temp. - kept for 3 min
-Every time taken out and checked for fusing
-Continued till the sintering temp. is attained
70
 Moulding sand testing
6. Strength Test
-Used to determine shear, tensile, compressive, bending
strengths
-Cylindrical specimens for shear and compression tests
- 8 shaped specimens for tensile test
-Sq. prism ( 5 sq.cm x 172 mm length) for bending test

71
 Moulding sand testing
 7. Flowability Test

72
 Moulding sand testing
 8.Shatter Index Test

73
 Moulding sand testing
 9.Mould hardness Test

74
 Moulding sand testing
 10. Compacting Factor Test
 To judge the ability of the sand particles to
form a continuous mould with even
porosity
 Expressed as a percentage
 No deformation b/w 4th and 5th ramming
blows on the sand rammer – 100%
compacting factor

75
 Testing of Core Sand
 1) green strength
 2) permeability
 3) baked strength
 4) Hot strength
 5) retained strength
 6) core hardness strength
 7) moisture test

76
Core

77
 Core making procedure
 1) Core sand preparation
 2) Making
 3) Baking
 4) Finishing
 5) Setting

78
 1.Core Sand preparation
 Subjected to high temp. – highly refractory
in nature
 Permeability must be higher than that of
moulding sand
 Should not contain elements to produce
gases
 Should be easily collapsible in nature

79
 1. Core Sand
 Main constituents –silica + binder (organic)

80
 2. Core making
 Core boxes:
 1. Half core box

 2. Dump core box

81
 2. Core making
 Core boxes:
 3. Split core box

82
 2. Core making
 Core boxes:

83
 Types of Core

Horizontal core
Vertical core

Balanced core Drop core Hanging core

84
Mould making with the use of a
core
 Mould making with the use of core is
usually of two types namely,
 (1) Dry sand core method,
 (2) Cover core method

Cover core method

Dry sand core method
85
 3. Core baking
 todrive away the moisture and harden
the binder - giving strength

 drying
equipment - two kinds - core
ovens and dielectric bakers

 Ovens- two types - continuous type

oven and batch type oven

86
 3. Core baking…
 Continuous type ovens
 preferred for mass production.
 core carrying conveyors or chain move
continuously through the oven.
 baking time is controlled by the speed of the
conveyor.
 continuous type - for baking of small cores.

87
 3. Core baking…
 Batch type ovens
 baking variety of cores in batches.
 cores placed either in drawers or in racks -
finally placed in the ovens.
 core oven bakers - fired with gas, oil or coal.

88
 3. Core baking…
 Dielectric bakers
 core supporting plates - not used - interfere with
the potential distribution in the electrostatic field.
 to avoid - cement bonded asbestos plates used for
supporting the cores
 main advantage - faster in operation and good
 temperature control
 cores are smoothened using dextrin and water
soluble binders after baking

89
 4. Core finishing
 fins, bumps or other sand projections are removed by
rubbing or filing.
 Dimensions are checked - to achieve sound casting.
 to improve refractoriness and surface finish - refractory
or protective materials coating applied using brushing,
dipping and spraying
 coating prevents the molten metal from entering in to
the core.
 Bars, wires and arbors are used to reinforcement
 Lifting rings are used for handling bulky cores

90
 5. Core setting
After finishing the core, the
right size and shape of the
core is placed at the correct
place provided in the mould

91
 Foundry Tools
1) Hand Riddle
- Used for cleaning the moulding sand
- Removing the foreign materials such as
nails, shot metals, splinters of wood etc.
 Foundry Tools…
2) Shovel
- Used for mixing, tempering and
conditioning the foundry sand by hand
- Also used for moving and transforming the
sand to the container or moulding box
 Foundry Tools…
3) Rammers
a) Hand rammer
- Made of wood or metal
- Small in size, one end carries wedge shape called
peen, another end cylindrical in shape
- Used for bench moulding
b) Peen rammer
Used in packing the sand in pockets and corners
c) Floor rammer
- Heavier than hand rammer
- Used in floor moulding for ramming the sand for larger
moulds
d) Pneumatic rammer
-pneumatically operated
 Foundry Tools…
4) Sprue pin
- Tapered rod of wood or iron
- To provide passage for molten metal in
cope
 Foundry Tools…
5) Strike off bar
- Made of wood or iron
- Used to strike off or remove the excess
sand from the top of the moulding box
 Foundry Tools…
6) Mallet
- Similar wooden hammer
- Used to drive draw spike into the pattern
for removing, rapping and withdrawal
from the mould
 Foundry Tools…
7) Draw spike
- Used to withdraw the pattern from the
mould
 Foundry Tools…
8) Vent rod
- To provide vent holes
 Foundry Tools…
9) Lifters
- Known as cleaners or finishing tool
- Cleaning , repairing and finishing the
bottom and sides of deep and narrow
mould cavity
- Used for removing loose sand from the
mould cavity
 Foundry Tools…
10) Trowels
-used for finishing the flat surfaces, joints
and parting line of the mould
 Foundry Tools…
11) Slicks
-small double ended finishing tool
- Repairing and finishing the surfaces and
edges of the mould
 Foundry Tools…
12) Smoothers
- Used for repairing and finishing the flat and
round surfaces and edges of the mould
 Foundry Tools…
13) Swab
-used for swooping away the sand
-Used for coating the liquid on dry sand
mould surfaces
 Foundry Tools…
14) Spirit level
- Used to check the horizontal position of the
moulding box
 Foundry Tools…
15) Gate cutter
- Used to cut runners and feeding gates for
connecting the sprue and mould cavity
 Foundry Tools…
16) Gaggers
- Steel wire or rod – used to reinforce the
downward projecting sand mass from the
cope
 Foundry Tools…
17)
 Foundry Tools…
17) Bellows
- Sued to blow away the loose sand from the
mould surfaces and cavities
 Moulding Boxes
1) Open type

2) Closed type
 Steps involved in making a mould
 Turn over method
 Steps involved in making a mould
 Turn over method
Venting moulds
 Chaplets
 Used to prevent shifting of mould or locate
the core
 Chills
 To ensure directional solidification
 To impart hardness at a particular surface
 Classification of moulding
processes
 (i) Classification based on the method used
 (a) Bench moulding. (b) Floor moulding,
 (c) Pit moulding. (d) Machine moulding.
 (ii) Classification based on the mould material used:
 (a) Sand moulding:
 1. Green sand mould
 2. Dry sand mould,
 3. Skin dried mould.
 4. Core sand mould.
 5. loam mould
 6. Cement bonded sand mould
 7. Carbon-dioxide mould.
 8. Shell mould.
 (b) Plaster molding,
 (c) Metallic molding.
 (d) Loam molding
 Moulding Methods
 Commonly used traditional methods of
moulding are
 1) bench moulding
 2) floor moulding
 3) pit moulding
 4) machine moulding.

117
 Moulding Methods…
 1) bench moulding
 preferred for small jobs
 carried out on a bench of convenient height
 minimum of two flasks namely cope and
drag
 certain cases, the number of flasks may
increase depending upon the number of
parting surfaces required

118
 Moulding Methods…
 2) floor moulding
 preferred for medium and large size
jobs
 cope only used to make the mould -
the floor itself utilized as drag - usually
performed with dry sand

119
 Moulding Methods
 3) pit moulding
 used for large castings – pits are used instead of
drag
 walls and the bottom of the pit reinforced with
concrete and a layer of coke is laid on the bottom
of the pit to enable easy escape of gas
 coke bed is connected to atmosphere through vent
pipes which provide an outlet to the gases
 One box is generally required to complete the
mould, runner, sprue, pouring basin and gates are
cut in it.

120
 Moulding Methods…
 4) machine moulding.
 Used for mass production of the casting
 main advantages- the saving of labour and
 working time with the accuracy and uniformity of
the castings
 it is possible to maintain the tolerances within
narrow limits on casting
 prepare the moulds at a faster rate and also
eliminate the need of employing skilled moulders
 main operations performed are ramming of the
moulding sand, roll over the mould, form gate,
rapping the pattern and its withdrawal. 121
 Carbon-Dioxide Gas Molding
 Rapid hardening the moulds and cores
made up of green sand
 Mould material – pure dry silica sand free
from clay + 3.5% sod. Silicate as binder
+moisture less than 3% + small amount of
starch to improve green compression
strength + small amount of coal dust, sea
coal, wood flour, pitch, graphite & sugar to
improve collapsibility + kaolin clay to
improve stability
 Carbon-Dioxide Gas Molding…
 Procedure
 Making of mould by conventional
technique
 CO2 at 1.3 to 1.5 kg/sq.cm purged over
the mould surface about 20 to 30 seconds
 CO2 reacts with Sod. Silicate and forms
silica gel over the mould surface which
hardens the surface
 Na2SiO3 +CO2 → Na2CO3 + SiO2.xH2O
(Silica Gel)
Carbon-Dioxide Gas Molding…
 Shell Molding
 also known as Carning or C process - used for mass
production - thin castings with close tolerance of +_ 0.02
mm and with smooth surface finish
 Mould prepared using thermosetting plastic dry powder and
find sand using muller in the ratio 1: 20
 pattern placed on a metal plate and silicon grease is then
sprayed on it
 heated to 205°C to 230°C and covered with resin bonded
sand – for 30sec
 hard layer of sand formed over the pattern heated in an
oven at 315°C for 60 sec
 shell formed as the shape of the pattern is ready to strip
from the pattern
 shell can be made in two or more pieces as per the shape of
pattern
 Similarly core can be made by this process
 Finally shells are joined together to form the mold cavity
Shell Molding …
Shell Molding …
Shell Molding …
 Shell Molding …
 Advantages:
 1) Highly suitable for thin sections like petrol engine
cylinder
 2) Excellent surface finish
 3) Good dimensional accuracy of order of 0.002 to 0.003
mm
 4) Negligible machining and cleaning cost
 5) Occupies less floor space
 6) Skill-ness required is less
 7) Moulds formed by this process can be stored until
required
 8) Better quality of casting assured
 9) Mass production
 10) Allows greater detail and less draft
 11) Unskilled labor can be employed
 Shell Molding …
 Disadvantages:
 1) Higher pattern cost.
 2) Higher resin cost.
 3) Not economical for small runs.
 4) Dust-extraction problem.
 5) Complicated jobs and jobs of various
sizes cannot be easily shell molded.
 6) Specialized equipment is required.
 7) Resin binder is an expensive material.
 8) Limited for small size.
 Shell Molding …
 Applications
 (i) Suitable for production of casting made
up of alloys of Al, Cu and ferrous metals
 (ii) Bushing
 (iii) Valves bodies
 (iv) Rocker arms
 (v) Bearing caps
 (vi) Brackets
 (vii) Gears
 Casting Methods
 1) Permanent mould / Gravity die casting
 2) Pressure die casting
 (i) Hot chamber type
 (a) Gooseneck or air injection management
 (b) Submerged plunger management
 (ii) Cold chamber type
 3) Centrifugal casting
 (a) True centrifugal casting/De Levaud Casting
Process
 (b) Semi-centrifugal casting and
 (c) Centrifuged casting
 4) Continuous casting
 5) Investment casting
Investment Casting
Investment casting…
Investment casting…
Permanent mould / Gravity die casting
Permanent mould / Gravity die casting
Permanent mould / Gravity die casting
 ADVANTAGES OF DIE CASTING
OVER SAND CASTING
 1. less floor space
 2. precision dimensional control - reduction in
machining cost.
 3. improved surface finish.
 4. Thin section of complex shape can be produced
 5. true shape can be produced with close tolerance
 6. less defective.
 7. produces sound casting
 8. very quick process.
 9. high rate of production - 800 castings / hour.
 Hot chamber die casting
 Functions
 (i) Holding two die halves finally together.
 (ii) Closing the die.
 (iii) Injecting molten metal into die.(air pr. 2.5 to 5 MPa)
 (iv) Opening the die.
 (v) Ejecting the casting out of the die.
Hot chamber die casting
Hot chamber die casting
Cold Chamber Die Casting Machine
 Cyclic process
 1. The metal is loaded in
the chamber.
 2. The plunger forces the
metal into the die cavity,
 (20 to 200 MPa)
 3. After the metal
solidifies, the die is
opened,
 4. The casting, together
with the slag of the
excess metal is ejected
form the die,
Cold Chamber Die Casting Machine
 Cold Chamber Die Casting Machine
Advantages:
1. very quick process
2. used for mass production
3. improved surface finish
4. Thin section (0.5 mm Zn, 0.8 mm Al and 0.7 mm
Mg) can be easily casted
5. Good tolerances
6. Well defined and distinct surface
7. Less nos. of rejections
8. Less Cost of production
9. requires less space
10. Very economic process
11.Long life of die
12. All casting has same size and shape.
Cold Chamber Die Casting Machine
Disadvantages
1. high die cost
2. Only thin casting can be produced.
3. Special skill required.
4. special precautions adopted to remove air from die-
cavity – otherwise causes porosity in castings
5. suitable for low production.
Applications
1. Carburetor bodies
2. Hydraulic brake cylinders
3. Refrigeration castings
4. Washing machine
5. Connecting rods and automotive pistons
6. Oil pump bodies
7. Gears and gear covers
8. Aircraft and missile castings, and
9. Typewriter segments
Advantages & Disadvantages of Die Casting
 Advantages
 1. rapid and economical production of large quantities of identical
parts
 2. smooth surfaces and close dimensional tolerances - little machining
required some times
 3. thin and complex shapes can be casted accurately and easily.
 4. requires less floor area
 5. less defective - increased casting soundness.
 6. high strength and quality in many alloys.
 7. The inserts, if required, can be casted easily in desired places.
 8. die retains its trueness and life for longer periods. For example, the
life of a die for zinc base casting is up to one million castings, for
copper base alloys up to 75,000 castings, and for aluminum base
alloys up to 50,000 castings.
 Disadvantages
 1. The cost of equipment and die is high.
 2. limited range of non-ferrous alloys which can be used for die
castings.
 3. die castings are limited in size.
 4. requires special skill in maintenance.
Comparison b/w Permanent Mold Castings and Die
Casting
 True Centrifugal / De Levaud
Casting process

De Levaud process – metal

mould with water cooling-
linear movement of flask
enables filling of molten
metal in the flask -

Moore sand casting

process – dry sand
lining is provided – no
linear movement of
flask
Semi Centrifugal Casting process
Centrifuging Casting process
Continuous casting
Continuous casting
Continuous casting
Continuous casting

155
 Continuous casting
Advantages of Continuous Casting
 (i) cheaper than rolling
 (ii) 100% casting yield.
 (iii) can be easily mechanized and less unit labor cost
(iv) better casting surfaces.
 (v) Grain size and structure of the casting can be easily
controlled.
Applications of Continuous Casting
 (i) casting materials such as brass, bronzes, zinc,
copper, aluminium and its alloys, magnesium, carbon
and alloys etc.
 (ii) Production of blooms, billets, slabs, sheets, copper
bar etc.
 (iii) produce any shape of uniform cross-section such as
round, rectangular, square, hexagonal, fluted or gear
toothed etc.
 FURNACES FOR MELTING
DIFFERENT MATERIALS
1. Grey Cast Iron
(a) Cupola
(b) Air furnace (or Reverberatory Furnace)
(c) Rotary furnace
(d) Electric arc furnace
2. Steel
(a) Electric furnaces
(b) Open hearth furnace
3. Non-ferrous Metals
(a) Reverberatory furnaces (fuel fired) (Al, Cu)
(i) Stationary
(ii) Tilting
(b) Rotary furnaces
(i) Fuel fired
(ii) Electrically heated
(c) Induction furnaces (Cu, Al)
(i) Low frequency
(ii) High frequency.
(d) Electric Arc furnaces (Cu) (e) Crucible furnaces (AI, Cu)
(i) Pit type
(ii) Tilting type
(iii) Non-tilting or bale-out type
(iv) Electric resistance type (Cu)
(f) Pot furnaces (fuel fired) (Mg and AI)
(i) Stationary
(ii) Tilting
Cupola
Cupola
Cupola
Cupola
Crucible Furnaces

Pit type furnace

Electric Arc Furnaces –
Direct type

163
Electric Arc Furnaces –
Direct type

164
Electric Arc Furnaces –
Indirect type

165
Core less type Induction Furnace
Pouring Practices
 FACTORS CONTROLING
GATING DESIGN
 (i) Avoid sharp corners and abrupt changes in any
section or portion - suppress turbulence and gas
entrapment
 (ii) Maintain suitable relationship b/w different cross-
sectional areas
 (iii) shape, location and dimensions of runners and
type of flow are important - the position at which the
molten metal enters also important
 (iv) gating ratio reveals the total cross-section of
sprue, runner and gate, it decreases towards the
mold cavity which provides a choke effect
 (v) design should nullify the effect of turbulence or
momentum of molten metal
Gating system
 Parts of Gating system
 1. Pouring Cup / Basin
 funnel shape opening in the upper surface of the cope
above the sprue.
 minimizes the splash and turbulence and promotes the
entry of the clean metal only into the down sprue.
 provided with a skin core, strainer core, delay screen or
a sprue plug to prevent dirt entry inside the mould along
with molten metal
 Parts of Gating system …
 2)Down gate / Sprue
 vertical opening (usually tubular) through
the cope
 Parts of Gating system …
 3)Runner
 located in the horizontal plane (parting plane) - connects the sprue &
ingates
 made trapezoidal in cross section.
 for ferrous metals - runners in the cope and the ingates in the drag -
to trap the slag and dross
 For effective trapping of the slag, runners should flow full as shown
in Fig.
 When the amount of molten metal coming from the down sprue is
more than the amount flowing through the ingates, the runner would
always be full and thus slag trapping would take place.
 But when the metal flowing through the ingates is more than the
flowing through the runners, then the runner would be filled only
partially as shown in Fig and the slag would then enter the mould
cavity.
 Parts of Gating system …
4) Gate/Ingate
 Also called ingates - the opening through
which the molten metal enters the mould
cavity.
 The shape and the cross-section of the
ingate should be such that it can readily be
broken off after casting solidification and
also allow the metal to enter quietly into
the mould cavity.
 Parts of Gating system …
4) Gate/Ingate…Types
a) Top gate
 molten metal enters the mould cavity from the top.
 Since the first metal entering the gate reaches the bottom and hotter
metal is at the top.
 as the metal falls directly into the mould cavity through a height - likely
to cause mould erosion - it causes turbulence in the mould cavity -prone
to form dross
 top gate is not advisable for materials which are likely to form excessive
dross.
 not suggested for non-ferrous material and suggested only for ferrous
alloys.
 suitable for simple casting shape - to reduce the mould erosion pencil
gates are provided in the pouring cup.
 gate requires minimum of additional runners to lead the liquid metal into
the cavity, and as such provides higher casting yield.
 Parts of Gating system …
4) Gate/Ingate…Types
b) Parting line gate
 The gates which enter into the mould cavity at the
parting line of the drag.
 Provided with choke and skim bob
 Used for both ferrous and non-ferrous materials
 Parts of Gating system …
4) Gate/Ingate…Types
c) Bottom / Horn gate
 has a tendency of producing a fountain effect in
the casting.
 Minimum turbulence, minimum splashing etc.
 Parts of Gating system …
4) Gate/Ingate…Types
d) Branch gate
 designed either to feed a single casting
 at several points or a number of individual
casting.
 Parts of Gating system …
 5) Choke
 part of the gating system which possesses smallest
cross-section area.
 gate serves as a choke - in free gating system sprue
serves as a choke

 6) Riser
 passage in molding sand made in the cope portion
 Molten metal rises in it after filling the mould cavity
completely.
 molten metal in the riser compensates the shrinkage
during solidification of the casting - avoiding the
shrinkage defect
 also permits the escape of air and mould gases.
 promotes directional solidification too and helps in
bringing the soundness in the casting.
 Aim of gating system design
 (1) mould should be completely filled in the smallest time
 (2) metal should flow smoothly into the mould without
turbulence - turbulent metal flow tends to form dross in the
mould.
 (3) Unwanted material such as slag, dross and other mould
material should not be allowed to enter the mould cavity.
 (4) metal entry into the mould cavity should properly
controlled in such a way that aspiration of the atmospheric air
is prevented.
 (5) A proper thermal gradient should be maintained so that
the casting is cooled without any shrinkage cavities or
distortions.
 (6) Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no
gating or mould erosion takes place.
 (7) gating system should ensure that enough molten metal
reaches the mould cavity - should be economical and easy to
implement and remove after casting solidification.
 ROLE OF RISER IN SAND
CASTING
 to feed molten metal to accommodate shrinkage
occurring during solidification of the casting.
 allowing molten metal to rise in riser after filling the
mould cavity completely and supplying the molten metal
to further feed the void occurred during solidification of
the casting because of shrinkage.
 permits the escape of evolved air and mould gases as
the mould cavity is being filled with the molten metal.
 indicates to the foundry man whether mould cavity has
been filled completely or not.
 suitable design of riser helps to promote the directional
solidification - helps in production of desired sound
casting.
 Considerations for Designing
Riser
 (A) Freezing time
 1. For producing sound casting, the molten
metal must be fed to the mold till it solidifies
completely.
 This can be achieved when molten metal in riser
should freeze at slower rate than the casting.
 2. Freezing time of molten metal should be more
for risers than casting.
 3. The quantitative risering analysis developed
by Caine and others can be followed while
designing risers.
 Considerations for Desiging
Riser
 (B) Feeding range
 1. When large castings are produced in complicated
size, then more than one riser are employed to feed
molten metal depending upon the effective freezing
range of each riser.
 2. Casting should be divided into different zones so
that each zone can be fed by a separate riser.
 3. Risers should be attached to that heavy section
which generally solidifies last in the casting.
 4. Riser should maintain proper temperature
gradients for continuous feeding throughout freezing
or solidifying.
 Considerations for Desiging
Riser
 (C) Feed Volume Capacity
 Riser should have sufficient volume to feed the mould
cavity till the solidification of the entire casting so as to
compensate the volume shrinkage or contraction of the
solidifying metal.
 The metal is always kept in molten state at all the times
in risers during freezing of casting.
 exothermic compounds and electric arc feeding
arrangement.
 volume feed capacity of riser should be based upon
freezing time and freezing demand.
 Optimum design of riser
 A) Chvorinov’s rule
 Freezing time of casting t = (1/ q2 ) X (V/A)2
 q- solidification constant
 V/A – volume / surface area
 For best riser - (V/A)2 - 10 to 15% larger than that of the casting
 B) Caine’s method
 Relative freezing time to complete solidification as the ratio of
surface area of casting / Vol. of casting : surface area of riser /
Vol. of the riser
 Ac/Vc / Ar/Vr = [a / (Vr/Vc –b)] + C
 a- freezing characteristics constant for the metal = 0.1 for steel
 b- contraction ratio from liquid to solid = 0.03 for steel
 C – relative freezing rate of riser and casting =1 if same mould
material is used around casting and riser
184
 Gating Ratio
 Ratio of sprue area to the total area of runner
to total gate area
 4:3:2 – pressurized system
 Steel, iron, brass etc – more turbulence

 1:3:3, 1:2:2 – Unpressurized system

• Light, oxidizable metals like aluminum and
megnesium
- Minimum turbulence

185
 Solidification
Solidification: Transformation of the molten
metal back into the solid state
Pure metals: solidifies at a constant temp.
equal to its freezing point, which is the
same as its melting point
Local solidification time: time of actual
freezing
Total solidification time: time taken between
pouring and complete solidification

186
Cooling curve for pure metals

187
Grain structure of casting of a pure metal

188
Solidification of alloys
Solidification of alloys
Solidification of alloys
Solidification time
 Solidification of alloy in a sand
mould
Freezing starts Freezing complete

Centre line

Liq.

Mushy
Solid

Wall
A B C D
Time 193
 Solidification of alloy in a Metal
mould
Freezing starts Freezing complete

Centre line

Liq.
Mushy

Solid

Wall

194
 Solidification of alloys
 Smallest temp. difference b/w start and
finish of solidification is easiest to feed
 Ease of feeding is defined as by the C F R
 Centre line feeding resistance (CFR)
= time during which crystals are forming at
centre line / solidification time of casting
 = BD/ AD
 If CFR ˃ 70% - difficult to feed

195
 Solidification
 Rate of heat flow per unit area k  1   2 

d
 Quantity of heat passing through mould metal
interface 2 A k  1   2  t s
 
d
 Where
 k – thermal conductivity of mould material
 1 - initial mould temp.
  2 - mould/ metal interface temp.
 ts – time required to solidify a plate surface area
A
 d- thermal diffusivity of the mould 196
 Solidification
 Amount of heat which must be lost to produce
solidification   V L  C   
p 1

  - density of metal
 V – volume of metal
 L – latent heat of fusion of metal
 C – Sp. Heat of metal
 p - pouring temp.
 ts = c (V/A)2
 C – mould constant
 Time of solidification α (V/A)2
 Time needed to solidify to a given depth is proportional to the sq.
of the distance from the mould metal interface 197
Casting defects and remedies
Casting defects and remedies…
Casting defects and remedies…
Casting defects and remedies…
Casting defects and remedies…
Casting defects and remedies…
Casting defects and remedies…
Casting defects and remedies…
Casting defects and remedies…
Casting defects
Casting defects
Casting defects