NAME : D.

VINODH

COURSE : BCA-DS

ROLL NO : 10

GROUP ASSIGNMENT :

Characteristics of the Database Approach, Purpose of DBMS

Characteristics of the Database Approach:

• Self-describing nature of a database system: A database system contains not only the
database itself but also a complete definition or description of the database structure and
constraints (metadata).

• Insulation between programs and data: Known as data abstraction, this allows changes to
the data structure without affecting the application programs.

• Support for multiple views of data: Different users can view the same data in different
ways.

• Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing: Allows multiple users to access
the database concurrently.

Purpose of DBMS:

• Data storage, retrieval, and update: Provides a systematic way to manage and manipulate
data.

• User-accessible catalog: Metadata storage for data definition and query processing.

• Transaction support: Ensures data integrity and concurrency control.

• Concurrency control services: Manages simultaneous data operations without conflicts.

• Authorization services: Ensures data security and access control.

• Support for data communication: Facilitates data sharing and distribution.

Categories of Data Models, Schemas, and Instances

Categories of Data Models:

• Conceptual Data Models: High-level data models that describe what data is stored and the
relationships among those data (e.g., ER models).

• Logical Data Models: Translate the conceptual model into a logical structure, which can
include relational models.

• Physical Data Models: Focus on how the data is stored physically on storage media.

Schemas and Instances:

• Schema: The overall description of the database structure.

o Physical Schema: Describes the physical storage structure.

o Logical Schema: Describes the design at the logical level.

o View Schema: Describes the design at the view level.

• Instance: The actual data stored in the database at a particular moment in time.

ER Diagrams

ER Diagrams:

• Entity: An object with a physical or conceptual existence (e.g., Student, Course).

• Attribute: A property of an entity (e.g., StudentID, CourseName).

• Relationship: Association among entities (e.g., Enrollment).

• Key Attribute: Uniquely identifies an entity (e.g., StudentID).

• Composite Attribute: Can be divided into smaller sub-parts (e.g., Address).

• Multivalued Attribute: Can hold multiple values (e.g., PhoneNumbers).

• Derived Attribute: Can be derived from other attributes (e.g., Age from DateOfBirth).
The Enhanced Entity-Relationship (EER) Model

EER Model:

• Subclass and Superclass: Representing inheritance between entities.

• Specialization and Generalization: Specialization is the process of defining a set of

• Union Types (Categories): Represent a single superclass from multiple subclasses.

• Aggregation: Represents a relationship between a collection of entities and relationships.

Schema Diagrams, Relational Query Languages

Schema Diagrams:

• Visual representation of the database schema.

• Shows entities, attributes, relationships, primary keys, and foreign keys.

Relational Query Languages:

• SQL (Structured Query Language): Standard language for querying and managing data.

o DDL (Data Definition Language): Defines database schema (CREATE, ALTER,

o DML (Data Manipulation Language): Manages data within schema objects

o DCL (Data Control Language): Controls access to data (GRANT, REVOKE).

Normalization (1NF, 2NF, 3NF, 4NF, 5NF, BCNF)

Normalization:

• 1NF (First Normal Form): Ensures each table column contains atomic values and each
column contains values of a single type.

• 2NF (Second Normal Form): Based on 1NF, ensures all non-key attributes are fully
functional dependent on the primary key.

• 3NF (Third Normal Form): Based on 2NF, ensures no transitive dependency.

• BCNF (Boyce-Codd Normal Form): A stricter version of 3NF, every determinant must be
a candidate key.
 • 4NF (Fourth Normal Form): Based on BCNF, ensures no multi-valued dependencies.

• 5NF (Fifth Normal Form): Ensures no join dependency exists.

Selection, Projection, Composition, Union Operations and The Cartesian-Product Operation,

Relational Algebra Operations:

• Selection (σ): Selects rows that satisfy a given predicate.

• Projection (π): Selects columns.

• Union (∪): Combines the results of two queries.

• Cartesian Product (×): Combines tuples from two relations.

• Join (⨝): Combines tuples from two relations based on a condition.

RAID, Organization of Records in Files

RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks):

• RAID 0: Striping, no redundancy.

• RAID 1: Mirroring, high redundancy.

• RAID 5: Block-level striping with distributed parity.

• RAID 6: Block-level striping with double distributed parity.

• RAID 10: Combines mirroring and striping.

Organization of Records in Files:

• Heap files: Unordered records.

• Sorted files: Ordered records.

• Hashing: Records are placed based on hash functions.

• Clustered files: Records of related files are clustered together.

Transactions as SQL Statements

Transactions in SQL:
 • Transaction: A sequence of one or more SQL statements that are executed as a unit.

• ACID Properties:

o Atomicity: All operations in a transaction are completed; if not, the transaction is

o Consistency: Ensures that a transaction brings the database from one valid state to
another.

o Isolation: Transactions occur independently without interference.

o Durability: Once a transaction is committed, it remains so.

Recovery Concepts, Shadow Paging, Database Backup and Recovery

Recovery Concepts:

• Data recovery: Process of restoring the database to a correct state in the event of a failure.

• Log-based recovery: Uses a log of all changes made to the database to restore the system.

• Shadow Paging: Uses a shadow page table to keep track of changes. The original page table
points to the current database, while the shadow page table is updated.

• Database Backup: Regularly saving the database to prevent data loss.

• Types of Backup:

o Full backup: Complete copy of the database.

o Incremental backup: Only the changes made since the last backup.

o Differential backup: All changes made since the last full backup.