Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI), in its broadest sense, is intelligence exhibited by machines, particularly
computer systems. It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and
software that enable machines to perceive their environment and uses learning and intelligence to take
actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals.[1] Such machines may be called AIs.

AI technology is widely used throughout industry, government, and science. Some high-profile applications
include advanced web search engines (e.g., Google Search); recommendation systems (used by YouTube,
Amazon, and Netflix); interacting via human speech (e.g., Google Assistant, Siri, and Alexa); autonomous
vehicles (e.g., Waymo); generative and creative tools (e.g., ChatGPT and AI art); and superhuman play and
analysis in strategy games (e.g., chess and Go).[2] However, many AI applications are not perceived as AI:
"A lot of cutting edge AI has filtered into general applications, often without being called AI because once
something becomes useful enough and common enough it's not labeled AI anymore."[3][4]

Alan Turing was the first person to conduct substantial research in the field that he called machine
intelligence.[5] Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956.[6] The field went
through multiple cycles of optimism,[7][8] followed by periods of disappointment and loss of funding,
known as AI winter.[9][10] Funding and interest vastly increased after 2012 when deep learning surpassed
all previous AI techniques,[11] and after 2017 with the transformer architecture.[12] This led to the AI boom
of the early 2020s, with companies, universities, and laboratories overwhelmingly based in the United
States pioneering significant advances in artificial intelligence.[13]

The growing use of artificial intelligence in the 21st century is influencing a societal and economic shift
towards increased automation, data-driven decision-making, and the integration of AI systems into various
economic sectors and areas of life, impacting job markets, healthcare, government, industry, and education.
This raises questions about the long-term effects, ethical implications, and risks of AI, prompting
discussions about regulatory policies to ensure the safety and benefits of the technology.

The various subfields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. The
traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural
language processing, perception, and support for robotics.[a] General intelligence—the ability to complete
any task performable by a human on an at least equal level—is among the field's long-term goals.[14]

To reach these goals, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of techniques, including
search and mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and methods based on
statistics, operations research, and economics.[b] AI also draws upon psychology, linguistics, philosophy,
neuroscience, and other fields.[15]

Goals
The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken into subproblems. These
consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits
described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of AI research.[a]

Reasoning and problem-solving

Early researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they
solve puzzles or make logical deductions.[16] By the late 1980s and 1990s, methods were developed for
dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics.[17]

Many of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experience a
"combinatorial explosion": They become exponentially slower as the problems grow.[18] Even humans
rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model. They solve most of their problems
using fast, intuitive judgments.[19] Accurate and efficient reasoning is an unsolved problem.

Knowledge representation
Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering[20]
allow AI programs to answer questions intelligently and
make deductions about real-world facts. Formal knowledge
representations are used in content-based indexing and
retrieval,[21] scene interpretation,[22] clinical decision
support,[23] knowledge discovery (mining "interesting" and
actionable inferences from large databases),[24] and other
areas.[25]

A knowledge base is a body of knowledge represented in a

form that can be used by a program. An ontology is the set of
objects, relations, concepts, and properties used by a
particular domain of knowledge.[26] Knowledge bases need
to represent things such as objects, properties, categories, and An ontology represents knowledge as a set
of concepts within a domain and the
relations between objects;[27] situations, events, states, and
relationships between those concepts.
time;[28] causes and effects;[29] knowledge about knowledge
(what we know about what other people know);[30] default
reasoning (things that humans assume are true until they are told differently and will remain true even when
other facts are changing);[31] and many other aspects and domains of knowledge.

Among the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are the breadth of commonsense
knowledge (the set of atomic facts that the average person knows is enormous);[32] and the sub-symbolic
form of most commonsense knowledge (much of what people know is not represented as "facts" or
"statements" that they could express verbally).[19] There is also the difficulty of knowledge acquisition, the
problem of obtaining knowledge for AI applications.[c]

Planning and decision-making

An "agent" is anything that perceives and takes actions in the world. A rational agent has goals or
preferences and takes actions to make them happen.[d][35] In automated planning, the agent has a specific
goal.[36] In automated decision-making, the agent has preferences—there are some situations it would
prefer to be in, and some situations it is trying to avoid. The decision-making agent assigns a number to
each situation (called the "utility") that measures how much the agent prefers it. For each possible action, it
can calculate the "expected utility": the utility of all possible outcomes of the action, weighted by the
probability that the outcome will occur. It can then choose the action with the maximum expected utility.[37]

In classical planning, the agent knows exactly what the effect of any action will be.[38] In most real-world
problems, however, the agent may not be certain about the situation they are in (it is "unknown" or
"unobservable") and it may not know for certain what will happen after each possible action (it is not
"deterministic"). It must choose an action by making a probabilistic guess and then reassess the situation to
see if the action worked.[39]

In some problems, the agent's preferences may be uncertain, especially if there are other agents or humans
involved. These can be learned (e.g., with inverse reinforcement learning), or the agent can seek
information to improve its preferences.[40] Information value theory can be used to weigh the value of
exploratory or experimental actions.[41] The space of possible future actions and situations is typically
intractably large, so the agents must take actions and evaluate situations while being uncertain of what the
outcome will be.

A Markov decision process has a transition model that describes the probability that a particular action will
change the state in a particular way and a reward function that supplies the utility of each state and the cost
of each action. A policy associates a decision with each possible state. The policy could be calculated (e.g.,
by iteration), be heuristic, or it can be learned.[42]

Game theory describes the rational behavior of multiple interacting agents and is used in AI programs that
make decisions that involve other agents.[43]

Learning
Machine learning is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task
automatically.[44] It has been a part of AI from the beginning.[e]

There are several kinds of machine learning. Unsupervised learning analyzes a stream of data and finds
patterns and makes predictions without any other guidance.[47] Supervised learning requires a human to
label the input data first, and comes in two main varieties: classification (where the program must learn to
predict what category the input belongs in) and regression (where the program must deduce a numeric
function based on numeric input).[48]

In reinforcement learning, the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent
learns to choose responses that are classified as "good".[49] Transfer learning is when the knowledge gained
from one problem is applied to a new problem.[50] Deep learning is a type of machine learning that runs
inputs through biologically inspired artificial neural networks for all of these types of learning.[51]

Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity
(how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.[52]
Natural language processing
Natural language processing (NLP)[53] allows programs to read, write and communicate in human
languages such as English. Specific problems include speech recognition, speech synthesis, machine
translation, information extraction, information retrieval and question answering.[54]

Early work, based on Noam Chomsky's generative grammar and semantic networks, had difficulty with
word-sense disambiguation[f] unless restricted to small domains called "micro-worlds" (due to the common
sense knowledge problem[32]). Margaret Masterman believed that it was meaning and not grammar that
was the key to understanding languages, and that thesauri and not dictionaries should be the basis of
computational language structure.

Modern deep learning techniques for NLP include word embedding (representing words, typically as
vectors encoding their meaning),[55] transformers (a deep learning architecture using an attention
mechanism),[56] and others.[57] In 2019, generative pre-trained transformer (or "GPT") language models
began to generate coherent text,[58][59] and by 2023 these models were able to get human-level scores on
the bar exam, SAT test, GRE test, and many other real-world applications.[60]

Perception
Machine perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, wireless signals,
active lidar, sonar, radar, and tactile sensors) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is the ability to
analyze visual input.[61]

The field includes speech recognition,[62] image classification,[63] facial recognition, object recognition,[64]
and robotic perception.[65]

Social intelligence
Affective computing is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises
systems that recognize, interpret, process, or simulate human
feeling, emotion, and mood.[67] For example, some virtual
assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to
banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the
emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate
human–computer interaction.
Kismet, a robot head which was
However, this tends to give naïve users an unrealistic conception of made in the 1990s; a machine that
the intelligence of existing computer agents.[68] Moderate successes can recognize and simulate
related to affective computing include textual sentiment analysis emotions.[66]
and, more recently, multimodal sentiment analysis, wherein AI
classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject.[69]

General intelligence
A machine with artificial general intelligence should be able to solve a wide variety of problems with
breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence.[14]

Techniques
AI research uses a wide variety of techniques to accomplish the goals above.[b]

Search and optimization

AI can solve many problems by intelligently searching through many possible solutions.[70] There are two
very different kinds of search used in AI: state space search and local search.

State space search

State space search searches through a tree of possible states to try to find a goal state.[71] For example,
planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal, a
process called means-ends analysis.[72]

Simple exhaustive searches[73] are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the search space (the
number of places to search) quickly grows to astronomical numbers. The result is a search that is too slow
or never completes.[18] "Heuristics" or "rules of thumb" can help prioritize choices that are more likely to
reach a goal.[74]

Adversarial search is used for game-playing programs, such as chess or Go. It searches through a tree of
possible moves and counter-moves, looking for a winning position.[75]

Local search
Local search uses mathematical optimization to find a solution to a
problem. It begins with some form of guess and refines it
incrementally.[76]

Gradient descent is a type of local search that optimizes a set of

numerical parameters by incrementally adjusting them to minimize a
loss function. Variants of gradient descent are commonly used to
train neural networks.[77]

Another type of local search is evolutionary computation, which Illustration of gradient descent for 3
aims to iteratively improve a set of candidate solutions by different starting points. Two
"mutating" and "recombining" them, selecting only the fittest to parameters (represented by the plan
survive each generation.[78] coordinates) are adjusted in order to
minimize the loss function (the
Distributed search processes can coordinate via swarm intelligence height).
algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in search are
particle swarm optimization (inspired by bird flocking) and ant
colony optimization (inspired by ant trails).[79]

Logic
Formal logic is used for reasoning and knowledge representation.[80] Formal logic comes in two main
forms: propositional logic (which operates on statements that are true or false and uses logical connectives
such as "and", "or", "not" and "implies")[81] and predicate logic (which also operates on objects, predicates
and relations and uses quantifiers such as "Every X is a Y" and "There are some Xs that are Ys").[82]

Deductive reasoning in logic is the process of proving a new statement (conclusion) from other statements
that are given and assumed to be true (the premises).[83] Proofs can be structured as proof trees, in which
nodes are labelled by sentences, and children nodes are connected to parent nodes by inference rules.

Given a problem and a set of premises, problem-solving reduces to searching for a proof tree whose root
node is labelled by a solution of the problem and whose leaf nodes are labelled by premises or axioms. In
the case of Horn clauses, problem-solving search can be performed by reasoning forwards from the
premises or backwards from the problem.[84] In the more general case of the clausal form of first-order
logic, resolution is a single, axiom-free rule of inference, in which a problem is solved by proving a
contradiction from premises that include the negation of the problem to be solved.[85]

Inference in both Horn clause logic and first-order logic is undecidable, and therefore intractable. However,
backward reasoning with Horn clauses, which underpins computation in the logic programming language
Prolog, is Turing complete. Moreover, its efficiency is competitive with computation in other symbolic
programming languages.[86]

Fuzzy logic assigns a "degree of truth" between 0 and 1. It can therefore handle propositions that are vague
and partially true.[87]

Non-monotonic logics, including logic programming with negation as failure, are designed to handle default
reasoning.[31] Other specialized versions of logic have been developed to describe many complex domains.

Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning

Many problems in AI (including in
reasoning, planning, learning, perception,
and robotics) require the agent to operate
with incomplete or uncertain information.
AI researchers have devised a number of
tools to solve these problems using
methods from probability theory and
economics.[88] Precise mathematical tools
have been developed that analyze how an
agent can make choices and plan, using
decision theory, decision analysis,[89] and
A simple Bayesian network, with the associated conditional
information value theory.[90] These tools probability tables
include models such as Markov decision
processes,[91] dynamic decision
[92]
networks, game theory and mechanism design.[93]

Bayesian networks[94] are a tool that can be used for reasoning (using the Bayesian inference
algorithm),[g][96] learning (using the expectation-maximization algorithm),[h][98] planning (using decision
networks)[99] and perception (using dynamic Bayesian networks).[92]
Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing, and finding explanations for
streams of data, thus helping perception systems analyze processes that occur over time (e.g., hidden
Markov models or Kalman filters).[92]

Classifiers and statistical learning

methods
The simplest AI applications can be divided into two types:
classifiers (e.g., "if shiny then diamond"), on one hand, and
controllers (e.g., "if diamond then pick up"), on the other
hand. Classifiers[100] are functions that use pattern matching
to determine the closest match. They can be fine-tuned based
on chosen examples using supervised learning. Each pattern
(also called an "observation") is labeled with a certain
predefined class. All the observations combined with their
Expectation-maximization clustering of Old
class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation
Faithful eruption data starts from a random
is received, that observation is classified based on previous
guess but then successfully converges on
experience.[48] an accurate clustering of the two physically
distinct modes of eruption.
There are many kinds of classifiers in use. The decision tree
is the simplest and most widely used symbolic machine
learning algorithm.[101] K-nearest neighbor algorithm was the most widely used analogical AI until the mid-
1990s, and Kernel methods such as the support vector machine (SVM) displaced k-nearest neighbor in the
1990s.[102] The naive Bayes classifier is reportedly the "most widely used learner"[103] at Google, due in
part to its scalability.[104] Neural networks are also used as classifiers.[105]

Artificial neural networks

An artificial neural network is based on a collection of nodes also
known as artificial neurons, which loosely model the neurons in a
biological brain. It is trained to recognise patterns; once trained, it
can recognise those patterns in fresh data. There is an input, at least
one hidden layer of nodes and an output. Each node applies a
function and once the weight crosses its specified threshold, the
data is transmitted to the next layer. A network is typically called a
deep neural network if it has at least 2 hidden layers.[105]

Learning algorithms for neural networks use local search to choose

the weights that will get the right output for each input during A neural network is an
interconnected group of nodes, akin
training. The most common training technique is the
to the vast network of neurons in the
backpropagation algorithm.[106] Neural networks learn to model
human brain.
complex relationships between inputs and outputs and find patterns
in data. In theory, a neural network can learn any function.[107]

In feedforward neural networks the signal passes in only one direction.[108] Recurrent neural networks feed
the output signal back into the input, which allows short-term memories of previous input events. Long
short term memory is the most successful network architecture for recurrent networks.[109] Perceptrons[110]
use only a single layer of neurons, deep learning[111] uses multiple layers. Convolutional neural networks
strengthen the connection between neurons that are "close" to each other—this is especially important in
image processing, where a local set of neurons must identify an "edge" before the network can identify an
object.[112]

Deep learning
Deep learning[111] uses several layers of neurons between the network's
inputs and outputs. The multiple layers can progressively extract higher-
level features from the raw input. For example, in image processing, lower
layers may identify edges, while higher layers may identify the concepts
relevant to a human such as digits, letters, or faces.[113]

Deep learning has profoundly improved the performance of programs in

many important subfields of artificial intelligence, including computer
vision, speech recognition, natural language processing, image
classification,[114] and others. The reason that deep learning performs so
well in so many applications is not known as of 2023.[115] The sudden success of deep learning in 2012–
2015 did not occur because of some new discovery or theoretical breakthrough (deep neural networks and
backpropagation had been described by many people, as far back as the 1950s)[i] but because of two
factors: the incredible increase in computer power (including the hundred-fold increase in speed by
switching to GPUs) and the availability of vast amounts of training data, especially the giant curated
datasets used for benchmark testing, such as ImageNet.[j]

GPT
Generative pre-trained transformers (GPT) are large language models that are based on the semantic
relationships between words in sentences (natural language processing). Text-based GPT models are pre-
trained on a large corpus of text which can be from the internet. The pre-training consists in predicting the
next token (a token being usually a word, subword, or punctuation). Throughout this pre-training, GPT
models accumulate knowledge about the world, and can then generate human-like text by repeatedly
predicting the next token. Typically, a subsequent training phase makes the model more truthful, useful and
harmless, usually with a technique called reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF). Current
GPT models are still prone to generating falsehoods called "hallucinations", although this can be reduced
with RLHF and quality data. They are used in chatbots, which allow you to ask a question or request a task
in simple text.[124][125]

Current models and services include: Gemini (formerly Bard), ChatGPT, Grok, Claude, Copilot and
LLaMA.[126] Multimodal GPT models can process different types of data (modalities) such as images,
videos, sound, and text.[127]

Specialized hardware and software

In the late 2010s, graphics processing units (GPUs) that were increasingly designed with AI-specific
enhancements and used with specialized TensorFlow software had replaced previously used central
processing unit (CPUs) as the dominant means for large-scale (commercial and academic) machine learning
models' training.[128] Historically, specialized languages, such as Lisp, Prolog, Python and others, had been
used.

Applications
AI and machine learning technology is used in most of the essential applications of the 2020s, including:
search engines (such as Google Search), targeting online advertisements, recommendation systems (offered
by Netflix, YouTube or Amazon), driving internet traffic, targeted advertising (AdSense, Facebook), virtual
assistants (such as Siri or Alexa), autonomous vehicles (including drones, ADAS and self-driving cars),
automatic language translation (Microsoft Translator, Google Translate), facial recognition (Apple's Face ID
or Microsoft's DeepFace and Google's FaceNet) and image labeling (used by Facebook, Apple's iPhoto and
TikTok).

Health and medicine

The application of AI in medicine and medical research has the potential to increase patient care and quality
of life.[129] Through the lens of the Hippocratic Oath, medical professionals are ethically compelled to use
AI, if applications can more accurately diagnose and treat patients.

For medical research, AI is an important tool for processing and integrating big data. This is particularly
important for organoid and tissue engineering development which use microscopy imaging as a key
technique in fabrication.[130] It has been suggested that AI can overcome discrepancies in funding allocated
to different fields of research.[130] New AI tools can deepen the understanding of biomedically relevant
pathways. For example, AlphaFold 2 (2021) demonstrated the ability to approximate, in hours rather than
months, the 3D structure of a protein.[131] In 2023, it was reported that AI-guided drug discovery helped
find a class of antibiotics capable of killing two different types of drug-resistant bacteria.[132] In 2024,
researchers used machine learning to accelerate the search for Parkinson's disease drug treatments. Their
aim was to identify compounds that block the clumping, or aggregation, of alpha-synuclein (the protein that
characterises Parkinson's disease). They were able to speed up the initial screening process ten-fold and
reduce the cost by a thousand-fold.[133][134]

Games
Game playing programs have been used since the 1950s to demonstrate and test AI's most advanced
techniques.[135] Deep Blue became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess
champion, Garry Kasparov, on 11 May 1997.[136] In 2011, in a Jeopardy! quiz show exhibition match,
IBM's question answering system, Watson, defeated the two greatest Jeopardy! champions, Brad Rutter and
Ken Jennings, by a significant margin.[137] In March 2016, AlphaGo won 4 out of 5 games of Go in a
match with Go champion Lee Sedol, becoming the first computer Go-playing system to beat a professional
Go player without handicaps. Then in 2017 it defeated Ke Jie, who was the best Go player in the
world.[138] Other programs handle imperfect-information games, such as the poker-playing program
Pluribus.[139] DeepMind developed increasingly generalistic reinforcement learning models, such as with
MuZero, which could be trained to play chess, Go, or Atari games.[140] In 2019, DeepMind's AlphaStar
achieved grandmaster level in StarCraft II, a particularly challenging real-time strategy game that involves
incomplete knowledge of what happens on the map.[141] In 2021, an AI agent competed in a PlayStation
Gran Turismo competition, winning against four of the world's best Gran Turismo drivers using deep
reinforcement learning.[142]

Military
Various countries are deploying AI military applications.[143] The main applications enhance command and
control, communications, sensors, integration and interoperability.[144] Research is targeting intelligence
collection and analysis, logistics, cyber operations, information operations, and semiautonomous and
autonomous vehicles.[143] AI technologies enable coordination of sensors and effectors, threat detection and
identification, marking of enemy positions, target acquisition, coordination and deconfliction of distributed
Joint Fires between networked combat vehicles involving manned and unmanned teams.[144] AI was
incorporated into military operations in Iraq and Syria.[143]

In November 2023, US Vice President Kamala Harris disclosed a declaration signed by 31 nations to set
guardrails for the military use of AI. The commitments include using legal reviews to ensure the compliance
of military AI with international laws, and being cautious and transparent in the development of this
technology.[145]

Generative AI
In the early 2020s, generative AI gained widespread prominence. In
March 2023, 58% of U.S. adults had heard about ChatGPT and
14% had tried it.[146] The increasing realism and ease-of-use of AI-
based text-to-image generators such as Midjourney, DALL-E, and
Stable Diffusion sparked a trend of viral AI-generated photos.
Widespread attention was gained by a fake photo of Pope Francis
wearing a white puffer coat, the fictional arrest of Donald Trump,
and a hoax of an attack on the Pentagon, as well as the usage in
professional creative arts.[147][148]

Industry-specific tasks Vincent van Gogh in watercolour

created by generative AI software
There are also thousands of successful AI applications used to solve
specific problems for specific industries or institutions. In a 2017
survey, one in five companies reported having incorporated "AI" in some offerings or processes.[149] A few
examples are energy storage, medical diagnosis, military logistics, applications that predict the result of
judicial decisions, foreign policy, or supply chain management.

In agriculture, AI has helped farmers identify areas that need irrigation, fertilization, pesticide treatments or
increasing yield. Agronomists use AI to conduct research and development. AI has been used to predict the
ripening time for crops such as tomatoes, monitor soil moisture, operate agricultural robots, conduct
predictive analytics, classify livestock pig call emotions, automate greenhouses, detect diseases and pests,
and save water.
Artificial intelligence is used in astronomy to analyze increasing amounts of available data and applications,
mainly for "classification, regression, clustering, forecasting, generation, discovery, and the development of
new scientific insights" for example for discovering exoplanets, forecasting solar activity, and distinguishing
between signals and instrumental effects in gravitational wave astronomy. It could also be used for activities
in space such as space exploration, including analysis of data from space missions, real-time science
decisions of spacecraft, space debris avoidance, and more autonomous operation.

Ethics
AI has potential benefits and potential risks. AI may be able to advance science and find solutions for
serious problems: Demis Hassabis of Deep Mind hopes to "solve intelligence, and then use that to solve
everything else".[150] However, as the use of AI has become widespread, several unintended consequences
and risks have been identified.[151] In-production systems can sometimes not factor ethics and bias into their
AI training processes, especially when the AI algorithms are inherently unexplainable in deep learning.[152]

Risks and harm

Privacy and copyright

Machine-learning algorithms require large amounts of data. The techniques used to acquire this data have
raised concerns about privacy, surveillance and copyright.

Technology companies collect a wide range of data from their users, including online activity, geolocation
data, video and audio.[153] For example, in order to build speech recognition algorithms, Amazon has
recorded millions of private conversations and allowed temporary workers to listen to and transcribe some
of them.[154] Opinions about this widespread surveillance range from those who see it as a necessary evil to
those for whom it is clearly unethical and a violation of the right to privacy.[155]

AI developers argue that this is the only way to deliver valuable applications. and have developed several
techniques that attempt to preserve privacy while still obtaining the data, such as data aggregation, de-
identification and differential privacy.[156] Since 2016, some privacy experts, such as Cynthia Dwork, have
begun to view privacy in terms of fairness. Brian Christian wrote that experts have pivoted "from the
question of 'what they know' to the question of 'what they're doing with it'."[157]

Generative AI is often trained on unlicensed copyrighted works, including in domains such as images or
computer code; the output is then used under the rationale of "fair use". Experts disagree about how well
and under what circumstances this rationale will hold up in courts of law; relevant factors may include "the
purpose and character of the use of the copyrighted work" and "the effect upon the potential market for the
copyrighted work".[158][159] Website owners who do not wish to have their content scraped can indicate it
in a "robots.txt" file.[160] In 2023, leading authors (including John Grisham and Jonathan Franzen) sued AI
companies for using their work to train generative AI.[161][162] Another discussed approach is to envision a
separate sui generis system of protection for creations generated by AI to ensure fair attribution and
compensation for human authors.[163]

Misinformation
YouTube, Facebook and others use recommender systems to guide users to more content. These AI
programs were given the goal of maximizing user engagement (that is, the only goal was to keep people
watching). The AI learned that users tended to choose misinformation, conspiracy theories, and extreme
partisan content, and, to keep them watching, the AI recommended more of it. Users also tended to watch
more content on the same subject, so the AI led people into filter bubbles where they received multiple
versions of the same misinformation.[164] This convinced many users that the misinformation was true, and
ultimately undermined trust in institutions, the media and the government.[165] The AI program had
correctly learned to maximize its goal, but the result was harmful to society. After the U.S. election in 2016,
major technology companies took steps to mitigate the problem.

In 2022, generative AI began to create images, audio, video and text that are indistinguishable from real
photographs, recordings, films or human writing. It is possible for bad actors to use this technology to create
massive amounts of misinformation or propaganda.[166] AI pioneer Geoffrey Hinton expressed concern
about AI enabling "authoritarian leaders to manipulate their electorates" on a large scale, among other
risks.[167]

Algorithmic bias and fairness

Machine learning applications will be biased if they learn from biased data.[168] The developers may not be
aware that the bias exists.[169] Bias can be introduced by the way training data is selected and by the way a
model is deployed.[170][168] If a biased algorithm is used to make decisions that can seriously harm people
(as it can in medicine, finance, recruitment, housing or policing) then the algorithm may cause
discrimination.[171] Fairness in machine learning is the study of how to prevent the harm caused by
algorithmic bias. It has become serious area of academic study within AI. Researchers have discovered it is
not always possible to define "fairness" in a way that satisfies all stakeholders.[172]

On June 28, 2015, Google Photos's new image labeling feature mistakenly identified Jacky Alcine and a
friend as "gorillas" because they were black. The system was trained on a dataset that contained very few
images of black people,[173] a problem called "sample size disparity".[174] Google "fixed" this problem by
preventing the system from labelling anything as a "gorilla". Eight years later, in 2023, Google Photos still
could not identify a gorilla, and neither could similar products from Apple, Facebook, Microsoft and
Amazon.[175]

COMPAS is a commercial program widely used by U.S. courts to assess the likelihood of a defendant
becoming a recidivist. In 2016, Julia Angwin at ProPublica discovered that COMPAS exhibited racial bias,
despite the fact that the program was not told the races of the defendants. Although the error rate for both
whites and blacks was calibrated equal at exactly 61%, the errors for each race were different—the system
consistently overestimated the chance that a black person would re-offend and would underestimate the
chance that a white person would not re-offend.[176] In 2017, several researchers[k] showed that it was
mathematically impossible for COMPAS to accommodate all possible measures of fairness when the base
rates of re-offense were different for whites and blacks in the data.[178]

A program can make biased decisions even if the data does not explicitly mention a problematic feature
(such as "race" or "gender"). The feature will correlate with other features (like "address", "shopping
history" or "first name"), and the program will make the same decisions based on these features as it would
on "race" or "gender".[179] Moritz Hardt said "the most robust fact in this research area is that fairness
through blindness doesn't work."[180]
Criticism of COMPAS highlighted that machine learning models are designed to make "predictions" that
are only valid if we assume that the future will resemble the past. If they are trained on data that includes the
results of racist decisions in the past, machine learning models must predict that racist decisions will be
made in the future. If an application then uses these predictions as recommendations, some of these
"recommendations" will likely be racist.[181] Thus, machine learning is not well suited to help make
decisions in areas where there is hope that the future will be better than the past. It is necessarily descriptive
and not proscriptive.[l]

Bias and unfairness may go undetected because the developers are overwhelmingly white and male: among
AI engineers, about 4% are black and 20% are women.[174]

At its 2022 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (ACM FAccT 2022), the
Association for Computing Machinery, in Seoul, South Korea, presented and published findings that
recommend that until AI and robotics systems are demonstrated to be free of bias mistakes, they are unsafe,
and the use of self-learning neural networks trained on vast, unregulated sources of flawed internet data
should be curtailed.[183]

Lack of transparency
Many AI systems are so complex that their designers cannot
explain how they reach their decisions.[184] Particularly with
deep neural networks, in which there are a large amount of
non-linear relationships between inputs and outputs. But
some popular explainability techniques exist.[185]

It is impossible to be certain that a program is operating

correctly if no one knows how exactly it works. There have
been many cases where a machine learning program passed
Lidar testing vehicle for autonomous driving
rigorous tests, but nevertheless learned something different
than what the programmers intended. For example, a system
that could identify skin diseases better than medical professionals was found to actually have a strong
tendency to classify images with a ruler as "cancerous", because pictures of malignancies typically include a
ruler to show the scale.[186] Another machine learning system designed to help effectively allocate medical
resources was found to classify patients with asthma as being at "low risk" of dying from pneumonia.
Having asthma is actually a severe risk factor, but since the patients having asthma would usually get much
more medical care, they were relatively unlikely to die according to the training data. The correlation
between asthma and low risk of dying from pneumonia was real, but misleading.[187]

People who have been harmed by an algorithm's decision have a right to an explanation.[188] Doctors, for
example, are expected to clearly and completely explain to their colleagues the reasoning behind any
decision they make. Early drafts of the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation in 2016
included an explicit statement that this right exists.[m] Industry experts noted that this is an unsolved
problem with no solution in sight. Regulators argued that nevertheless the harm is real: if the problem has
no solution, the tools should not be used.[189]

DARPA established the XAI ("Explainable Artificial Intelligence") program in 2014 to try and solve these
problems.[190]
There are several possible solutions to the transparency problem. SHAP tried to solve the transparency
problems by visualising the contribution of each feature to the output.[191] LIME can locally approximate a
model with a simpler, interpretable model.[192] Multitask learning provides a large number of outputs in
addition to the target classification. These other outputs can help developers deduce what the network has
learned.[193] Deconvolution, DeepDream and other generative methods can allow developers to see what
different layers of a deep network have learned and produce output that can suggest what the network is
learning.[194]

Bad actors and weaponized AI

Artificial intelligence provides a number of tools that are useful to bad actors, such as authoritarian
governments, terrorists, criminals or rogue states.

A lethal autonomous weapon is a machine that locates, selects and engages human targets without human
supervision.[n] Widely available AI tools can be used by bad actors to develop inexpensive autonomous
weapons and, if produced at scale, they are potentially weapons of mass destruction.[196] Even when used
in conventional warfare, it is unlikely that they will be unable to reliably choose targets and could
potentially kill an innocent person.[196] In 2014, 30 nations (including China) supported a ban on
autonomous weapons under the United Nations' Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, however
the United States and others disagreed.[197] By 2015, over fifty countries were reported to be researching
battlefield robots.[198]

AI tools make it easier for authoritarian governments to efficiently control their citizens in several ways.
Face and voice recognition allow widespread surveillance. Machine learning, operating this data, can
classify potential enemies of the state and prevent them from hiding. Recommendation systems can
precisely target propaganda and misinformation for maximum effect. Deepfakes and generative AI aid in
producing misinformation. Advanced AI can make authoritarian centralized decision making more
competitive than liberal and decentralized systems such as markets. It lowers the cost and difficulty of
digital warfare and advanced spyware.[199] All these technologies have been available since 2020 or earlier
—AI facial recognition systems are already being used for mass surveillance in China.[200][201]

There many other ways that AI is expected to help bad actors, some of which can not be foreseen. For
example, machine-learning AI is able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of
hours.[202]

Reliance on industry giants

Training AI systems requires an enormous amount of computing power. Usually only Big Tech companies
have the financial resources to make such investments. Smaller startups such as Cohere and OpenAI end up
buying access to data centers from Google and Microsoft respectively.[203]

Technological unemployment
Economists have frequently highlighted the risks of redundancies from AI, and speculated about
unemployment if there is no adequate social policy for full employment.[204]
In the past, technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but economists
acknowledge that "we're in uncharted territory" with AI.[205] A survey of economists showed disagreement
about whether the increasing use of robots and AI will cause a substantial increase in long-term
unemployment, but they generally agree that it could be a net benefit if productivity gains are
redistributed.[206] Risk estimates vary; for example, in the 2010s, Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey
estimated 47% of U.S. jobs are at "high risk" of potential automation, while an OECD report classified only
9% of U.S. jobs as "high risk".[o][208] The methodology of speculating about future employment levels has
been criticised as lacking evidential foundation, and for implying that technology, rather than social policy,
creates unemployment, as opposed to redundancies.[204] In April 2023, it was reported that 70% of the jobs
for Chinese video game illustrators had been eliminated by generative artificial intelligence.[209][210]

Unlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial intelligence;
The Economist stated in 2015 that "the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what steam power did to
blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution" is "worth taking seriously".[211] Jobs at extreme risk
range from paralegals to fast food cooks, while job demand is likely to increase for care-related professions
ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy.[212]

From the early days of the development of artificial intelligence, there have been arguments, for example,
those put forward by Joseph Weizenbaum, about whether tasks that can be done by computers actually
should be done by them, given the difference between computers and humans, and between quantitative
calculation and qualitative, value-based judgement.[213]

Existential risk
It has been argued AI will become so powerful that humanity may irreversibly lose control of it. This could,
as physicist Stephen Hawking stated, "spell the end of the human race".[214] This scenario has been
common in science fiction, when a computer or robot suddenly develops a human-like "self-awareness" (or
"sentience" or "consciousness") and becomes a malevolent character.[p] These sci-fi scenarios are
misleading in several ways.

First, AI does not require human-like "sentience" to be an existential risk. Modern AI programs are given
specific goals and use learning and intelligence to achieve them. Philosopher Nick Bostrom argued that if
one gives almost any goal to a sufficiently powerful AI, it may choose to destroy humanity to achieve it (he
used the example of a paperclip factory manager).[216] Stuart Russell gives the example of household robot
that tries to find a way to kill its owner to prevent it from being unplugged, reasoning that "you can't fetch
the coffee if you're dead."[217] In order to be safe for humanity, a superintelligence would have to be
genuinely aligned with humanity's morality and values so that it is "fundamentally on our side".[218]

Second, Yuval Noah Harari argues that AI does not require a robot body or physical control to pose an
existential risk. The essential parts of civilization are not physical. Things like ideologies, law, government,
money and the economy are made of language; they exist because there are stories that billions of people
believe. The current prevalence of misinformation suggests that an AI could use language to convince
people to believe anything, even to take actions that are destructive.[219]

The opinions amongst experts and industry insiders are mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and
unconcerned by risk from eventual superintelligent AI.[220] Personalities such as Stephen Hawking, Bill
Gates, and Elon Musk have expressed concern about existential risk from AI.[221] AI pioneers including
Fei-Fei Li, Geoffrey Hinton, Yoshua Bengio, Cynthia Breazeal, Rana el Kaliouby, Demis Hassabis, Joy
Buolamwini, and Sam Altman have expressed concerns about the risks of AI. In 2023, many leading AI
experts issued the joint statement that "Mitigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority
alongside other societal-scale risks such as pandemics and nuclear war".[222]

Other researchers, however, spoke in favor of a less dystopian view. AI pioneer Juergen Schmidhuber did
not sign the joint statement, emphasising that in 95% of all cases, AI research is about making "human lives
longer and healthier and easier."[223] While the tools that are now being used to improve lives can also be
used by bad actors, "they can also be used against the bad actors." [224][225] Andrew Ng also argued that
"it's a mistake to fall for the doomsday hype on AI—and that regulators who do will only benefit vested
interests."[226] Yann LeCun "scoffs at his peers' dystopian scenarios of supercharged misinformation and
even, eventually, human extinction."[227] In the early 2010s, experts argued that the risks are too distant in
the future to warrant research or that humans will be valuable from the perspective of a superintelligent
machine.[228] However, after 2016, the study of current and future risks and possible solutions became a
serious area of research.[229]

Ethical machines and alignment

Friendly AI are machines that have been designed from the beginning to minimize risks and to make
choices that benefit humans. Eliezer Yudkowsky, who coined the term, argues that developing friendly AI
should be a higher research priority: it may require a large investment and it must be completed before AI
becomes an existential risk.[230]

Machines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to make ethical decisions. The field of
machine ethics provides machines with ethical principles and procedures for resolving ethical
dilemmas.[231] The field of machine ethics is also called computational morality,[231] and was founded at an
AAAI symposium in 2005.[232]

Other approaches include Wendell Wallach's "artificial moral agents"[233] and Stuart J. Russell's three
principles for developing provably beneficial machines.[234]

Open source
Active organizations in the AI open-source community include Hugging Face,[235] Google,[236]
EleutherAI and Meta.[237] Various AI models, such as Llama 2, Mistral or Stable Diffusion, have been
made open-weight,[238][239] meaning that their architecture and trained parameters (the "weights") are
publicly available. Open-weight models can be freely fine-tuned, which allows companies to specialize
them with their own data and for their own use-case.[240] Open-weight models are useful for research and
innovation but can also be misused. Since they can be fine-tuned, any built-in security measure, such as
objecting to harmful requests, can be trained away until it becomes ineffective. Some researchers warn that
future AI models may develop dangerous capabilities (such as the potential to drastically facilitate
bioterrorism), and that once released on the Internet, they can't be deleted everywhere if needed. They
recommend pre-release audits and cost-benefit analyses.[241]

Frameworks
Artificial Intelligence projects can have their ethical permissibility tested while designing, developing, and
implementing an AI system. An AI framework such as the Care and Act Framework containing the SUM
values—developed by the Alan Turing Institute tests projects in four main areas:[242][243]

RESPECT the dignity of individual people

CONNECT with other people sincerely, openly and inclusively
CARE for the wellbeing of everyone
PROTECT social values, justice and the public interest
Other developments in ethical frameworks include those decided upon during the Asilomar Conference, the
Montreal Declaration for Responsible AI, and the IEEE's Ethics of Autonomous Systems initiative, among
others;[244] however, these principles do not go without their criticisms, especially regards to the people
chosen contributes to these frameworks.[245]

Promotion of the wellbeing of the people and communities that these technologies affect requires
consideration of the social and ethical implications at all stages of AI system design, development and
implementation, and collaboration between job roles such as data scientists, product managers, data
engineers, domain experts, and delivery managers.[246]

The AI Safety Institute in the UK has released a testing toolset called 'Inspect' for AI safety evaluations
available under a MIT open-source licence which is freely available on Github and can be improved with
third-party packages. It can be used to evaluate AI models in a range of areas including core knowledge,
ability to reason, and autonomous capabilities.[247]

Regulation
The regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of
public sector policies and laws for promoting and regulating
artificial intelligence (AI); it is therefore related to the broader
regulation of algorithms.[248] The regulatory and policy
landscape for AI is an emerging issue in jurisdictions
globally.[249] According to AI Index at Stanford, the annual
number of AI-related laws passed in the 127 survey countries
jumped from one passed in 2016 to 37 passed in 2022
alone.[250][251] Between 2016 and 2020, more than 30
The first global AI Safety Summit was held
countries adopted dedicated strategies for AI.[252] Most EU in 2023 with a declaration calling for
member states had released national AI strategies, as had international co-operation.
Canada, China, India, Japan, Mauritius, the Russian
Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, U.S., and
Vietnam. Others were in the process of elaborating their own AI strategy, including Bangladesh, Malaysia
and Tunisia.[252] The Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence was launched in June 2020, stating a
need for AI to be developed in accordance with human rights and democratic values, to ensure public
confidence and trust in the technology.[252] Henry Kissinger, Eric Schmidt, and Daniel Huttenlocher
published a joint statement in November 2021 calling for a government commission to regulate AI.[253] In
2023, OpenAI leaders published recommendations for the governance of superintelligence, which they
believe may happen in less than 10 years.[254] In 2023, the United Nations also launched an advisory body
to provide recommendations on AI governance; the body comprises technology company executives,
governments officials and academics.[255]
In a 2022 Ipsos survey, attitudes towards AI varied greatly by country; 78% of Chinese citizens, but only
35% of Americans, agreed that "products and services using AI have more benefits than drawbacks".[250] A
2023 Reuters/Ipsos poll found that 61% of Americans agree, and 22% disagree, that AI poses risks to
humanity.[256] In a 2023 Fox News poll, 35% of Americans thought it "very important", and an additional
41% thought it "somewhat important", for the federal government to regulate AI, versus 13% responding
"not very important" and 8% responding "not at all important".[257][258]

In November 2023, the first global AI Safety Summit was held in Bletchley Park in the UK to discuss the
near and far term risks of AI and the possibility of mandatory and voluntary regulatory frameworks.[259] 28
countries including the United States, China, and the European Union issued a declaration at the start of the
summit, calling for international co-operation to manage the challenges and risks of artificial
intelligence.[260][261] In May 2024 at the AI Seoul Summit, 16 global AI tech companies agreed to safety
commitments on the development of AI.[262][263]

History
The study of mechanical or "formal" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity.
The study of logic led directly to Alan Turing's theory of computation, which suggested that a machine, by
shuffling symbols as simple as "0" and "1", could simulate any conceivable form of mathematical
reasoning.[264][5] This, along with concurrent discoveries in cybernetics, information theory and
neurobiology, led researchers to consider the possibility of building an "electronic brain".[q] They
developed several areas of research that would become part of AI,[266] such as McCullouch and Pitts
design for "artificial neurons" in 1943,[267] and Turing's influential 1950 paper 'Computing Machinery and
Intelligence', which introduced the Turing test and showed that "machine intelligence" was plausible.[268][5]

The field of AI research was founded at a workshop at Dartmouth College in 1956.[r][6] The attendees
became the leaders of AI research in the 1960s.[s] They and their students produced programs that the press
described as "astonishing":[t] computers were learning checkers strategies, solving word problems in
algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.[u][7] Artificial intelligence laboratories were set up
at a number of British and U.S. Universities in the latter 1950s and early 1960s.[5]

Researchers in the 1960s and the 1970s were convinced that their methods would eventually succeed in
creating a machine with general intelligence and considered this the goal of their field.[272] Herbert Simon
predicted, "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do".[273] Marvin
Minsky agreed, writing, "within a generation ... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will
substantially be solved".[274] They had, however, underestimated the difficulty of the problem.[v] In 1974,
both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in response to the criticism of Sir James
Lighthill[276] and ongoing pressure from the U.S. Congress to fund more productive projects.[277] Minsky's
and Papert's book Perceptrons was understood as proving that artificial neural networks would never be
useful for solving real-world tasks, thus discrediting the approach altogether.[278] The "AI winter", a period
when obtaining funding for AI projects was difficult, followed.[9]

In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems,[279] a form of AI
program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts. By 1985, the market for AI
had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's fifth generation computer project inspired the
U.S. and British governments to restore funding for academic research.[8] However, beginning with the
collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer-lasting
winter began.[10]

Up to this point, most of AI's funding had gone to projects that used high-level symbols to represent mental
objects like plans, goals, beliefs, and known facts. In the 1980s, some researchers began to doubt that this
approach would be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition, especially perception, robotics,
learning and pattern recognition,[280] and began to look into "sub-symbolic" approaches.[281] Rodney
Brooks rejected "representation" in general and focussed directly on engineering machines that move and
survive.[w] Judea Pearl, Lofti Zadeh and others developed methods that handled incomplete and uncertain
information by making reasonable guesses rather than precise logic.[88][286] But the most important
development was the revival of "connectionism", including neural network research, by Geoffrey Hinton
and others.[287] In 1990, Yann LeCun successfully showed that convolutional neural networks can
recognize handwritten digits, the first of many successful applications of neural networks.[288]

AI gradually restored its reputation in the late 1990s and early 21st century by exploiting formal
mathematical methods and by finding specific solutions to specific problems. This "narrow" and "formal"
focus allowed researchers to produce verifiable results and collaborate with other fields (such as statistics,
economics and mathematics).[289] By 2000, solutions developed by AI researchers were being widely used,
although in the 1990s they were rarely described as "artificial intelligence".[290] However, several academic
researchers became concerned that AI was no longer pursuing its original goal of creating versatile, fully
intelligent machines. Beginning around 2002, they founded the subfield of artificial general intelligence (or
"AGI"), which had several well-funded institutions by the 2010s.[14]

Deep learning began to dominate industry benchmarks in 2012 and was adopted throughout the field.[11]
For many specific tasks, other methods were abandoned.[x] Deep learning's success was based on both
hardware improvements (faster computers,[292] graphics processing units, cloud computing[293]) and access
to large amounts of data[294] (including curated datasets,[293] such as ImageNet). Deep learning's success
led to an enormous increase in interest and funding in AI.[y] The amount of machine learning research
(measured by total publications) increased by 50% in the years 2015–2019.[252]

In 2016, issues of fairness and the misuse of technology were catapulted into center stage at machine
learning conferences, publications vastly increased, funding became available, and many researchers re-
focussed their careers on these issues. The alignment problem became a serious field of academic
study.[229]

In the late teens and early 2020s, AGI companies began to deliver programs that created enormous interest.
In 2015, AlphaGo, developed by DeepMind, beat the world champion Go player. The program was taught
only the rules of the game and developed strategy by itself. GPT-3 is a large language model that was
released in 2020 by OpenAI and is capable of generating high-quality human-like text.[295] These
programs, and others, inspired an aggressive AI boom, where large companies began investing billions in
AI research. According to AI Impacts, about $50 billion annually was invested in "AI" around 2022 in the
U.S. alone and about 20% of the new U.S. Computer Science PhD graduates have specialized in "AI".[296]
About 800,000 "AI"-related U.S. job openings existed in 2022.[297]

Philosophy

Defining artificial intelligence

Alan Turing wrote in 1950 "I propose to consider the question 'can machines think'?"[298] He advised
changing the question from whether a machine "thinks", to "whether or not it is possible for machinery to
show intelligent behaviour".[298] He devised the Turing test, which measures the ability of a machine to
simulate human conversation.[268] Since we can only observe the behavior of the machine, it does not
matter if it is "actually" thinking or literally has a "mind". Turing notes that we can not determine these
things about other people but "it is usual to have a polite convention that everyone thinks"[299]

Russell and Norvig agree with Turing that intelligence must be defined in terms of external behavior, not
internal structure.[1] However, they are critical that the test requires the machine to imitate humans.
"Aeronautical engineering texts," they wrote, "do not define the goal of their field as making 'machines that
fly so exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons.' "[300] AI founder John McCarthy agreed,
writing that "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence".[301]

McCarthy defines intelligence as "the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world".[302]
Another AI founder, Marvin Minsky similarly describes it as "the ability to solve hard problems".[303] The
leading AI textbook defines it as the study of agents that perceive their environment and take actions that
maximize their chances of achieving defined goals.[1] These definitions view intelligence in terms of well-
defined problems with well-defined solutions, where both the difficulty of the problem and the performance
of the program are direct measures of the "intelligence" of the machine—and no other philosophical
discussion is required, or may not even be possible.

Another definition has been adopted by Google,[304] a major practitioner in the field of AI. This definition
stipulates the ability of systems to synthesize information as the manifestation of intelligence, similar to the
way it is defined in biological intelligence.

Evaluating approaches to AI
No established unifying theory or paradigm has guided AI research for most of its history.[z] The
unprecedented success of statistical machine learning in the 2010s eclipsed all other approaches (so much so
that some sources, especially in the business world, use the term "artificial intelligence" to mean "machine
learning with neural networks"). This approach is mostly sub-symbolic, soft and narrow. Critics argue that
these questions may have to be revisited by future generations of AI researchers.

Symbolic AI and its limits

Symbolic AI (or "GOFAI")[306] simulated the high-level conscious reasoning that people use when they
solve puzzles, express legal reasoning and do mathematics. They were highly successful at "intelligent"
tasks such as algebra or IQ tests. In the 1960s, Newell and Simon proposed the physical symbol systems
hypothesis: "A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent
action."[307]

However, the symbolic approach failed on many tasks that humans solve easily, such as learning,
recognizing an object or commonsense reasoning. Moravec's paradox is the discovery that high-level
"intelligent" tasks were easy for AI, but low level "instinctive" tasks were extremely difficult.[308]
Philosopher Hubert Dreyfus had argued since the 1960s that human expertise depends on unconscious
instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation, and on having a "feel" for the situation, rather than
explicit symbolic knowledge.[309] Although his arguments had been ridiculed and ignored when they were
first presented, eventually, AI research came to agree with him.[aa][19]

The issue is not resolved: sub-symbolic reasoning can make many of the same inscrutable mistakes that
human intuition does, such as algorithmic bias. Critics such as Noam Chomsky argue continuing research
into symbolic AI will still be necessary to attain general intelligence,[311][312] in part because sub-symbolic
AI is a move away from explainable AI: it can be difficult or impossible to understand why a modern
statistical AI program made a particular decision. The emerging field of neuro-symbolic artificial
intelligence attempts to bridge the two approaches.

Neat vs. scruffy

"Neats" hope that intelligent behavior is described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic,
optimization, or neural networks). "Scruffies" expect that it necessarily requires solving a large number of
unrelated problems. Neats defend their programs with theoretical rigor, scruffies rely mainly on incremental
testing to see if they work. This issue was actively discussed in the 1970s and 1980s,[313] but eventually
was seen as irrelevant. Modern AI has elements of both.

Soft vs. hard computing

Finding a provably correct or optimal solution is intractable for many important problems.[18] Soft
computing is a set of techniques, including genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic and neural networks, that are
tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth and approximation. Soft computing was introduced in the
late 1980s and most successful AI programs in the 21st century are examples of soft computing with neural
networks.

Narrow vs. general AI

AI researchers are divided as to whether to pursue the goals of artificial general intelligence and
superintelligence directly or to solve as many specific problems as possible (narrow AI) in hopes these
solutions will lead indirectly to the field's long-term goals.[314][315] General intelligence is difficult to define
and difficult to measure, and modern AI has had more verifiable successes by focusing on specific problems
with specific solutions. The experimental sub-field of artificial general intelligence studies this area
exclusively.

Machine consciousness, sentience, and mind

The philosophy of mind does not know whether a machine can have a mind, consciousness and mental
states, in the same sense that human beings do. This issue considers the internal experiences of the machine,
rather than its external behavior. Mainstream AI research considers this issue irrelevant because it does not
affect the goals of the field: to build machines that can solve problems using intelligence. Russell and
Norvig add that "[t]he additional project of making a machine conscious in exactly the way humans are is
not one that we are equipped to take on."[316] However, the question has become central to the philosophy
of mind. It is also typically the central question at issue in artificial intelligence in fiction.

Consciousness
David Chalmers identified two problems in understanding the mind, which he named the "hard" and "easy"
problems of consciousness.[317] The easy problem is understanding how the brain processes signals, makes
plans and controls behavior. The hard problem is explaining how this feels or why it should feel like
anything at all, assuming we are right in thinking that it truly does feel like something (Dennett's
consciousness illusionism says this is an illusion). While human information processing is easy to explain,
human subjective experience is difficult to explain. For example, it is easy to imagine a color-blind person
who has learned to identify which objects in their field of view are red, but it is not clear what would be
required for the person to know what red looks like.[318]

Computationalism and functionalism

Computationalism is the position in the philosophy of mind that the human mind is an information
processing system and that thinking is a form of computing. Computationalism argues that the relationship
between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and hardware and thus
may be a solution to the mind–body problem. This philosophical position was inspired by the work of AI
researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally proposed by philosophers Jerry Fodor
and Hilary Putnam.[319]

Philosopher John Searle characterized this position as "strong AI": "The appropriately programmed
computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human
beings have minds."[ab] Searle counters this assertion with his Chinese room argument, which attempts to
show that, even if a machine perfectly simulates human behavior, there is still no reason to suppose it also
has a mind.[323]

AI welfare and rights

It is difficult or impossible to reliably evaluate whether an advanced AI is sentient (has the ability to feel),
and if so, to what degree.[324] But if there is a significant chance that a given machine can feel and suffer,
then it may be entitled to certain rights or welfare protection measures, similarly to animals.[325][326]
Sapience (a set of capacities related to high intelligence, such as discernment or self-awareness) may
provide another moral basis for AI rights.[325] Robot rights are also sometimes proposed as a practical way
to integrate autonomous agents into society.[327]

In 2017, the European Union considered granting "electronic personhood" to some of the most capable AI
systems. Similarly to the legal status of companies, it would have conferred rights but also
responsibilities.[328] Critics argued in 2018 that granting rights to AI systems would downplay the
importance of human rights, and that legislation should focus on user needs rather than speculative futuristic
scenarios. They also noted that robots lacked the autonomy to take part to society on their own.[329][330]
Progress in AI increased interest in the topic. Proponents of AI welfare and rights often argue that AI
sentience, if it emerges, would be particularly easy to deny. They warn that this may be a moral blind spot
analogous to slavery or factory farming, which could lead to large-scale suffering if sentient AI is created
and carelessly exploited.[326][325]

Future

Superintelligence and the singularity

A superintelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest
and most gifted human mind.[315]

If research into artificial general intelligence produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to
reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading to
what I. J. Good called an "intelligence explosion" and Vernor Vinge called a "singularity".[331]

However, technologies cannot improve exponentially indefinitely, and typically follow an S-shaped curve,
slowing when they reach the physical limits of what the technology can do.[332]

Transhumanism
Robot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick, and inventor Ray Kurzweil have predicted
that humans and machines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than
either. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in Aldous Huxley and Robert Ettinger.[333]

Edward Fredkin argues that "artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution", an idea first proposed by
Samuel Butler's "Darwin among the Machines" as far back as 1863, and expanded upon by George Dyson
in his book of the same name in 1998.[334]

In fiction
Thought-capable artificial beings have appeared as
storytelling devices since antiquity,[335] and have been a
persistent theme in science fiction.[336]

A common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's

Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its
masters. This includes such works as Arthur C. Clarke's and
Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (both 1968), with
The word "robot" itself was coined by Karel
HAL 9000, the murderous computer in charge of the
Čapek in his 1921 play R.U.R., the title
Discovery One spaceship, as well as The Terminator (1984)
standing for "Rossum's Universal Robots".
and The Matrix (1999). In contrast, the rare loyal robots such
as Gort from The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and
Bishop from Aliens (1986) are less prominent in popular culture.[337]

Isaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many books and stories, most notably the
"Multivac" series about a super-intelligent computer of the same name. Asimov's laws are often brought up
during lay discussions of machine ethics;[338] while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar
with Asimov's laws through popular culture, they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons, one
of which is their ambiguity.[339]

Several works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human, showing
us artificial beings that have the ability to feel, and thus to suffer. This appears in Karel Čapek's R.U.R., the
films A.I. Artificial Intelligence and Ex Machina, as well as the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric
Sheep?, by Philip K. Dick. Dick considers the idea that our understanding of human subjectivity is altered
by technology created with artificial intelligence.[340]

See also
Artificial intelligence detection software – Software to detect AI-generated content
Behavior selection algorithm – Algorithm that selects actions for intelligent agents
Business process automation – Technology-enabled automation of complex business
processes
Case-based reasoning – Process of solving new problems based on the solutions of similar
past problems
Computational intelligence – Ability of a computer to learn a specific task from data or
experimental observation
Digital immortality – Hypothetical concept of storing a personality in digital form
Emergent algorithm – Algorithm exhibiting emergent behavior
Female gendering of AI technologies – Gender biases in digital technology
Glossary of artificial intelligence – List of definitions of terms and concepts commonly used in
the study of artificial intelligence
Intelligence amplification – Use of information technology to augment human intelligence
Mind uploading – Hypothetical process of digitally emulating a brain
Robotic process automation – Form of business process automation technology
Weak artificial intelligence – Form of artificial intelligence
Wetware computer – Computer composed of organic material

Explanatory notes
a. This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks,
including: Russell & Norvig (2021), Luger & Stubblefield (2004), Poole, Mackworth & Goebel
(1998) and Nilsson (1998)
b. This list of tools is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: Russell
& Norvig (2021), Luger & Stubblefield (2004), Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998) and
Nilsson (1998)
c. It is among the reasons that expert systems proved to be inefficient for capturing
knowledge.[33][34]
d. "Rational agent" is general term used in economics, philosophy and theoretical artificial
intelligence. It can refer to anything that directs its behavior to accomplish goals, such as a
person, an animal, a corporation, a nation, or in the case of AI, a computer program.
e. Alan Turing discussed the centrality of learning as early as 1950, in his classic paper
"Computing Machinery and Intelligence".[45] In 1956, at the original Dartmouth AI summer
conference, Ray Solomonoff wrote a report on unsupervised probabilistic machine learning:
"An Inductive Inference Machine".[46]
f. See AI winter § Machine translation and the ALPAC report of 1966
g. Compared with symbolic logic, formal Bayesian inference is computationally expensive. For
inference to be tractable, most observations must be conditionally independent of one
another. AdSense uses a Bayesian network with over 300 million edges to learn which ads
to serve.[95]
h. Expectation-maximization, one of the most popular algorithms in machine learning, allows
clustering in the presence of unknown latent variables.[97]
i. Some form of deep neural networks (without a specific learning algorithm) were described
by: Alan Turing (1948);[116] Frank Rosenblatt(1957);[116] Karl Steinbuch and Roger David
Joseph (1961).[117] Deep or recurrent networks that learned (or used gradient descent) were
developed by: Ernst Ising and Wilhelm Lenz (1925);[118] Oliver Selfridge (1959);[117] Alexey
Ivakhnenko and Valentin Lapa (1965);[118] Kaoru Nakano (1977);[119] Shun-Ichi Amari
(1972);[119] John Joseph Hopfield (1982).[119] Backpropagation was independently
discovered by: Henry J. Kelley (1960);[116] Arthur E. Bryson (1962);[116] Stuart Dreyfus
(1962);[116] Arthur E. Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho (1969);[116] Seppo Linnainmaa (1970);[120] Paul
Werbos (1974).[116] In fact, backpropagation and gradient descent are straight forward
applications of Gottfried Leibniz' chain rule in calculus (1676),[121] and is essentially
identical (for one layer) to the method of least squares, developed independently by Johann
Carl Friedrich Gauss (1795) and Adrien-Marie Legendre (1805).[122] There are probably
many others, yet to be discovered by historians of science.
j. Geoffrey Hinton said, of his work on neural networks in the 1990s, "our labeled datasets
were thousands of times too small. [And] our computers were millions of times too slow"[123]
k. Including Jon Kleinberg (Cornell), Sendhil Mullainathan (University of Chicago), Cynthia
Chouldechova (Carnegie Mellon) and Sam Corbett-Davis (Stanford)[177]
l. Moritz Hardt (a director at the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems) argues that
machine learning "is fundamentally the wrong tool for a lot of domains, where you're trying to
design interventions and mechanisms that change the world."[182]
m. When the law was passed in 2018, it still contained a form of this provision.
n. This is the United Nations' definition, and includes things like land mines as well.[195]
o. See table 4; 9% is both the OECD average and the U.S. average.[207]
p. Sometimes called a "robopocalypse".[215]
q. "Electronic brain" was the term used by the press around this time.[264][265]
r. Daniel Crevier wrote, "the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the
new science."[269] Russell and Norvig called the conference "the inception of artificial
intelligence."[267]
s. Russell and Norvig wrote "for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these
people and their students."[270]
t. Russell and Norvig wrote "it was astonishing whenever a computer did anything kind of
smartish".[271]
u. The programs described are Arthur Samuel's checkers program for the IBM 701, Daniel
Bobrow's STUDENT, Newell and Simon's Logic Theorist and Terry Winograd's SHRDLU.
v. Russell and Norvig write: "in almost all cases, these early systems failed on more difficult
problems"[275]
w. Embodied approaches to AI[282] were championed by Hans Moravec[283] and Rodney
Brooks[284] and went by many names: Nouvelle AI.[284] Developmental robotics,[285]
 x. Matteo Wong wrote in The Atlantic: "Whereas for decades, computer-science fields such as
natural-language processing, computer vision, and robotics used extremely different
methods, now they all use a programming method called "deep learning." As a result, their
code and approaches have become more similar, and their models are easier to integrate
into one another."[291]
y. Jack Clark wrote in Bloomberg: "After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial
intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster
than ever", and noted that the number of software projects that use machine learning at
Google increased from a "sporadic usage" in 2012 to more than 2,700 projects in 2015.[293]
z. Nils Nilsson wrote in 1983: "Simply put, there is wide disagreement in the field about what AI
is all about."[305]
aa. Daniel Crevier wrote that "time has proven the accuracy and perceptiveness of some of
Dreyfus's comments. Had he formulated them less aggressively, constructive actions they
suggested might have been taken much earlier."[310]
ab. Searle presented this definition of "Strong AI" in 1999.[320] Searle's original formulation was
"The appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers given
the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states."[321]
Strong AI is defined similarly by Russell and Norvig: "Stong AI – the assertion that machines
that do so are actually thinking (as opposed to simulating thinking)."[322]

References
1. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 1–4.
2. Google (2016).
3. AI set to exceed human brain power (http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostr
om/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080219001624/http://www.cnn.com/2006/TEC
H/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/) 2008-02-19 at the Wayback Machine CNN.com (July 26, 2006)
4. Kaplan, Andreas; Haenlein, Michael (2019). "Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the
land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence". Business
Horizons. 62: 15–25. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2018.08.004 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bushor.
2018.08.004). S2CID 158433736 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:158433736).
5. Copeland, J., ed. (2004). The Essential Turing: the ideas that gave birth to the computer age.
Oxford, England: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-825079-7.
6. Dartmouth workshop:
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 18)
McCorduck (2004, pp. 111–136)
NRC (1999, pp. 200–201)
The proposal:
McCarthy et al. (1955)
7. Successful programs the 1960s:
McCorduck (2004, pp. 243–252)
Crevier (1993, pp. 52–107)
Moravec (1988, p. 9)
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 19–21)
 8. Funding initiatives in the early 1980s: Fifth Generation Project (Japan), Alvey (UK),
Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (US), Strategic Computing Initiative
(US):
McCorduck (2004, pp. 426–441)
Crevier (1993, pp. 161–162, 197–203, 211, 240)
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 23)
NRC (1999, pp. 210–211)
Newquist (1994, pp. 235–248)
9. First AI Winter, Lighthill report, Mansfield Amendment
Crevier (1993, pp. 115–117)
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 21–22)
NRC (1999, pp. 212–213)
Howe (1994)
Newquist (1994, pp. 189–201)
10. Second AI Winter:
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 24)
McCorduck (2004, pp. 430–435)
Crevier (1993, pp. 209–210)
NRC (1999, pp. 214–216)
Newquist (1994, pp. 301–318)
11. Deep learning revolution, AlexNet:
Goldman (2022)
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 26)
McKinsey (2018)
12. Toews (2023).
13. Frank (2023).
14. Artificial general intelligence:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 32–33, 1020–1021)
Proposal for the modern version:
Pennachin & Goertzel (2007)
Warnings of overspecialization in AI from leading researchers:
Nilsson (1995)
McCarthy (2007)
Beal & Winston (2009)
15. Russell & Norvig (2021, §1.2).
16. Problem-solving, puzzle solving, game playing, and deduction:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 3–5)
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 6) (constraint satisfaction)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, chpt. 2, 3, 7, 9)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, chpt. 3, 4, 6, 8)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 7–12)
17. Uncertain reasoning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 12–18)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 345–395)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 333–381)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 7–12)
18. Intractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion:
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 21)
19. Psychological evidence of the prevalence of sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge:
Kahneman (2011)
Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986)
Wason & Shapiro (1966)
Kahneman, Slovic & Tversky (1982)
20. Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 10)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 23–46, 69–81, 169–233, 235–277, 281–298,
319–345)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 227–243),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 17.1–17.4, 18)
21. Smoliar & Zhang (1994).
22. Neumann & Möller (2008).
23. Kuperman, Reichley & Bailey (2006).
24. McGarry (2005).
25. Bertini, Del Bimbo & Torniai (2006).
26. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 272.
27. Representing categories and relations: Semantic networks, description logics, inheritance
(including frames, and scripts):
Russell & Norvig (2021, §10.2 & 10.5),
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 174–177),
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 248–258),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 18.3)
28. Representing events and time:Situation calculus, event calculus, fluent calculus (including
solving the frame problem):
Russell & Norvig (2021, §10.3),
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 281–298),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 18.2)
29. Causal calculus:
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 335–337)
30. Representing knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, modal logics:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §10.4),
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 275–277)
31. Default reasoning, Frame problem, default logic, non-monotonic logics, circumscription,
closed world assumption, abduction:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §10.6)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 248–256, 323–335)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 335–363)
Nilsson (1998, ~18.3.3)
(Poole et al. places abduction under "default reasoning". Luger et al. places this under
"uncertain reasoning").
32. Breadth of commonsense knowledge:
Lenat & Guha (1989, Introduction)
Crevier (1993, pp. 113–114),
Moravec (1988, p. 13),
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 241, 385, 982) (qualification problem)
33. Newquist (1994), p. 296.
34. Crevier (1993), pp. 204–208.
35. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 528.
36. Automated planning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 11).
37. Automated decision making, Decision theory:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 16–18).
38. Classical planning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Section 11.2).
39. Sensorless or "conformant" planning, contingent planning, replanning (a.k.a online
planning):
Russell & Norvig (2021, Section 11.5).
40. Uncertain preferences:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Section 16.7)
Inverse reinforcement learning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Section 22.6)
41. Information value theory:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Section 16.6).
42. Markov decision process:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 17).
43. Game theory and multi-agent decision theory:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 18).
44. Learning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 19–22)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 397–438)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 385–542)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20)
45. Turing (1950).
46. Solomonoff (1956).
47. Unsupervised learning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 653) (definition)
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 738–740) (cluster analysis)
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 846–860) (word embedding)
48. Supervised learning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §19.2) (Definition)
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 19–20) (Techniques)
49. Reinforcement learning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 22)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 442–449)
50. Transfer learning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 281)
The Economist (2016)
51. "Artificial Intelligence (AI): What Is AI and How Does It Work? | Built In" (https://builtin.com/art
ificial-intelligence). builtin.com. Retrieved 30 October 2023.
52. Computational learning theory:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 672–674)
Jordan & Mitchell (2015)
53. Natural language processing (NLP):
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 23–24)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 91–104)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 591–632)
54. Subproblems of NLP:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 849–850)
55. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 856–858.
56. Dickson (2022).
57. Modern statistical and deep learning approaches to NLP:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 24)
Cambria & White (2014)
58. Vincent (2019).
59. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 875–878.
60. Bushwick (2023).
61. Computer vision:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 25)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 6)
62. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 849–850.
63. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 895–899.
64. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 899–901.
65. Russell & Norvig (2021), pp. 931–938.
66. MIT AIL (2014).
67. Affective computing:
Thro (1993)
Edelson (1991)
Tao & Tan (2005)
Scassellati (2002)
68. Waddell (2018).
69. Poria et al. (2017).
70. Search algorithms:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 3–5)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 113–163)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 79–164, 193–219)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 7–12)
71. State space search:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 3)
72. Russell & Norvig (2021), §11.2.
73. Uninformed searches (breadth first search, depth-first search and general state space
search):
Russell & Norvig (2021, §3.4)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 113–132)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 79–121)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 8)
74. Heuristic or informed searches (e.g., greedy best first and A*):
Russell & Norvig (2021, s§3.5)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 132–147)
Poole & Mackworth (2017, §3.6)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 133–150)
75. Adversarial search:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 5)
76. Local or "optimization" search:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 4)
77. Singh Chauhan, Nagesh (18 December 2020). "Optimization Algorithms in Neural
Networks" (https://www.kdnuggets.com/optimization-algorithms-in-neural-networks).
KDnuggets. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
78. Evolutionary computation:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §4.1.2)
79. Merkle & Middendorf (2013).
80. Logic:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 6–9)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 35–77)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 13–16)
81. Propositional logic:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 6)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 45–50)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 13)
82. First-order logic and features such as equality:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 7)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 268–275),
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 50–62),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 15)
83. Logical inference:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 10)
84. logical deduction as search:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §9.3, §9.4)
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. ~46–52)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 62–73)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 4.2, 7.2)
85. Resolution and unification:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §7.5.2, §9.2, §9.5)
86. Warren, D.H.; Pereira, L.M.; Pereira, F. (1977). "Prolog-the language and its implementation
compared with Lisp". ACM SIGPLAN Notices. 12 (8): 109–115. doi:10.1145/872734.806939
(https://doi.org/10.1145%2F872734.806939).
87. Fuzzy logic:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 214, 255, 459)
Scientific American (1999)
88. Stochastic methods for uncertain reasoning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 12–18 and 20),
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 345–395),
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 165–191, 333–381),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 19)
89. decision theory and decision analysis:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 16–18),
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 381–394)
 90. Information value theory:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §16.6)
91. Markov decision processes and dynamic decision networks:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 17)
92. Stochastic temporal models:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 14)
Hidden Markov model:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §14.3)
Kalman filters:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §14.4)
Dynamic Bayesian networks:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §14.5)
93. Game theory and mechanism design:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 18)
94. Bayesian networks:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §12.5–12.6, §13.4–13.5, §14.3–14.5, §16.5, §20.2 -20.3),
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 361–381),
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. ~182–190, ≈363–379),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 19.3–4)
95. Domingos (2015), chapter 6.
96. Bayesian inference algorithm:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §13.3–13.5),
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 361–381),
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. ~363–379),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 19.4 & 7)
97. Domingos (2015), p. 210.
98. Bayesian learning and the expectation-maximization algorithm:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 20),
Poole, Mackworth & Goebel (1998, pp. 424–433),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 20)
Domingos (2015, p. 210)
99. Bayesian decision theory and Bayesian decision networks:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §16.5)
100. Statistical learning methods and classifiers:
Russell & Norvig (2021, chpt. 20),
101. Decision trees:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §19.3)
Domingos (2015, p. 88)
102. Non-parameteric learning models such as K-nearest neighbor and support vector machines:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §19.7)
Domingos (2015, p. 187) (k-nearest neighbor)
Domingos (2015, p. 88) (kernel methods)
103. Domingos (2015), p. 152.
104. Naive Bayes classifier:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §12.6)
Domingos (2015, p. 152)
105. Neural networks:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 21),
Domingos (2015, Chapter 4)
106. Gradient calculation in computational graphs, backpropagation, automatic differentiation:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §21.2),
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 467–474),
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 3.3)
107. Universal approximation theorem:
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 752)
The theorem:
Cybenko (1988)
Hornik, Stinchcombe & White (1989)
108. Feedforward neural networks:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §21.1)
109. Recurrent neural networks:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §21.6)
110. Perceptrons:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 21, 22, 683, 22)
111. Deep learning:
Russell & Norvig (2021, Chpt. 21)
Goodfellow, Bengio & Courville (2016)
Hinton et al. (2016)
Schmidhuber (2015)
112. Convolutional neural networks:
Russell & Norvig (2021, §21.3)
113. Deng & Yu (2014), pp. 199–200.
114. Ciresan, Meier & Schmidhuber (2012).
115. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 751.
116. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 785.
117. Schmidhuber (2022), §5.
118. Schmidhuber (2022), §6.
119. Schmidhuber (2022), §7.
120. Schmidhuber (2022), §8.
121. Schmidhuber (2022), §2.
122. Schmidhuber (2022), §3.
123. Quoted in Christian (2020, p. 22)
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McCorduck (2004, pp. 51–107)
Crevier (1993, pp. 27–32)
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Moravec (1988, p. 3)
267. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 17.
268. Turing's original publication of the Turing test in "Computing machinery and intelligence":
Turing (1950)
Historical influence and philosophical implications:
Haugeland (1985, pp. 6–9)
Crevier (1993, p. 24)
McCorduck (2004, pp. 70–71)
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 2, 984)
269. Crevier (1993), pp. 47–49.
270. Russell & Norvig (2003), p. 17.
271. Russell & Norvig (2003), p. 18.
272. Newquist (1994), pp. 86–86.
273. Simon (1965, p. 96) quoted in Crevier (1993, p. 109)
274. Minsky (1967, p. 2) quoted in Crevier (1993, p. 109)
275. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 21.
276. Lighthill (1973).
277. NRC 1999, pp. 212–213.
278. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 22.
279. Expert systems:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 23, 292)
Luger & Stubblefield (2004, pp. 227–331)
Nilsson (1998, chpt. 17.4)
McCorduck (2004, pp. 327–335, 434–435)
Crevier (1993, pp. 145–162, 197–203)
Newquist (1994, pp. 155–183)
280. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 24.
281. Nilsson (1998), p. 7.
282. McCorduck (2004), pp. 454–462.
283. Moravec (1988).
284. Brooks (1990).
285. Developmental robotics:
Weng et al. (2001)
Lungarella et al. (2003)
Asada et al. (2009)
Oudeyer (2010)
286. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 25.
287. Crevier (1993, pp. 214–215)
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 24, 26)
288. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 26.
289. Formal and narrow methods adopted in the 1990s:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 24–26)
McCorduck (2004, pp. 486–487)
290. AI widely used in the late 1990s:
Kurzweil (2005, p. 265)
NRC (1999, pp. 216–222)
Newquist (1994, pp. 189–201)
291. Wong (2023).
292. Moore's Law and AI:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 14, 27)
293. Clark (2015b).
294. Big data:
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 26)
295. Sagar, Ram (3 June 2020). "OpenAI Releases GPT-3, The Largest Model So Far" (https://an
alyticsindiamag.com/open-ai-gpt-3-language-model/). Analytics India Magazine. Archived (ht
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296. DiFeliciantonio (2023).
297. Goswami (2023).
298. Turing (1950), p. 1.
299. Turing (1950), Under "The Argument from Consciousness".
300. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 3.
301. Maker (2006).
302. McCarthy (1999).
303. Minsky (1986).
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305. Nilsson (1983), p. 10.
306. Haugeland (1985), pp. 112–117.
307. Physical symbol system hypothesis:
Newell & Simon (1976, p. 116)
Historical significance:
McCorduck (2004, p. 153)
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 19)
308. Moravec's paradox:
Moravec (1988, pp. 15–16)
Minsky (1986, p. 29)
Pinker (2007, pp. 190–191)
309. Dreyfus' critique of AI:
Dreyfus (1972)
Dreyfus & Dreyfus (1986)
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Crevier (1993, pp. 120–132)
McCorduck (2004, pp. 211–239)
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 981–982)
Fearn (2007, Chpt. 3)
310. Crevier (1993), p. 125.
311. Langley (2011).
312. Katz (2012).
313. Neats vs. scruffies, the historic debate:
McCorduck (2004, pp. 421–424, 486–489)
Crevier (1993, p. 168)
Nilsson (1983, pp. 10–11)
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 24)
A classic example of the "scruffy" approach to intelligence:
Minsky (1986)
A modern example of neat AI and its aspirations in the 21st century:
Domingos (2015)
314. Pennachin & Goertzel (2007).
315. Roberts (2016).
316. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 986.
317. Chalmers (1995).
318. Dennett (1991).
319. Horst (2005).
320. Searle (1999).
321. Searle (1980), p. 1.
322. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 9817.
323. Searle's Chinese room argument:
Searle (1980). Searle's original presentation of the thought experiment.
Searle (1999).
Discussion:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 985)
McCorduck (2004, pp. 443–445)
Crevier (1993, pp. 269–271)
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331. The Intelligence explosion and technological singularity:
Russell & Norvig (2021, pp. 1004–1005)
Omohundro (2008)
Kurzweil (2005)
I. J. Good's "intelligence explosion"
Good (1965)
Vernor Vinge's "singularity"
Vinge (1993)
332. Russell & Norvig (2021), p. 1005.
333. Transhumanism:
Moravec (1988)
Kurzweil (2005)
Russell & Norvig (2021, p. 1005)
334. AI as evolution:
Edward Fredkin is quoted in McCorduck (2004, p. 401)
Butler (1863)
Dyson (1998)
335. AI in myth:
McCorduck (2004, pp. 4–5)
336. McCorduck (2004), pp. 340–400.
337. Buttazzo (2001).
338. Anderson (2008).
339. McCauley (2007).
340. Galvan (1997).
AI textbooks
The two most widely used textbooks in 2023. (See the Open Syllabus (https://explorer.opensyllabus.org/res
ult/field?id=Computer+Science)).

Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter. (2021). Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (4th ed.).
Hoboken: Pearson. ISBN 978-0134610993. LCCN 20190474 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2019047
4).
Rich, Elaine; Knight, Kevin; Nair, Shivashankar B (2010). Artificial Intelligence (3rd ed.). New
Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill India. ISBN 978-0070087705.
These were the four of the most widely used AI textbooks in 2008:

Luger, George; Stubblefield, William (2004). Artificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies
for Complex Problem Solving (https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge) (5th ed.).
Benjamin/Cummings. ISBN 978-0-8053-4780-7. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2020
0726220613/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge) from the original on 26 July
2020. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
Nilsson, Nils (1998). Artificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis (https://archive.org/details/artifici
alintell0000nils). Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 978-1-55860-467-4. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20200726131654/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000nils) from the
original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach (http://aim
a.cs.berkeley.edu/) (2nd ed.), Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-
790395-2.
Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998). Computational Intelligence: A Logical
Approach (https://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool). New York: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510270-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200726131436/htt
ps://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool) from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved
22 August 2020.
Later editions.

Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan (2017). Artificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational

Agents (http://artint.info/index.html) (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-
19539-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20171207013855/http://artint.info/index.html)
from the original on 7 December 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2017.

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ISBN 1-56881-205-1.
Newquist, H. P. (1994). The Brain Makers: Genius, Ego, And Greed In The Quest For
Machines That Think. New York: Macmillan/SAMS. ISBN 978-0-672-30412-5.

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Further reading
Ashish Vaswani, Noam Shazeer, Niki Parmar et al. "Attention is all you need." Advances in
neural information processing systems 30 (2017). Seminal paper on transformers.
Autor, David H., "Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace
Automation" (2015) 29(3) Journal of Economic Perspectives 3.
Boden, Margaret, Mind As Machine, Oxford University Press, 2006.
Cukier, Kenneth, "Ready for Robots? How to Think about the Future of AI", Foreign Affairs,
vol. 98, no. 4 (July/August 2019), pp. 192–98. George Dyson, historian of computing, writes
(in what might be called "Dyson's Law") that "Any system simple enough to be
understandable will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system
complicated enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand." (p. 197.)
Computer scientist Alex Pentland writes: "Current AI machine-learning algorithms are, at
their core, dead simple stupid. They work, but they work by brute force." (p. 198.)
Gertner, Jon. (2023) "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth: Can the online encyclopedia help teach
A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process?" New York
Times Magazine (July 18, 2023) online (https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/18/magazine/wiki
pedia-ai-chatgpt.html)
Gleick, James, "The Fate of Free Will" (review of Kevin J. Mitchell, Free Agents: How
Evolution Gave Us Free Will, Princeton University Press, 2023, 333 pp.), The New York
Review of Books, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (18 January 2024), pp. 27–28, 30. "Agency is what
distinguishes us from machines. For biological creatures, reason and purpose come from
acting in the world and experiencing the consequences. Artificial intelligences –
disembodied, strangers to blood, sweat, and tears – have no occasion for that." (p. 30.)
Hughes-Castleberry, Kenna, "A Murder Mystery Puzzle: The literary puzzle Cain's Jawbone,
which has stumped humans for decades, reveals the limitations of natural-language-
processing algorithms", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp. 81–82.
"This murder mystery competition has revealed that although NLP (natural-language
processing) models are capable of incredible feats, their abilities are very much limited by
the amount of context they receive. This [...] could cause [difficulties] for researchers who
hope to use them to do things such as analyze ancient languages. In some cases, there are
few historical records on long-gone civilizations to serve as training data for such a purpose."
(p. 82.)
Immerwahr, Daniel, "Your Lying Eyes: People now use A.I. to generate fake videos
indistinguishable from real ones. How much does it matter?", The New Yorker, 20 November
2023, pp. 54–59. "If by 'deepfakes' we mean realistic videos produced using artificial
intelligence that actually deceive people, then they barely exist. The fakes aren't deep, and
the deeps aren't fake. [...] A.I.-generated videos are not, in general, operating in our media as
counterfeited evidence. Their role better resembles that of cartoons, especially smutty ones."
(p. 59.)
Johnston, John (2008) The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New
AI, MIT Press.
Jumper, John; Evans, Richard; Pritzel, Alexander; et al. (26 August 2021). "Highly accurate
protein structure prediction with AlphaFold" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8
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Marcus, Gary, "Artificial Confidence: Even the newest, buzziest systems of artificial general
intelligence are stymmied by the same old problems", Scientific American, vol. 327, no. 4
(October 2022), pp. 42–45.
Mitchell, Melanie (2019). Artificial intelligence: a guide for thinking humans. New York:
Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 9780374257835.
Mnih, Volodymyr; Kavukcuoglu, Koray; Silver, David; et al. (26 February 2015). "Human-
level control through deep reinforcement learning" (https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14
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b/20230619055525/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14236/) from the original on 19
June 2023. Retrieved 19 June 2023. Introduced DQN, which produced human-level
performance on some Atari games.
Press, Eyal, "In Front of Their Faces: Does facial-recognition technology lead police to
ignore contradictory evidence?", The New Yorker, 20 November 2023, pp. 20–26.
 Roivainen, Eka, "AI's IQ: ChatGPT aced a [standard intelligence] test but showed that
intelligence cannot be measured by IQ alone", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 1
(July/August 2023), p. 7. "Despite its high IQ, ChatGPT fails at tasks that require real
humanlike reasoning or an understanding of the physical and social world.... ChatGPT
seemed unable to reason logically and tried to rely on its vast database of... facts derived
from online texts."
Serenko, Alexander; Michael Dohan (2011). "Comparing the expert survey and citation
impact journal ranking methods: Example from the field of Artificial Intelligence" (http://www.a
serenko.com/papers/JOI_AI_Journal_Ranking_Serenko.pdf) (PDF). Journal of Informetrics.
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12 September 2013.
Silver, David; Huang, Aja; Maddison, Chris J.; et al. (28 January 2016). "Mastering the game
of Go with deep neural networks and tree search" (https://www.nature.com/articles/nature169
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Retrieved 19 June 2023.
White Paper: On Artificial Intelligence – A European approach to excellence and trust (https://
ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/commission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.p
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External links
"Artificial Intelligence" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/art-inte). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Thomason, Richmond. "Logic and Artificial Intelligence" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/log
ic-ai/). In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Artificial Intelligence (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9fc). BBC Radio 4
discussion with John Agar, Alison Adam & Igor Aleksander (In Our Time, 8 December 2005).
Theranostics and AI – The Next Advance in Cancer Precision Medicine (https://datascience.
cancer.gov/news-events/blog/theranostics-and-ai-next-advance-cancer-precision-medicine)

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