EMATH-213

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

ENGR. RAMEL H. SIGUE

Table of Contents
Chapter I: Introduction to Differential Equations .................................................................................................3
Discussion: ...........................................................................................................................................................3
I.1 Differential Equation .......................................................................................................................................3
Classification by Type.......................................................................................................................................3
Classification by Order .................................................................................................................................... 4
Classification by Linearity ............................................................................................................................... 4
I.2 Solution of an Ordinary Differential Equation................................................................................................. 5
Explicit Solution .............................................................................................................................................. 5
Implicit Solution .............................................................................................................................................. 5
I. Activity 1 ...................................................................................................................................................... 6
I.3 Elimination of Arbitrary Constants .................................................................................................................. 7
I.4 Families of Curves .......................................................................................................................................... 8
I. Activity 2 ...................................................................................................................................................... 9
I.5 Initial-Value Problems ................................................................................................................................... 10
Chapter II: Techniques of Solving Ordinary Differential Equations ..................................................................... 11
II.1 Separable Variables ...................................................................................................................................... 11
II.1 Activity 1 ................................................................................................................................................... 14
II.1.1 Applications of Separable Variables ........................................................................................................... 15
Growth and Decay ......................................................................................................................................... 15
Newton’s Law of Cooling/Heating ..................................................................................................................16
II.1 Activity 2................................................................................................................................................... 18
II.2 Linear Differential Equation of First Order....................................................................................................19
The Integrating Factor ...................................................................................................................................19
General Solution of linear differential equation in first-order ........................................................................ 20
II.2 Activity 1.................................................................................................................................................. 22
II.1.1 Applications of Linear Differential Equation .............................................................................................. 23
Mixtures ......................................................................................................................................................... 23
Motion of a Free-Falling Body ....................................................................................................................... 26
Newton’s Second Law: Mechanics Application .............................................................................................. 27
II.2 Activity 2 ................................................................................................................................................. 29
II.3 Homogeneous Differential Equation ............................................................................................................ 30
II.3 Activity 1 ................................................................................................................................................... 33
Table of Contents
II.4 Exact and Non-Exact Differential Equation ..................................................................................................34
Differential Equation of two Variables............................................................................................................34
Exact Differential Equation ............................................................................................................................34
Non-Exact Differential Equation .................................................................................................................... 38
Integrating Factor .......................................................................................................................................... 38
II.4 Activity 1 ..................................................................................................................................................43
II.5 Other Methods in solving First-Order Ordinary Differential Equation .......................................................... 44
Bernoulli’s Differential Equation.................................................................................................................... 44
Reduction to Separation of Variables ............................................................................................................ 46
Coefficients Linear in two Variables ............................................................................................................... 47
II.5 Activity 1 .................................................................................................................................................. 49
Chapter III: More Applications of First - Order ODE ............................................................................................50
Trajectories ....................................................................................................................................................50
Orthogonal Trajectories .................................................................................................................................50
Isogonal Trajectories ......................................................................................................................................50
Population Dynamics ..................................................................................................................................... 53
Velocity Escape ............................................................................................................................................. 56
Flow Through Orifice ..................................................................................................................................... 57
III. Activity 1................................................................................................................................................... 60
PROBLEM SET ...................................................................................................................................................61
Chapter I: Introduction to Differential Equations
Intended Learning Outcome:

✓ Define a differential equation

✓ Classify a differential equation according to its type, order, degree and linearity
✓ Obtain a differential equation by eliminating arbitrary constants
✓ Solve application problems involving first-order differential equation.

Chapter Overview:
In this chapter, the main focus was to delve into the intricate world of differential equations, beginning with a thorough
exploration of essential definitions and concepts. These definitions lay the groundwork for comprehending the nature and
behavior of these mathematical expressions. One of the crucial aspects covered in this chapter was the classification of differential
equations. By categorizing these equations based on their properties and characteristics, we gain valuable insights into the distinct
types of problems they can address and the solution methods suitable for each category. This classification includes distinguishing
between ordinary and partial differential equations, understanding the order and degree of these equations, and recognizing
their linearity or nonlinearity.

Discussion:
I.1 Differential Equation
A differential equation (DE) is a math equation that shows how something changes, like how it grows or moves,
based on its current state and rate of change. It's used to understand dynamic processes and predict future behavior in
various fields like science and engineering.
A differential equation (DE) is a type of equation that involves the derivatives of one or more dependent variables
in relation to one or more independent variables. It describes how these variables change and interact with each other in a
mathematical form. A differential equation can be classified according to its type, order, and linearity.

Classification by Type
A differential equation that includes solely ordinary derivatives of one or more dependent variables with respect to
a single independent variable is referred to as an ordinary differential equation (ODE).
Example:
2
dy d y dy dy dx
− 6y = e− x , 2
+ − 20y = 15 , + = 5y + 3x
dx dx dx dt dt
An equation involving only partial derivatives of one or more functions of two or more independent variables is
called a partial differential equation (PDE).
Example:
2   d2 u d2 y dy u v
+ = e− t , = − 20 , = −5
x 2
y dx 2
dt 2
dt y x

Notations:
d2 y
f (x),
dy d
Leibniz’s Notation: ,
dx dx dx2
Lagrange’s Notation: f (x) = y , f (x) = y , f (n) (x) = y (n)
Euler’s Notation: (Df)(x), D3 f ,  xy f
Newton’s Notation: y y 
All throughout in this module, the Leibniz’s notation and Lagrange’s notation or the prime notation will be utilized.
Classification by Order
The order of a differential equation (ODE or PDE) is the order of the highest derivative in the equation.
Example:
4
d2 y  dy 
2
+ 3  − 6y = e− x  2nd Order Ordinary Differential Equation
dx  dx 
4y  + 6(y )5 − 3xy = 2e x  3rd Order Ordinary Differential Equation
4 u 2 v u
2 +5 + 4ux + = yv  4th Order Partial Differential Equation
x 4
dy 2
dx

Note: The degree of a DE is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it after the equation has been free from radicals
or rational exponents as far as the derivatives are concerned.

Classification by Linearity
An nth-order ordinary differential equation is said to be linear in the variable y if the function is linear in y, y', ..., yn.
This means that an nth-order ODE is linear when the function is a n −1 (x)y n −1 + ... + a1 (x)y  + a0 (x)y − f(x) = 0 or
dn y d n −1 y dy
a n (x) n
+ ... + a n −1 (x) n −1
+ a1 (x) + a0 (x)y = f(x) .
dx dx dx
Example:
(y − 2x)dx + 4xdy = 0  is a linear in 1st order Ordinary Differential Equation
4y  + 2y  − 3xy = 2e x  is a linear in 2nd Order Ordinary Differential Equation
(t + y + 1)dt − dy = 0  4th Order Partial Differential Equation

A nonlinear ordinary differential equation is simply one that is not linear. If the coefficients of y, y', ..., yn contains
the dependent variable y or its derivatives or if powers of y, y', ..., yn, such as (y’)2, appear in the equation, then the
DE is nonlinear. Also, nonlinear functions of the dependent variable or its derivatives, such as sin(y) or ey’ cannot
appear in a linear equation.
Example:
(1 − y)y  + 2y = ex  nonlinear ODE
d2 y
+ sin(y) = 0  nonlinear in variable y
dx2
d4 y
4
+ y2 = 0  nonlinear since y is not power of 1.
dx

Note:
1. The dependent variable y and all its derivatives: y’, y”,..., y(n) are of the first degree, that is, the power of each term
involving y is 1.
2. The coefficients a0, a1,..., an of y, y’,..., y(n) depend at most on the independent variable x.
I.2 Solution of an Ordinary Differential Equation
An nth-order ordinary differential equation establishes a connection between the independent variable and the nth
derivative (and often lower-order derivatives too) of the dependent variable, expressing their equality.
A function ƒ, defined on an interval I, is considered a solution of an nth-order ordinary differential equation on that
interval if it has at least n continuous derivatives on I and, when the function is substituted into the nth-order ODE, the
equation simplifies to an identity.

Explicit Solution
A function ψ(x) that when substituted for y in equation (1) [or (2)] satisfies the equation for all x in the interval I is
called an explicit solution to the equation on I.
Example:
d2 y 2
Show that y = x 2 − x −1 is an explicit solution to the linear equation − y = 0.
dx2 x2
Sol'n: y  = 2x + x −2

y  = 2 − 2x −3

(2 − 2x ) − x2 ( x − x ) = 0
−3
2
2 −1

(2 − 2x ) − (2 − 2x ) = 0
−3 −3

Show that for any choice of the constants c1 and c2 , the function y = c1 e− x + c2 e2x
is an explicit solution to the linear equation y  − y  − 2y = 0.
Sol'n: y  = −c1 e− x + 2c2 e2x
y  = c1 e− x + 4c2 e2x

(c e
1
−x
) ( ) ( )
+ 4c2 e2x − −c1 e− x + 2c2 e2x − 2 c1 e − x + c2 e2x = 0

(2c e 1
−x
+ 2c e ) − ( 2c e
2
2x
1
−x
+ 2c2 e
2x
)=0
Implicit Solution
A relation G1(x, y) = 0 is said to be an implicit solution to equation (1) on the interval I if it is not only satisfies the
equation for at least one function f(x) on I but also defines one or more explicit solutions on I.
Example:
Verify that the relation y 2 + x 2 = 9 is an implicit solution of the differential equation
dy x
= − on interval -3  x  3.
dx y
Sol'n: x2 + y 2 = 9
2x + 2yy  = 0
x
y = −
y
dy x
=−
dx y

Note: A particular solution of a differential equation is one that lacks arbitrary parameters and stands alone as a distinct
solution. In certain cases, a differential equation may possess a solution that does not belong to a family of solutions
defined by arbitrary parameters. Such a unique solution, which cannot be derived by setting any of the parameters in the
family of solutions to specific values, is known as a singular solution. Otherwise, if the equation has constant variable C in
the equation is said to be the General solution of the differential equation.
I. Activity 1
A. For each differential equation, give the dependent and independent variable(s), state whether the equation is
ordinary or partial, linear or nonlinear and give also its order and degree.
Note: DV: dependent variable(s), IV: Independent Variables.
Differential Equation DV IV Type Degree Linearity
dy
(1) = 3x − 2
dx
dy
(2) cosx + y sin x = 1
dx
2 V 2 V 2 V
(3) + + =0
x 2
y 2
z2

(4) y  − 3y  + 8y = ( x + 4 ) e−2x

3
d2 y  dy 
(5)
2
= 5+ 
dx  dx 

(6) (2x − 4y ) dx + ( x − 4y ) dy = 0

d3 y dy
(7) cosx 3
− sinx =0
dx dx

B. Verify that the indicated family of functions/expression is a solution of the given differential equation.
cex dN
1. N  = N(1 − N), N = , where N  =
1 + ce x
dx
2
dy dy
2. 2
−4 + 4y = 0, y = c1 e2x + c2 xe2x
dx dx
I.3 Elimination of Arbitrary Constants
From the previous lesson, we have already stated that when solving for an nth-order differential equation F(x, y, y’,
..., yn), we are actually to determine an n-parameter family of solutions G(x, y, c1, c2, ..., cn) = 0. In this lesson, what we are
going to do is to determine the differential equation whose family of solutions is the given n-parameter family of solutions
G(x, y, c1, c2, ..., cn) = 0. To be able to this, we are going to use differentiation techniques to eliminate the arbitrary constants
in the given n-parameter family of solutions.
Consider the following in eliminating the arbitrary constants.
1. the number of times of differentiating the given equation is the same as the number of arbitrary constants to be
eliminated
2. the order of the differential equation is the same as the number of arbitrary constants in the equation
3. the obtained equation is free from arbitrary constants
Example:
Eliminate the arbitrary constants in each equation and express the final answers in the following form:
a n −1 (x)y n −1 + ... + a1 (x)y  + a0 (x)y − f(x) = 0
1.) y = cx 2
y
Sol'n: c=
x2
x 2 y  − y(2x)
0=
x4
1 2
y − 3 y = 0
x2 x
2y
y = → answer!
x

2.) y = c1 e2x + c2 e−3x

Sol'n: y = c1 e2x + c2 e−3x  eq.1
y  = 2c1 e − 3c2 e
2x −3x
 eq.2
y  = 4c1 e + 9c2 e
2x −3x
 eq.3
Eliminate: c1 and c2
3  y = c1 e2x + c2 e−3x  com. eq.1&2 3  y  = 2c1 e2x − 3c2 e−3x  com. eq.2&3
+ y  = 2c1 e2x − 3c2 e−3x + y  = 4c1 e2x + 9c2 e−3x

y  + 3y = 5c1 e2x  eq.4 y  + 3y  = 10c1 e2x  eq.5

y  + 3y  = 10c1 e2x subtract eq. 4 to 5

− 2  y  + 3y = 5c1 e2x 

y  + y  − 6y = 0  answer!

Therefore, the desired differential equation is y  + y  − 6y = 0 .

 3.) y = c1 sinkt + c2 coskt , where k is not to be eliminated.
Sol'n: y = c1 sinkt + c2 coskt → eq.1
y  = kc1 coskt − kc2 sinkt → eq.2
y  = −k c1 sinkt − k c2 coskt → eq.3
2 2

Eliminate: c1 and c2
k 2  y = c1 sinkt + c2 coskt 
+ y  = −k 2 c1 sinkt − k 2 c2 coskt

k 2 y + y  = 0  answer!
Therefore, the desired differential equation is y  + k 2 y = 0 .

Solve it by yourself! Answers

d2 x
1.) x = Ccos ( t +  ) → eliminate C and  + 2 x = 0
dt 2
x3 ( y  ) + x2 yy  + 4 = 0
2
2.) Cxy + C2 x + 4 = 0 → eliminate C

3.) ( x − a ) + y 2 = a2 (x )
2
→ eliminate a 2
− y 2 dx + 2xydy = 0

I.4 Families of Curves

Families of curves are a group of related curves that share a common mathematical form or equation, but differ in
specific values of parameters or constants. Each curve within the family represents a particular solution of the differential
equation, and its graphical representation is known as an integral curve.
Example:

1.) A t any point (x, y) on a curve, the tangent line has a slope equal to 2x.
Determine the equation of the curve.
Sol'n: y  = 2x
y = x2 + C → a parabola, concave up.

2.) Determine the differential equation of the family of curves that is a

straight lines with equal slope and y-intercept.
Sol'n: y = mx + b equation of a line
m=b given condition
y = mx + m
y = m
y = y'x + y'
y = y'(x + 1)
y'(x + 1) − y = 0 answer!
 3.) Determine the differential equation of the family of curves that is a
circles with center on the x-axis.

( x − h) + (y − k ) = r
2 2 2
Sol'n: equation of a circle whose center (h, k)

(x − h) + (y ) = r
2 2 2
center on x-axis only, k=0
2( x − h ) + 2yy  = 0 implicit differentiation
2 + 2y y  + 2yy  = 0

y ( y  ) + ( y  ) + 1 = 0
2
answer!

I. Activity 2
A. Eliminate the arbitrary constants in each equation and express the final answers in the following form:
a n −1 (x)y n −1 + ... + a1 (x)y  + a0 (x)y − f(x) = 0
h
1.) y = mx +  eliminate C and 
m
2.) y = Ae2x +Bxe2x  eliminate A and B
3.) y = c1 e2x cos3x + c2 e2x sin3x  eliminate c1 and c2
4.) y = c1 x + c2 e
2 2x
 eliminate c1 and c2

B. Find the differential equation of the family of curves described in each of the following.
1.) Straight lines through the origin.
2.) Straight lines at a fixed distance p from the origin.
3.) Circles with fixed radius r and tangent to the x-axis.
4.) Circles of radius unity.
5.) Straight lines with slope and x-intercept equal.
6.) Parabolas with axis parallel to the x-axis and with distance
from vertex to focus fixed as a.
7.) Parabolas with vertex on the x-axis, with axis parallel to the y-axis,
and with distance from focus to vertex fixed as a.
I.5 Initial-Value Problems
An initial-value problem (IVP) is a type of mathematical problem involving a differential equation that seeks to find
a specific solution that satisfies both the differential equation and certain initial conditions. The initial conditions provide the
values of the dependent variable and its derivatives at a particular point or time, serving as starting conditions for the solution.
In general, an initial-value problem involves the following components:
1. A differential equation: This is an equation that relates the dependent variable and its derivatives with respect to
the independent variable(s).
2. Initial conditions: These are specific values given for the dependent variable and its derivatives at a particular point
or time, often denoted as t0 and x0.
The goal of solving an initial-value problem is to find the particular solution that satisfies both the differential
equation and the specified initial conditions. This unique solution is determined by the specific values provided for the
dependent variable and its derivatives at the initial point or time.
Example:
1.) Find the particular solution of the given differential equation y  = x3 , y(1) = 2
Sol'n: y  = x3
x4
y= +C
4
( 1)
4

2= +C when: x = 1, y =2
4
7
C=
4
x4 7
y= +  answer!
4 4

2.) Given that x = c1 cost + c2 sin t is a two-parameter family solutions of the

 1 
differential equation x  + x = 0, find the solution when x   = , x    = 0
6 2 6
Sol'n: x = c1 cost + c2 sin t
1  
= c1 cos   + c2 sin  
2 6 6
1  3 1
= c1  +c  eq.1
2  2  2  2 
 
x  = −c1 sin t + c2 cost
 
0 = −c1 sin   + c2 cos  
6 6
1  3
0 = −c1   + c2    eq.2
2  2 
 
Solve, c1 and c2

3 1
c1 = & c2 =
4 4
3 1
x= cost + sin t  answer!
4 4
Chapter II: Techniques of Solving Ordinary Differential Equations
Intended Learning Outcome:
✓ Apply separation of variables technique to solve first-order ODEs
✓ Use integrating factors to solve first-order linear ODEs that are not in separable form
✓ Select an appropriate technique in solving ordinary differential equations of order one

Chapter Overview:
Throughout the chapter, we cover a range of powerful techniques to solve first-order ODEs. We begin with the variable
separable method, which enables us to separate and integrate the variables to find solutions. Next, we investigate linear ODEs
and understand how integrating factors can transform them into exact equations, facilitating integration to obtain solutions.
We explore exact and non-exact ODEs, with a focus on finding potential functions and applying suitable transformations
to handle non-exact equations. Homogeneous ODEs are introduced, where we learn to use substitutions to simplify and solve
this specific type of ODE.
Lastly, we examine Bernoulli's ODEs, emphasizing the importance of the Bernoulli substitution to convert these
equations into linear form, leading to solutions.
By the end of this chapter, learners will have acquired a diverse set of tools and techniques to solve first-order ODEs
effectively. Understanding these methods forms a solid foundation for further exploration of higher-order ODEs, systems of
equations, and various applications across different fields.
Discussion:
II.1 Separable Variables
Separable variables refer to a special property of certain ordinary differential equations (ODEs) that allows their
variables (usually the dependent and independent variables) to be separated into distinct functions on opposite sides of the
equation. This characteristic enables the ODE to be easily integrated, leading to a straightforward and systematic method for
finding solutions.
The concept of separable variables is a valuable and powerful technique in solving first-order ODEs. When an ODE is
separable, it can be expressed in the form:
dy
= g(x)  h(y)
dx
This separation allows us to move all x-dependent terms to one side of the equation and all y-dependent terms to
the other side. Once separated, we can integrate both sides to find the general solution to the ODE. The process of integration
leads to an implicit expression, and in some cases, further manipulations may be required to obtain an explicit solution
explicitly expressing y in terms of x. However, not all ODEs are separable, and this technique is limited to first-order equations.
For more complex ODEs, other methods like integrating factors, exact equations, or numerical techniques may be required.

Example:
Find the general solutions of the following differential equations:
dy dy dy
1.) − y 2 e−2x = 0 2.) − 3x2 y = 0 3.) tan x −y =0
dx dx dx
 dy dy
1.)Sol'n: − y 2 e−2x = 0 3.)Sol'n: tan x −y =0
dx dx
dy dy
= y 2 e−2x tan x =y
dx dx
dy dy dx
2
= e−2x dx =
y y tan x
dy dy
 y 2 =  e dx  y =  cot xdx
−2x

1 e−2x
− =− +c ln(y) = ln sin x + C
y 2
(−2x
2 = y e + 2c ) eln( y ) = e
ln sin x + C

2
y= −2x
 answer! y = Csin x  answer!
e +C

dy
2.)Sol'n: − 3x 2 y = 0
dx
dy
= 3x 2 y
dx
dy
= 3x 2 dx
y
dy
 y =  3x dx
2

ln(y) = x3 + C
3
+C
eln( y ) =ex
3
y = e x ec
3
y = Cex  answer!

Example:
Find the particular solution of the following differential equations that satisfies
the given condition.
1 dy
1.) − 1 + x2 = 0 ; y(0) = 0
x dx
dy
2.) cos2 x − xy 2 = 0 ; y(0) = 1
dx
dy
3.) x(x + 1) − (y − 1) = 0 ; y(1) = 2
dx
 1 dy dy
1.)Sol'n: − 1 + x 2 = 0 ; y(0) = 0 2.)Sol'n: cos2 x − xy 2 = 0 ; y(0) = 1
x dx dx
dy xdx
dy = x 1 + x 2 dx =
y 2 cos2 x
dy xdx
 dy =  x 1 + x 2 dx  y 2 =  cos2 x
1
y =  x 1 + x 2 dx − =  xsec2 xdx
y
1
u = 1 + x2 − = x tan x −  tan xdx
y
1
du = 2xdx − = x tan x + ln cosx + C
y
du 1
dx = y=−
2x x tan x + ln cosx + C
du
y =  x u  @x = 0, y = 1
2x
1 1
2
y= u  du 1=−
0tan0 + ln cos0 + C
( )
3
1
y= 1 + x2 + C C = −1
3
1
@x = 0, y = 0 y=−  answer!
x tan x + ln cosx − 1
( ) +C
3
1
0= 1 + (0)2
3
1
C=−
3
( ) − 13
3
1
y= 1 + x2  answer!
3

dy
3)Sol'n: x(x + 1) − (y − 1) = 0 ; y(1) = 2
dx
dy (y − 1)
=
dx x(x + 1)
dy dx
 (y − 1) =  x(x + 1)
dx
ln y − 1 = 
x(x + 1)
1 1 1
= −
x ( x + 1) x x + 1
1 1 
ln y − 1 =   − dx
 x x +1
ln y − 1 = ln x − ln x + 1 + C
x
ln y − 1 = ln +C
x +1
@x = 1, y = 2
1
ln 2 − 1 = ln +C
1+1
C = ln 2
x
ln y − 1 = ln + ln 2
x +1
3x + 1
y=  answer!
x +1
II.1 Activity 1
A. Obtain the general solution of the given differential equation by separation of variables.

= k ( Q − 70 )
dy dQ
1.) = sin5x 6.)
dx dt
dy dN
2.) x = 4y 7.) + N = Ntet +2
dx dt
2
dy 3x + 2y dy  2y + 3 
3.) =e 8.) = 
dx dx  4x + 5 
2
dy  y + 1  dy xy + 3x − y − 3
4.) y ln x =  9.) =
dx  x  dx xy − 2x + 4y − 8
dy xy + 2y − x − 2
5.) sin3xdx + 2y cos 3xdy = 0
3
10.) =
dx xy − 3y + x − 3
II.1.1 Applications of Separable Variables
The separable variable method is widely applicable in various fields, including physics, engineering, biology, and
economics, where many real-world phenomena can be mathematically described by ODEs. It is particularly useful when
studying processes with a direct proportionality between the rate of change of one variable and the value of another, such
as population growth or radioactive decay, Newton’s Law of Cooling/Warming.

Growth and Decay

Let x(t) denote the amount of substance (or population) that is growing or decaying. If we assume that the time rate
of change of this amount of substance, dx/dt, is proportional to the amount of substance present, then
dx
= kx
dt
Where, k is the constant of proportionality, which determines the rate at which the substance grows or decays.
It is often referred to as the growth rate or decay rate.
The assumption that x(t) is a differentiable and continuous function of time ensures that the rate of change at any
given time is well-defined, and the model can be smoothly applied throughout the domain of interest.
Example:
1.) The population of a town grows at a rate proportional to the population present at time t. The initial population of 5000
increases by 15% in 10 years. What will the population be in 30 years? How fast is the population growing at t = 30?
dP
= kP, where: P = number of population
dt kt
P = ce
Given : @ t = 0 yrs, P = 5000
@ t = 10 yrs, P = 5000(1+0.15) = 5,750
dP
Req'd: @ t = 30 yrs P = ? & = ? @ t =30
dt
Sol'n: @ t = 0 yrs, P = 5000 → P = cekt
5000 = cek(0) , c = 5000
@ t = 10 yrs, P = 5000(1+0.15) = 5,750
5750 = 5000ek(10) , k = 0.013976
@ t = 30 yrs P = ?
P = 5000e0.013976(30) , P = 7604.33 say 7605 people  answer!
dP
= ? @ t =30, when P = 5000ekt
dt
dP
=5000kekt
dt
dP
= 5000(0.013976)e0.013976(30)
dt
dP
= 106.29 people/yr or 107 people/yr  answer
dt
Alternate sol'n:
Rate = k(P30 ), where: P30 = 7605
Rate = 0.013976(7605) = 106.29 people/yr
Rate =107 people/yr  answer
2.) Radium decomposes at a rate proportional to the amount present. If 100mg set aside now there will be left 96mg 100
years hence, find:
a. how much will be left after 2.58 centuries
b. the half-life of radium?
dQ
= kQ, where: Q = amount of radium present
dt
Q = ce kt

Given : @ t = 0 yrs, Q = 100mg

@ t = 100 yrs, Q = 96mg
Req'd: @ t = 2.58 centuries = 258 yrs Q = ?
Sol'n: @ t = 0 yrs, Q = 100 → Q = cekt
100 = cek(0) , c = 100
@ t = 100 yrs, Q = 96 mg
96 = 100ek(100) , k = − 0.0004082199 / yr
@ t = 258 yrs Q = ?
Q = 100e−0.0004082199(258) , Q = 90.004 mg say 90 mg  answer!
@ t = ? Q = 50 mg
50 = 100e−0.0004082199( t ) , t = 1697.96 yrs say 17 centuries  answer!

Newton’s Law of Cooling/Heating

Newton’s law of cooling and heating, states that the rate of change of the temperature in the body, dT/dt, is
proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its medium. Newton’s law of cooling can be
formulated as
dT
dt
(
= k T − Tm )
Where, k is the constant of proportionality, T(t) is the temperature of the object for t > 0 and Tm is
the ambient temperature – that is the temperature of the medium around the object. Here, we
assume that Tm is constant.
Example:
1.) A thermometer reading is 180𝐹 is brought into a room temperature where the temperature is 700𝐹; 1 minute later, the
thermometer reading is 310𝐹. Determine the temperature reading as a function of time and, in particular, the temperature
reading 5 minutes after the thermometer is brought into the room.

= k ( T − Tm )
dT
dt
T = temperature in thermometer
Tm = room temperature
dT
= kdt  separation of variable
T − Tm
dT
 T − T =  kdt
m
ln T − Tm = kt + C
T − Tm = Cekt  general formula
 Given : @ t = 0 min, T = 180 F, Tm = 700 F
@ t = 1 min, T = 310 F
Req'd: @ t = 5 min T = ?
Sol'n: @ t = 0 min, T = 180 F, Tm = 700 F
T = Tm + Cekt
18 = 70 + Cek(0) , C = − 520 F
@ t = 1 min, T = 310 F
31 = 70 − 52ek(1) , k = − 0.287682072
Temperature as a function of time:
T = 70 − 52e−0.287682072t  answer!
@ t = 5 min T = ?
T = 70 − 52e−0.287682072(30) , T = 57.660 F  answer!

2.) A small metal bar, whose initial temperature was 20° C, is dropped into a large container of boiling water. How long will
it take the bar to reach 90° C if it is known that its temperature increases 2° in 1 second? How long will it take the bar to
reach 98° C?

= k ( T − Tm )
dT
dt
T = temperature in the metal bar

Tm = temperature of boiling water

dT
= kdt  separation of variable
T − Tm
dT
 T − T =  kdt
m
ln T − Tm = kt + C

T − Tm = Cekt  general formula

Given : @ t = 0 sec, T = 200 C, Tm = 1000 C

@ t = 1 sec, T = 220 C

Req'd: @ t = ? T = 900 C

Sol'n: @ t = 0 sec, T = 200 C, Tm = 1000 C

T = Tm + Cekt

20 = 100 + Cek(0) , C = − 800 C

@ t = 1 sec, T = 220 C

22 = 100 − 80ek(1) , k = -0.02531781/sec

@ t = ? , T = 900 C

90 = 100 − 80e0.00472867(t )

t = 82.134 sec or 1 min and 22 seconds  answer!

 @ t = ? , T = 980 C
98 = 100 − 80e0.00472867(t )
t = 145.703 sec or 2 min and 26 seconds  answer!

II.1 Activity 2
Directions: Solve the following problems and ensure a clarity of your solution. Present in writing the full details of your answer
or solutions. Please provide ½ inch margin and use short size bond paper. This is purely hand written and copy the question
per item and write your solution after each question.
1. The population of bacteria in a culture grows at a rate proportional to the number of bacteria present at time t. After
3 hours it is observed that 400 bacteria are present. After 10 hours 2000 bacteria are present. What was the initial
number of bacteria?

2. The radioactive isotope of lead, Pb-209, decays at a rate proportional to the amount present at time t and has a half-
life of 3.3 hours. If 1 gram of this isotope is present initially, how long will it take for 90% of the lead to decay?

3. Initially, 100 milligrams of a radioactive substance were present. After 6 hours the mass had decreased by 3%. If the
rate of decay is proportional to the amount of the substance present at time t, find the amount remaining after 24
hours.

4. The population of a certain country is known to increase at a rate proportional to the number of people presently
living in the country. If after 2 years the population has doubled, and after 3 years the population is 20,000. find the
number of people initially living in the country.

5. A certain radioactive material is known to decay at a rate proportional to the amount present. If after 1 h it is
observed that 10 percent of the material has decayed, find the half-life of the material.

6. Two large containers A and B of the same size are filled with different fluids. The fluids in containers A and B are
maintained at 00C and 1000C, respectively. A small metal bar, whose initial temperature is 1000C, is lowered into
container A. After 1 minute the temperature of the bar is 900C. After 2 minutes the bar is removed and instantly
transferred to the other container. After 1 minute in container B the temperature of the bar rises 100. How long,
measured from the start of the entire process, will it take the bar to reach 99.90C?

7. A dead body was found within a closed room of a house where the temperature was a constant 700F. At the time of
discovery, the core temperature of the body was determined to be 850F. One hour later a second measurement
showed that the core temperature of the body was 800F. Assume that the time of death corresponds to t = 0 and
that the core temperature at that time was 98.60F. Determine how many hours elapsed before the body was found.
II.2 Linear Differential Equation of First Order
A linear differential equation (LDE) is a differential equation that is defined by a linear polynomial in the unknown
function and its derivatives, that is an equation of the form.
The concept of separable variables is a valuable and powerful technique in solving first-order ODEs. When an ODE is
separable, it can be expressed in the form:
a n −1 (x)y n −1 + ... + a1 (x)y  + a0 (x)y − f(x) = 0
In ordinary differential equation of first order, the equation can be written as:
dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x)  linear in y
dx
dx
+ P(y)x = Q(y)  linear in x
dy

Note: Let consider linear in y, same goes on linear in x in above equation.

1. When Q(x) = 0, the linear equation is said to be homogeneous, otherwise it is nonhomogeneous.
2. Homogeneous linear equation can be solve using separation of variables.
3. To find the general solution for a nonhomogeneous linear differential equation, the method of integrating factor
proves invaluable. By identifying and applying a suitable integrating factor, the equation transforms into a
homogeneous form, simplifying the solving process significantly. Once the integrating factor is multiplied into the
original equation, it becomes amenable to variable separation, allowing for an elegant and systematic solution.

The Integrating Factor

considering linear in y:
dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x)
dx
lets simplify the equation for easy manipulation of variables:
P(x) = P  know that P is a function of x
Q( x) = P  know that Q is a function of x
standard form:
dy
+ Py = Q  used for derivation only
dx
multiply v in the equation:
dy
v + vPy = vQ
dx
since the equation is linear in y, and we multiply a varible with v:
d
dx
( vy ) = v
dy
dx
+y
dv
dx
equate in our L.H.S. of our equation:
dy dv dy
v +y =v + vPy
dx dx dx
dv
y = vP y
dx
dv
= vP
dx
dv
 v =  Pdx  separation of variable
ln v =  Pdx

v = e
Pdx
 Integrating Factor!
General Solution of linear differential equation in first-order
dy
+ vPy = vQ, where : v = e 
Pdx
v
dx
 Pdx dy
+ e  Py = e  Q
Pdx Pdx
e
dx
d   Pdx  = e  Pdx dy + yPe Pdx
 y e 
dx   dx
d   Pdx   Pdx
 y e  = e Q  separation of variables
dx  
d  y  e   = Qe  dx
Pdx Pdx

 
 y  e  Pdx  = Qe  Pdx dx
 
d  

y e  Pdx
=  Qe  dx  this is the solution to L.D.E. first-Order
Pdx

Example:
Find the general solutions of the following linear differential equations.

1.)
dy
dx
− 3y = 6 2.) x
dy
dx
− 4y = x 6 e x (
3.) x2 − 9 ) dy
dx
+ xy = 6 4.)
dy
dx
+ y = x  y(0) = 4

dy dy
1.)Sol'n : − 3y = 6 2.)Sol'n : x − 4y = x 6 ex
dx dx
dy  dy  1 
v − 3yv = 6v x − 4y = x 6 ex   
dx  dx x
d
dx
( vy ) = v dy
dx
+y
dv
dx
dy 4
dx x
− y=x e 5 x

dy dy dv 4
v − 3yv = v +y P = − , Q = x5 ex
dx dx dx x
4
dv  Pdx  − dx
− 3yv = y I.F. = e = e x = e−4 ln( x ) = x −4
dx
dv
y  e =  Qe 
Pdx Pdx
= −3v dx  general formula
dx
dv
 v =  −3dx ( )
y  x −4 =  x5 ex x −4 dx
ln v = −3x y x −4
=  xe dxx

v = e−3x y  x −4 = xex −  ex dx
dy
e−3x − 3ye−3x = 6e−3x y  x −4 = xex − ex + C
dx
y  x −4 xex − ex + C
d
( )
ye−3x = e−3x
dy
− 3ye−3x =
x −4
dx dx x −4
d
dx
( )
ye−3x = 6e−3x y = x5 ex − x 4 ex + Cx 4  answer!

( )
 d ye =  6e dx
−3x −3x

ye−3x = −2e−3x + C
−2e−3x + C
y=
e−3x
y = Ce3x − 2  answer!
3.)Sol'n : (x 2
−9 ) dy
dx
+ xy = 6 4.)Sol'n :
dy
dx
+ y = x  y(0) = 4

 2   1 
(
 x −9
dy
) + xy = 6   y  e
Pdx
=  Qe
Pdx
dx  general formula

dy x
dx
6
2
(
  x − 9  )
+ y= 2 P = 1, Q=x
dx x 2 − 9 x −9
x 6
I.F. = e = e
Pdx dx
P= 2 , Q= 2 = ex
x −9 x −9
x
 x2 − 9 dx ln x2 − 9
I.F. = e =e = x2 − 9 y  ex =  xex dx

y  e =  Qe y  ex = xex −  ex dx
Pdx Pdx
dx  general formula

6
y  x2 − 9 =  x2 − 9dx y  ex = xex − ex + C
x −9
2

6 y  ex ex ( x − 1 ) + C
y x −9 =  2
dx =
x2 − 9 ex ex
3
y  x2 − 9 = 2 dx y = x + Ce− x − 1
x −92

@x = 0, y = 4

4 = 0 + Ce−0 − 1

using trigonometric substition : C=5

3
tan  = y = x + 5e− x − 1  answer!
x −9 2

x
csc  = , dx = −3csc  cot d
3
y  x2 − 9 = 2 tan  ( −3csc  cot d )

y  x2 − 9 = −6 csc d

y  x2 − 9 = −6ln csc  − cot  + C

from triangle :

x x2 − 9
csc  = , cot  =
3 3
x x2 − 9
y  x2 − 9 = −6ln − + C  answer!
3 3
II.2 Activity 1
A. Obtain the general solution of the given differential equation by separation of variables.

1.) (1 + x ) 6.) ( i + 1 )
dy dQ
− xy = x + x 2 + Q = ln x  y(1) = 10
dx di
 e−2 t − N  dt
2.) x2 y  + x ( x + 2) y = ex 7.)   =1  N(1) = 1
  dN
 t 
3.) ( x + 2) ( ) + x = arctan ( t )
2 dy dx
= 5 − 8y − 4xy 8.) 1 + t 2  x(0) = 4
dx dt
dP
4.) + 2tP = P + 4t − 2
dt
( ) dy
+ 2y = ( x + 1 )
2
5.) x 2 − 1
dx
II.1.1 Applications of Linear Differential Equation
The applications of linear differential equations are diverse and fundamental to understanding and the complex
systems in various fields of science and engineering. Their simplicity and tractability make them a valuable tool for modeling,
analysis, and prediction in a wide range of practical scenarios such as signal processing, vibrations, biomedical engineering,
economics, heat transfer, fluid dynamics, chemical reaction, electrical engineering, control system and physics.

Mixtures
Linear differential equations are applied to understand the behavior of substances when mixed. The change in
quantities over time can be precisely described using first-order linear differential equations. For example, mixing
brine solutions in a tank with inflow and outflow rates can be modeled by these equations, then
dQ
= rate entering − rate leaving
dt
Where :
Q = The quantity of substance present in the mixture at any instant
Ci = amount of concentration enetering in the tank
R i = rate of inflow
Co = amount of concentration leaving in the tank
Co = rate of outflow

dQ
= R i  Ci − R o  Co  General Formula
dt
Example:
1.) In an oil refinery, a storage tank contains 2000 gal of gasoline that initially has 100 lb of an additive dissolved in it. In
preparation for winter weather, gasoline containing 2 lb of additive per gallon is pumped into the tank at a rate of 40
gal/min. The well-mixed solution is pumped out at a rate of 45 gal/min. How much of the additive is in the tank 20 min after
the pumping process begins.
Given : let : Q = be the amount of additives inside the tank, (lb) dQ 45
+ Q = 80
V = be the volume of gasoline inside the tank, (gallons) dt 2000 − 5t
45
R i = 40 gal/min P= , Q = 80
2000 − 5t
y  e  =  Qe  dx
Pdx Pdx
C i = 2 lb/gal
45 45
R o = 45 gal/min  2000−5t dt  2000−5t dt
Qe =  80e dt
Co = ?
then :
dQ
= R i  C i − R o  Co Q = 2( 2000 − 5t ) + c ( 2000 − 5t )
9

dt
Sol'n : @ t = 0 min, Q = 100 lb
V = 2000+( 40 − 45) t = 2000 − 5t Q = 2( 2000 − 5(0)) + c ( 2000 − 5(0))
9

Q(t) Q
Co = = c=-
3900
V(t) 2000 − 5t 20009
= 40  ( 2) − 45 
dQ Q @ t = 20 min, Q = ?
dt 2000 − 5t
Q = 2( 2000 − 5(20)) − (2000 − 5(20))
3900 9

9
2000
Q = 1342.03 lbs → answer!
2.) A large tank is filled to capacity with 500 gallons of pure water. Brine containing 2 kilograms of salt per gallon is pumped
into the tank at a rate of 5 gal/min. The well-mixed solution is pumped out at the same rate. Find the number of pounds of
salt in the tank at time t = 10 min?

Given : let : Q = be the amount of salt inside the tank, (kg)

V = be the volume of warter inside the tank, (gallons)
R i = 5 gal/min
C i = 2 kg/gal
R o = 5 gal/min
Co = ?
dQ
= R i  C i − R o  Co
dt
Sol'n :
V = 500+ (5 − 5) t = 500
Q(t) Q
Co = =
V(t) 500
= 5  ( 2) − 5 
dQ Q
dt 500
dQ 5Q
= 10 −
dt 500
dQ 1
+ Q = 10
dt 100
1
P(t) = , Q(t) = 10
100
Qe  =  Q(t)e 
P( t )dt P( t )dt
dt
1 1
 100 dt  100 dt
Qe =  10e dt
then :
t
−
Q = 1000 + ce 100

@ t = 0 min, Q = 0
0
−
0 = 1000 + ce 100

c = -1000
@ t = 10 min, Q = ?
10
−
Q = 1000 − 1000ce 100

Q = 95.16 kg → answer!
3.) A large tank holds 300 gallons of brine solution with 40 lbs of salt. A concentration of 2lbs/gal is pumped in a rate of 4
gals/min. The concentration leaving the tank is pumped out at a rate of 3 gals/min. How much salt is in the tank after 12
minutes?

Given : let : Q = be the amount of salt inside the tank, (lb)

V = be the volume of solution inside the tank, (gallons)
R i = 4 gal/min
C i = 2 lb/gal
R o = 3 gal/min
Co = ?
dQ
= R i  C i − R o  Co
dt
Sol'n :
V = 300+ ( 4 − 3) t = 300 + t
Q(t) Q
Co = =
V(t) 300 + t
= 4  ( 2) − 3 
dQ Q
dt 300 + t
dQ 3Q
= 8−
dt 300 + t
dQ 3
+ Q=8
dt 300 + t
3
P(t) = , Q(t) = 8
300 + t
Qe  =  Q(t)e 
P(t )dt P(t )dt
dt
3 3
 300+ t dt  300+ t dt
Qe =  8e dt
then :

Q = 600 + 2t + C (300 + t )
−3

@ t = 0 min, Q =40 lbs

40 = 600 + 2(0) + C(300 + 0)−3
C = -1.52 x 1010
@ t = 12 min, Q = ?
Q = 600 + 2(12) − 1.52x 1010 (300 + 12)−3
Q = 126.16 lbs → answer!
Motion of a Free-Falling Body
The motion of a falling body under the influence of gravity and air resistance is a fundamental concept in physics
and engineering. Understanding this motion helps us predict and analyze various scenarios, from everyday objects
falling to complex aerial maneuvers. Modeling this motion using linear differential equations allows us to find the
object's velocity as it descends through the air over time.
Fnet = W − R
Where :
Fnet = the total force acting on the body
W = the total weight
R = the resistance acting on the body

Example:
1.) A body of mass of 2 slugs is dropped with no initial velocity and encounters an air resistance that is proportional to its
velocity. Find the velocity after 1 minute. Find the terminal velocity.
Given : m = 2 slugs
R = kv
W = mg
g = 32.2 ft/s2
slugs
k = 0.137
s
Fnet =W − R
Sol'n :
Fnet = ma  Newton's second law then :
dv mg
k
a= v=
− t
+ Ce m
dt k
dv @ t = 0, v = 0
m = mg − kv
dt 0.137
dv k (2)(32.2) − (60)
=g− v 0= + Ce 2

dt m 0.137
dv k C = − 470.073 ft/s
+ v=g
dt m @ t = 1 min = 60 sec, v = ?
k
P(t) = , Q(t) = g (2)(32.2) −
0.137
(60)
m v= − 470.073e 2
ve  P(t )dt
=  v(t)e 
P(t )dt
dt 0.137
v = 462.36 ft/s → answer!
k k
 m dt  m dt
ve =  ge dt terminal velocity:
k k @ t = →  = 9999 sec, v = ?
 m dt t
e = em 0.137
(2)(32.2) − (9999)
k k v= − 470.073e 2
t mg t
0.137
ve m
= e m
+C
k v = 470.073 ft/s → answer!
Newton’s Second Law: Mechanics Application
According to Newton's second law of motion, the momentum of a body changes over time at a rate equal to the net
force acting upon it. Now, let's study the differential equation model that governs the motion of a body when the
only force acting on it is gravity. From newton’s second law, when only gravity is acting on a body, the model can be
simplified as;
Fnet = ma
Fnet = W = mg
dv
a=
dt
dv
m = mg
dt
dv
=g
dt
 dv =  gdt
v = gt + C  velocity equation
dx
v=
dt
dx
= gt + C
dt
 dx =  ( gt + C ) dt
1
x = gt 2 + C1 t + C2  position equation
2
Where :
Fnet = the total force acting on the body
m = mass of the body
g = acceleration due to gravity
Note: This equation must adhere's to the initial parameters, and will not be the same case on above equation.

When both an external force acts on body and an air resistance (which acts as a force opposes and is proportional
to the body), the model of the differential equation is the same as free falling body, but the case is not free fall.

Example:
1.) A boat is being towed at the rate of 12 mi/h. At t = 0 the towing line is cast off and a man in the boat begins to
row in the direction of motion, exerting a force of 20 lb. The combined weight of the man and the boat is 480 lbs.
The water resists the motion with a force equal to 1.75v lb, where v is the velocity of the boat in feet per second.
Derive an equation governing the velocity of the boat at any time t. What would be the velocity of the boat when t
= 10 seconds after.
Given :
Fe = 20 lb
R = 1.75v (lb)
W = 480 lb
480
m= slugs
32.2
Fnet = ma
Fnet = Fe − R
 dv
a=
dt
480 dv
= 20 − 1.75v
32.2 dt
dv 644 1127
= − v  differential equation model
dt 480 9600
dv 1127 644
+ v=
dt 9600 480
1127 644
P(t) = , Q(t) =
9600 480
1127 1127
 9600 dt 644  9600 dt
ve = e dt
480
1127 1127
 dt t
e 9600 = e 9600
1127 1127
t 644 9600 9600 t
ve 9600 =  e +C
480 1127
1127
80 − t
v= + Ce 9600
7
@ t = 0, v = 12mi/h = 17.6 ft/s
1127
80 − (0)
17.6 = + Ce 9600
7
216
C=
35
1127
80 216 − 9600 t
v= + e  answer!
7 35
@ t = 10 sec, v = ?
v = 13.34 ft/s  answer!
II.2 Activity 2
Directions: Solve the following problems and ensure a clarity of your solution. Present in writing the full details of your answer
or solutions. Please provide ½ inch margin and use short size bond paper. This is purely hand written and copy the question
per item and write your solution after each question.

1. A tank contains 200 liters of fluid in which 30 grams of salt is dissolved. Brine containing 1 gram of salt per liter is
then pumped into the tank at a rate of 4 L /min; the well-mixed solution is pumped out at the same rate. Find the
number A(t) of grams of salt in the tank at time t.

2. A large tank is filled to capacity with 500 gallons of pure water. Brine containing 2 pounds of salt per gallon is pumped
into the tank at a rate of 5 gal/min. The well-mixed solution is pumped out at the same rate. Find the number A(t)
of pounds of salt in the tank at time t.

3. A tank initially contains 100 gal of brine in which 50 lb of salt are dissolved. A brine containing 2 lb/gal of salt runs
into the tank at the rate of 5 gal/min. The mixture is kept uniform by stirring and flows out of the tank at the rate of
4 gal/min.
o At what rate (pounds per minute) does salt enter the tank at time t?
o What is the volume of brine in the tank at time t?
o At what rate (pounds per minute) does salt leave the tank at time t?
o Find the concentration of salt in the tank 25 min after the process starts.

4. A tank initially holds 100 gal of a brine solution containing 20 lb of salt. At f = 0, fresh water is poured into the tank
at the rate of 5 gal/min, while the well-stirred mixture leaves the tank at the same rate. Find the amount of salt in
the tank at any time t.

5. A tank contains 100 gal of brine made by dissolving 60 lb of salt in water. Salt water containing 1 lb of salt per gallon
runs in at the rate of 2 gal/min, and the mixture, kept uniform by stirring, runs out at the rate of 3 gal/min. Find the
amount of salt in the tank at the end of 1 h.

6. A cylindrical tank contains 40 gal of a salt solution containing 2 lb of salt per gallon. A salt solution of concentration
3 lb/gal flows into the tank at 4 gal/min. How much salt is in the tank at 5 minutes if the well-stirred mixture flows
out at 4 gal/min?

7. A 100-gal tank is filled with brine containing 60 lb of dissolved salt. Water runs into the tank at the rate of 2 gal/min
and the mixture, kept uniform by stirring, runs out at the same rate. How much salt is in the tank after 1 h?

8. A mass is being pulled across the ice on a sled with a constant force. The resistance offered by the ice to the runners
is negligible, but the resistance (in pounds) offered by the air is five times the velocity of the sled. Derive a differential
equation for the velocity of the sled if the combined weight of the sled and the mass is 80 lb.

9. A body of mass 10 slugs is dropped from a height of 1000 ft with no initial velocity. The body encounters an air
resistance proportional to its velocity. If the limiting velocity is known to be 320 ft/sec, find (a) an expression for the
velocity of the body at any time t, (b) an expression for the position of the body at any time t, and (c) the time
required for the body to attain a velocity of 160 ft/sec.
II.3 Homogeneous Differential Equation
Homogeneous differential equations are a special class of first-order ordinary differential equations that exhibit a
unique property: their right-hand sides are expressed as a function of the dependent variable and its derivatives only, with
no presence of the independent variable. In mathematical terms, a homogeneous differential equation is express in the
following form;
dy M ( x,y )
=
dx −N ( x,y )
Now, since M(x,y) and N(x,y) are homogeneous functions of the same degree in x and y, then this equation can also
written in the following form:
dy y
= g 
dx x
A homogeneous differential equation is a function which also possess the property of,
f ( tx, ty ) = t a f ( x,y )

Note: Steps in solving homogeneous differential equation.

1. Check if the equation is homogeneous by its property.
2. If it is homogeneous, substitute y = vx then derive y in terms of x so you can also substitute value of dy.
y = vx
dy = vdx + xdv
3. After substituting the variables, you can now proceed to separating the variables and integrate.
dv dx
 g(v) − v =  x +C

4. After obtaining the solution, go back and replace the value of v from y = vx setting v = y/x.

Example:
Test the following differential equation if it is homogeneous equation or not.

(
1.) x2 − y 2 dx − xydy ) 2.) x
dy
dx
− 4y = x 6 ex (
3.) x2 − 9 ) dy
dx
+ xy = 6 4.) 2xy
dy
dx
= 3y 2 + x2

1.)Sol'n : (x 2
)
− y 2 dx − xydy = 0 3.)Sol'n : (x 2
−9 ) dy
dx
+ xy = 6
let : x = tx, y = ty let : x = tx, y = ty

((tx) − (ty) ) dx − (tx)(ty)dy = 0

2 2
((tx) − 9) dy
2

dx
+ (tx)(ty) = 6

( t x − t y )dx − t xydy = 0
2 2 2 2 2
( t x − 9) dy
2 2

dx
+ t xy = 6  not homogeneous
2

t ( x − y ) dx − t xydy = 0
2 2 2 2

t ( x − y ) dx − xydy  = 0  homogeneous
2 2 2
 
dy dy
2.)Sol'n : x − 4y = x 6 e x 4.)Sol'n : 2xy = 3y 2 + x 2
dx dx
let : x = tx, y = ty let : x = tx, y = ty

= 3(ty)2 + ( tx )
dy dy 2
tx − 4ty = (tx)6 etx 2(tx)(ty)
dx dx
 dy  dy
tx − 4y  = t 6 x 6 etx 2t 2 xy = 3t 2 y 2 + t 2 x 2
 dx  dx
 dy  5 6 tx  dy 
x − 4y  = t x e  not homogeneous t 2  2xy = 3y 2 + x 2   homogeneous
 dx   dx 
Example:
Find the general solutions of the following differential equations.

(
1.) x2 + y 2 dx + x 2 − xy dy = 0 ) ( )
dy
2.) 2xy = 3y 2 + x2
dx
(
3.) x2 + 2y 2 dx − xydy = 0 )
4.) xdy − ydx = x 2 + y 2 dx

1.)Sol'n : 2.)Sol'n :

(x 2
)
+ y 2 dx + x 2 − xy dy = 0 ( ) 2xy
dy
= 3y 2 + x 2
dx
let : x = tx, y = ty let : x = tx, y = ty
((tx) + (ty) ) dx + ((tx) − (tx)(ty))dy = 0
2 2 2

2(tx)(ty)
dy
= 3(ty)2 + (tx)2
( t x + t y )dx + ( t x − t xy )dy = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
dy
dx
2t 2 xy = 3t 2 y 2 + t 2 x 2
t ( x + y ) dx + t ( x − xy ) dy = 0
2 2 2 2 2
dx
 dy 
t ( x + y ) dx + ( x − xy ) dy  = 0  homogeneous
2 2 2 2 t 2  2xy = 3y 2 + x 2   homogeneous
   dx 
let : y = vx, dy = vdx + xdv let : y = vx, dy = vdx + xdv

(x 2
) (
+ (vx)2 dx + x 2 − x(vx) (vdx + xdv) = 0 ) 2x(vx)
vdx + xdv
dx
= 3(vx)2 + x 2
(x 2
) ( )
+ v 2 x2 dx + x 2 − vx 2 (vdx + xdv) = 0
2x(vx)
vdx + xdv
= 3(vx)2 + x 2
2
(
x 1+ v 2
) dx + x (1 − v )(vdx + xdv) = 0
2 dx
vdx + xdv
2x 2 v = 3v 2 x 2 + x 2
(1 + v ) dx + (1 − v )(vdx + xdv) = 0
2
dx
vdx + xdv
2v = 3v 2 + 1
dx + v 2dx + vdx + xdv − v 2dx − xvdv = 0 dx
dx + vdx + xdv − xvdv = 0 2v(vdx + xdv) = (3v 2 + 1)dx

(1 + v)dx + x(1 − v)dv = 0 2v 2dx + 2xvdv = 3v 2dx + dx

dx 1 − v
+ dv = 0
2xvdv
=
(v 2
)
+ 1 dx
x 1+ v (v + 1)x (v + 1)x
2 2

dx 1−v 2vdv dx
 x +  1 + v dv =  0 =
v2 + 1 x
 2  2vdv dx
ln x +   −1 +  dv = C
1+ v 
 long division  v2 + 1 =  x

y y
ln x − v + 2ln 1 + v = C, where: v = ln v 2 + 1 = ln x + C, where: v =
x x
2
y y y
ln x − + 2ln 1 + = C  answer! ln   + 1 = ln x + C
x x  x2  2
y +x
ln − ln x = C
x2
y 2 + x2
ln =C
x3
y + x = Cx3  answer!
2 2
3.)Sol'n : 4.)Sol'n :

(x 2
)
+ 2y 2 dx − xydy = 0 xdy − ydx = x 2 + y 2 dx
let : x = tx, y = ty let : x = tx, y = ty
((tx) + 2(ty) ) dx − (tx)(ty)dy = 0
2 2
(tx)dy − (ty)dx = (tx)2 + (ty)2 dx
( t x + 2t y ) dx − 2t xydy = 0
2 2 2 2 2

txdy − tydx = t 2 x 2 + t 2 y 2 dx
t ( x + 2y ) dx − xydy  = 0  homogeneous
2 2 2
 
txdy − tydx = t 2 (x 2 + y 2 )dx
let : y = vx, dy = vdx + xdv

(x 2
)
+ 2(vx)2 dx − x(vx)(vdx + xdv) = 0 (
t xdy − ydx = x 2 + y 2 dx )  homogeneous

(x 2
)
+ 2v 2 x 2 dx − vx 2 (vdx + xdv) = 0 let : y = vx, dy = vdx + xdv

(
x 2 1 + 2v 2 ) dx − x v(vdx + xdv) = 0
2
x(vdx + xdv) − (vx)dx = x 2 + (vx)2 dx

(1 + v ) dx − v(vdx + xdv) = 0
2
vxdx + xdv − vxdx = x 2 + v 2 x 2 dx
dx + 2 v 2dx − v 2dx − vxdv = 0
x dv = x 1 + v 2 dx
dx + v dx − vxdv = 0
2

dv = 1 + v 2 dx
(1 + v )dx − x(v)dv = 0
2

dv
dx
−
v
dv = 0  1 + v2
=  dx
x 1 + v2 dv
dx v
 x −  1 + v2 dv =  0  1 + v2
= x +C

1 ln v 2 + 1 + v = x + C, using trigo-substitution
ln x − ln 1 + v 2 = C  u − substitution
2 2
1 y y y y
ln x − ln 1 + v 2 = C, where: v = ln   + 1 + = x + C, where: v =
2 x x
  x x
2
1 y y +x
2 2
y
ln x − ln 1 +   = C ln + =C
2 x x 2
x
x2 + y 2
2ln x − ln =C y 2 + x2 + y
x2 ln =C
x 4 x
ln 2 =C
x + y2
x4 y 2 + x 2 + y = Cx  answer!
= C  answer!
x + y2
2
II.3 Activity 1
A. Obtain the general solution of the given differential equation.
1.) ( x + 2y ) dx + ( 2x + y ) dy = 0
dy y 2
2.) x + =x
dx x
= y ( ln(y) − ln(x))
dy
3.) x
dx
( )
4.) xy − x dy + ydx = 0
dy y
5.) x = y + xcos2  
dx x
II.4 Exact and Non-Exact Differential Equation
Exact and non-exact differential equations offer distinct challenges and solution strategies. Exact equations rely on
the existence of potential functions, simplifying the integration process, while non-exact equations demand creative methods
for solution. Both types of equations contribute significantly to our ability to model and understand dynamic systems, making
them invaluable tools in scientific and engineering endeavors.

Differential Equation of two Variables

Suppose that if z = f (x, y) is a two variables x and y with continuous first derivative in a region R of the xy-plane, then
its differential is,
f f
dz = +
x y
In other words, given a one-parameter family functions f (x, y) we can generate differential equation by taking
the differential of the sides of the equality.
Example:

f(x,y) = x 2 − 5xy + y 3
z = f(x,y)
f f
dz = +
x y
 
dz =  x 2 − 5xy + y 3  +  x 2 − 5xy + y 3 
x y
( )
dz = ( 2x − 5y ) dx + −5x + 3y 2 dy
Then, the exact differential equation is:

(2x − 5y ) dx + ( −5x + 3y ) dy = 0
2

Exact Differential Equation

A differential expression M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy is an exact differential in a region R of the xy-plane if it corresponds to
the differential of some function f(x, y) defined in region R.

A first-order differential equation of the form

M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = 0
is said to be an exact equation if the expression
M  N
=
 y x

Example:

x 2 y 3dx + x3 y 2dy = 0
M(x,y) = x 2 y 3
N(x,y) = x3 y 2
M  2 3
=  x y  = 3x 2 y 2
y y 
M  3 2
=  x y  = 3x 2 y 2
x x 
Note: Steps in solving an Exact Differential Equation
1. Check the exactness;
M  N
=
 y x
2. If the equation is exact, then find f(x, y) from either M(x, y) or N(x, y);
If M(x,y) If N(x,y)
f f
= M(x,y) = N(x,y)
x y
f = M(x,y)x f = N(x,y)y

 f =  M(x,y)x  f =  N(x,y)y
f(x, y) =  M(x,y)x + g(y) f(x, y) =  N(x,y)y + g(x)
3. Differentiate the f(x, y) obtained from step 2 with respect to the other variable (say in term of y if the constant g(y)
or in terms x if the constant g(x)).
f(x, y) =  M(x,y)x + g(y) f(x, y) =  N(x,y)y + g(x)
     
M(x,y)x + g(y) N(x,y)y + g(x)
y   y  
f(x, y) = f(x, y) =
y  x 
4. After getting the step 3, equate this equation to the other side of our equation dependent of the variable we have
selected;
     
 M(x,y)x + g(y) N(x,y)y + g(x)
y  
f(x, y) = f(x, y) =
y y   x 
 
f(x, y) = N(x, y) f(x, y) =M(x, y)
y x
5. Solve the constant set in our equation such as g’(y) or g’(x) and integrate the equation by variable separation.
   
 M(x,y)x + g(y) N(x,y)y + g(x)
x  
N(x, y) = M(x, y) =
y   
   
y 
N(x, y) = M(x,y)x + g(y) M(x, y) =  N(x,y)y + g(x)
y x y
   
g(y) = N(x, y) −  M(x,y)x g(x) = M(x, y) −  N(x,y)y
y y x y
     
 g(y) =   N(x, y) − y  M(x,y)x y  g(x) =   M(x, y) − y  N(x,y)y x
6. After obtaining the value of the constant, equate it to our equation f(x, y) obtained in step 3.
f(x, y) =  M(x,y)x + g(y) f(x, y) =  N(x,y)y + g(x)
     
f(x, y) =  M(x,y)x +   N(x, y) −  M(x,y)x y f(x, y) =  N(x,y)y +   M(x, y) −  N(x,y)y x
 y   y 
7. Then this is the implicit solution of the equation.
f(x, y) = C

Example:
Find the general solutions of the following differential equations.

( )
1.) ( 2xy + 3) dx + x 2 − 1 dy = 0
2.) y dx + ( 2xy + cosy ) dy = 0
2

 y −2/3 
( )
3.) ex sin y − 3x 2 dx −  e x cosy +
3 
 dy = 0

1.)Sol'n : 2)Sol'n :
(2xy + 3) dx + ( x − 1) dy = 0
2
y 2dx + ( 2xy + cosy ) dy = 0
M(x,y) = ( 2xy + 3) M(x,y) = y 2

(
N(x,y) = x 2 − 1 ) N(x,y) = 2xy + cosy
    2
y
M = ( 2xy + 3) = 2x
y y
M=
y
( )
y = 2y

  2  
x
N=
x
(
x − 1 = 2x) x
N = ( 2xy + cosy ) = 2y
x
   
M= N  exact! M= N  exact!
y x y x
lets use M(x,y) lets use M(x,y)

f f
= M(x,y) = M(x,y)
x x
f f
= ( 2xy + 3) = y2
x x
 f =  (2xy + 3) x  y as constant  f =  y x  y as constant
2

f(x,y) = x 2 y + 3x + g(y) f(x,y) = xy 2 + g(y)

take partial derivative of f(x,y) in terms of y. take partial derivative of f(x,y) in terms of y.

f(x,y) 
f(x,y)  2
= (
x y + 3x + g(y) ) y
=
y
(xy 2 + g(y))
y y
f(x,y)  f(x,y) 
= x2 + g = 2xy + g
y y y y
f(x,y) f(x,y)
= N(x,y) = N(x,y)
y y
 
x2 + g = x2 − 1 2xy + g = 2xy + cosy
y y
 
g = −1 g = cosy
y y

 g = −  y  g =  cosyy
g(y) = sin y
g(y) = −y
then :
then :
f(x,y) = xy 2 + g(y)
f(x,y) = x 2 y + 3x + g(y)
f(x,y) = C
f(x,y) = C
xy 2 + sin(y) = C  answer!
x2 y + 3x − y = C  answer!
3.)Sol'n :
 −2/3

( e sin y − 3x ) dx −  e cosy + y 3
x 2 x
 dy = 0
 
M(x,y) = ex sin y − 3x 2
y −2/3
N(x,y) = ex cosy +
3
  x
y
M=
y
( )
e sin y − 3x 2 = ex cosy
   y −2/3  x
N =  ex cosy +  = e cosy
x x  3 
 
M= N  exact!
y x
lets use M(x,y)
f
= M(x,y )
x
f
= ex sin y − 3x 2
x
( )
 f =  e sin y − 3x x  y as constant
x 2

f(x,y) = e sin y − x + g(y)

x 3

take partial derivative of f(x,y) in terms of y.

f(x,y)  x
y
=
y
(
e sin y − x3 + g(y) )
f(x,y) x 
= e cosy + g
y y
f(x,y)
= N(x,y)
y
 y −2/3
ex cosy + g = ex cosy +
y 3
 y −2/3
g=
y 3
y −2/3
 g =  3 y
g(y) = y 1/3
then :
f(x,y) = ex sin y − x 3 + g(y)
f(x,y) = C
ex sin y − x3 + y 1/3 = C  answer!
Non-Exact Differential Equation
A non-exact differential equation is a type of ordinary differential equation where the mathematical condition for
exactness isn't met. In exact differential equations, the partial derivatives of a function are interchangeable, meaning
the order in which they're taken doesn't affect the result. However, many real-world situations lead to non-exact
differential equations.

In a non-exact differential equation, the condition for exactness, which involves the equality of mixed partial
derivatives, isn't satisfied. This can make solving the equation directly more challenging. To tackle non-exact
equations, various techniques are used. One common approach is to identify an integrating factor, which is a
function that transforms the equation into an exact one, allowing standard techniques for solving exact differential
equations to be applied.

A first-order differential equation of the form

M(x, y)dx + N(x, y)dy = 0

Integrating Factor
Recall from the last discussion of linear differential equation, that the left-hand side of the equation y  + P(x,y) = Q(x)
can be transformed into a derivative when we multiply the equation by an integrating factor. The same basic idea
sometimes works for a non-exact differential equation. That is sometimes possible to find an integrating factor
(x,y) so that after multiplying, the equation;
(x,y)  M(x, y)dx + (x,y)  N(x, y)dy = 0

is said to be an exact differential equation.


y
( M ) = x ( N )
To find the integrating factor µ(x, y), we will turn the test of exactness of the equation as shown above. By product
rule of differentiation, this equation of exactness will yield in the following result;

y
(   M ) = x (   N )
 M  N
M +  =  N + 
y y x x
let :
 M
= y  = My
y y
 N
= x  = Nx
x x
then :
 y  M + My  =  x  N + N x 

Then we will simplify the equation, and yield two possible results;
 y  M + My   =  x  N + Nx  
 y M + M y =  x N + N x
then;
 y M −  x N = N x − M y
or
 x N −  y M = M y − N x
Although M, N, My, and Nx are known functions of x and y, the difficulty here in determining the unknown (x,y) is
that we must solve the equation (x,y) from the above equation. Since (x,y) is function of two variables, we will
assume the other variable as a constant in our equation.
Let’s assume that y is a constant, then;
 x N −  y M = My − N x
then;

x N
=
(
 My − Nx )
N N
x
=
(
My − Nx )
 N

where :  x =
x
1  My − N x
=
( )
 x N
 My − Nx ( )
  =  N x
ln  = 
My − Nx
x
( )
N
(M y −N x ) x

=e N

Let’s assume that x is a constant, then;

 y M −  x N = N x − My
then;

y M
=
(
 Nx − My )
M N
y
=
(
Nx − My )
 M

where :  y =
y
1 
=
N x
− M(y )
 y M
 Nx − My ( )
  =  M y
ln  = 
Nx − My (
y
)
M
(N x −My ) y

=e M

REMINDER: Since we end up with two potential values for our variable (x,y) , it's smart to pick the one that makes
our equation easy to work with. This step is necessary to create an exact differential equation. As a result, this
approach can be a bit complicated.

After obtaining the value of our integrating factor, we can now proceed the method of exact differential equation.
Example:
Find the general solutions of the following differential equations.

(
1.) xydx + 2x2 + 3y 2 − 20 dy = 0 )
( )
2.) 2y + 3x dx + 2xydy = 0
2

3.) (10 − 6y + e ) dx − 2dy = 0 −3x

1.)Sol'n :

(
xydx + 2x 2 + 3y 2 − 20 dy = 0 ) lets use M(x,y)
f
M(x,y) = xy = M(x,y)
x
f
N(x ,y) = 2x 2 + 3y 2 − 20 = xy 4
x
 
M = ( xy ) = x  f =  ( xy ) x  y as constant
4

y y
 
x
N=
x
(
2x 2 + 3y 2 − 20 = 4x ) 1
f(x,y) = x 2 y 4 + g(y)
2
 
M N take partial derivative of f(x,y) in terms of y.
y x
f(x,y)   1 2 4 
let's find our I.F.: =  x y + g(y) 
y y  2 
(M y −N x ) x
 f(x,y) 
=e N
= 2x 2 y 3 + g
y y
( x−4x )
 2x2 +3y2 −20x f(x,y)
=e = N(x,y)
y

( )
−3/4
 = 2x 2 + 3y 2 − 20 or 2x 2 y 3 + g = 2x 2 y 3 + 3y 5 − 20y 3
y
( Nx −My ) y
 
=e M
g = 3y 5 − 20y 3
y
( 4x−x ) y

=e  g =  (3y )
− 20y 3 y
xy 5

1
 = y3 g(y) = y 6 − 5y 4
2
1
Then, let's use (x,y) = y 3 f(x,y) = x 2 y 4 + g(y)
2
(x,y)xydx + (x,y) 2x 2 + 3y 2 − 20 dy = 0 ( ) 1 2 4 1 6
f(x,y) = x y + y − 5y 4
2 2
y  xydx + y 2x + 3y − 20 dy = 0
3 3
( 2 2
) f(x,y) = C
test again for exactness: x2 y 4 + y 6 − 10y 4 = C  answer!
M(x,y) = xy 4
N(x,y) = 2x 2 y 3 + 3y 5 − 20y 3
 
y
M=
y
xy 4 = 4xy 3 ( )
 
x
N=
x
(
2x 2 y 3 + 3y 5 − 20y 3 = 4xy 3 )
 
M= N
y x
2.)Sol'n :
f(x,y)
(2y 2
)
+ 3x dx + 2xydy = 0
y
= N(x,y)

M(x,y) = 2y 2 + 3x 2x 2 y + g = 2x 2 y
y

N(x,y) = 2xy g =0
y
 
y
M=
y
2y 2 + 3x = 4y ( )  g =  (0) y
 
N = ( 2xy ) = 2y g(y) = C1
x x
 
M N f(x,y) = x 2 y 2 + x3 + g(y)
y x
let's find our I.F.: f(x,y) = x 2 y 2 + x3 + C1
(M y −N x ) x

=e N
f(x,y) = C
( 4y −2y ) x

=e 2xy
x2 y 2 + x3 + C1 = C
=x x 2 y 2 + x3 = C  answer!
Then, let's use (x,y) = x

(
(x,y) 2y 2 + 3x dx + (x,y)2xydy = 0 )
(
x 2y + 3x dx + x  2xydy = 0
2
)
test again for exactness:
M(x,y) = 2xy 2 + 3x 2
N(x,y) = 2x 2 y
 
y
M=
y
(
2xy 2 + 3x 2 = 4xy )
 
x
N=
x
2x 2 y = 4xy ( )
 
M= N
y x
lets use M(x,y)
f
= M(x,y)
x
f
= 2xy 2 + 3x 2
x
(
 f =  2xy + 3x x  y as constant
2 2
)
f(x,y) = x y + x + g(y) 2 2 3

take partial derivative of f(x,y) in terms of y.

f(x,y)  2 2
y
=
y
x y + x3 + g(y) ( )
f(x,y) 
= 2x 2 y + g
y y
3.)Sol'n :
f(x,y)
(10 − 6y + e )dx − 2dy = 0
−3x

x
= M(x,y)

M(x,y) = 10 − 6y + e −3x −6ye3x + g = 10e3x − 6ye3x + 1
x

N(x,y) = −2 g = 10e3x + 1
x
 
y
M=
y
(
10 − 6y + e−3x = −6 )  g =  (10e
3x
)
+ 1 x
 
N = ( −2) = 0
10 3x
g(x) = e +x
x x 3
 
M N f(x,y) = −2ye3x + g(x)
y x
10 3x
let's find our I.F.: f(x,y) = −2ye3x + e +x
3
(M y −N x ) x

=e N
f(x,y) = C
( −6−0) x
 10 3x
=e −2
− 2ye3x + e +x =C
3
 = e3x − 6ye3x + 10e3x + 3x = C  answer!
Then, let's use (x,y) = x

( )
(x,y) 10 − 6y + e −3x dx − (x,y)  2dy = 0
e3x
(10 − 6y + e )dx − e  2dy = 0 −3x 3x

(10e − 6ye ) dx − 2e dy = 0
3x 3x 3x

test again for exactness:

M(x,y) = 10e3x − 6ye3x + 1
N(x,y) = −2e3x
 
y
M=
y
(
10e3x − 6ye3x + 1 = −6e3x )
 
x
N=
x
(
−2e3x = −6e3x )
 
M= N
y x
lets use M(x,y)
f
= N(x,y)
y
f
= −2e3x
y
(
 f =  −2e y  x as constant
3x
)
f(x,y) = −2ye + g(x) 3x

take partial derivative of f(x,y) in terms of x.

f(x,y) 
x
=
x
−2ye3x + g(x) ( )
f(x,y) 
= −6ye3x + g
x x
II.4 Activity 1
A. Obtain the solution of the given differential equation.
1.) ( 2x − 1 ) dx + (3y + 7 ) dy = 0
2.) (5x + 4y)dx + (4x − 8y 3 )dy = 0
3.) (2xy 2 − 3)dx + (2x 2 y + 4)dy = 0

( ) ( )
4.) x 2 + 2xy − y 2 dx + y 2 + 2xy − x 2 dy = 0
5.) y(x+y+1)dx+(x+2y)dy=0
6.) (x+y)2dx+(2xy+x 2 -1)dy=0  y(1)=1
 1  dy
7.)  + cosx − 2xy  = y(y + sin x)  y(0)=1
1+ y
2
 dx
II.5 Other Methods in solving First-Order Ordinary Differential Equation
These methods collectively offer a versatile toolbox for solving various first-order differential equations, spanning
applications in science and engineering.

Bernoulli’s Differential Equation

This method is useful for solving non-linear and separable first-order differential equations. By using a suitable
substitution, the equation is transformed into a linear form, allowing standard techniques to be applied.

A first-order differential equation of the form

dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x)y n
dx
Here, n is a constant that is not equal to 0 or 1. The key idea behind solving Bernoulli's equation is to find a
substitution that transforms it into a linear equation, which is typically easier to solve. The difficulty with Bernoulli’s
equation lies in the nonlinear term involving yn. To deal this, we need to imply a substitution variable u and derive u
in terms of variable x;
u = y 1−n
du dy
= (1 − n)y − n
dx dx
Hence our equation now transformed into;
dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x)y n
dx

( )
y −n
dy
dx
( ) ( )
+ y − n P(x)y = Q(x)y n y − n

( )
y −n
dy
dx
( )
+ y − n P(x)y = Q(x)

dy du  1 
=  −n 
dx dx  (1 − n)y 
du  
( )
y −n 
1
−n 
dx  (1 − n)y 
( )
+ y − n P(x)y = Q(x)

du  
( )
y −n
1
( )
 + y − n P(x)y = Q(x)
dx  (1 − n) y − n 
 
 du  1  
 
dx (1 − n)
( ) −n
 + y P(x)y = Q(x) (1 − n)
   
du
+ (1 − n)P(x)u = (1 − n)Q(x)
dx
The equation above is now linear in u and can be solved by using the previous method Linear DE of first-order.
du
+ (1 − n)P(x)u = (1 − n)Q(x)
dx
where :

R(x) = (1 − n)P(x)

f(x) = (1 − n)Q(x)

and :

du
+ R(x)u = f(x)
dx
 dy dy
Example :1.) x 2 − y 2 = 2xy Example : 2.) x + y = x 2 y 2 ln(x)
dx dx
Sol'n : Sol'n :

 2 dy  1   dy  1 
x − y 2 = 2xy   2  x + y = x 2 y 2 ln(x)  
 dx x   dx x
dy 1 2 2y dy 1
− y = + y = xy ln(x)
2

dx x 2 x dx x
dy 2 1 2 dy 1
− y= 2y + y = x ln(x)y 2
dx x x dx x
let: u = y 1−n , where: n = 2 let: u = y 1−n , where: n = 2

1 1
u = y 1−2 = y −1 = u = y 1−2 = y −1 =
y y
du 1 dy du 1 dy
=− 2 =− 2
dx y dx dx y dx
2 du 1
2 du 2 1 -y + y = x ln(x)y 2
-y − y = 2 y2 dx x
dx x x
 2 du 2 1  1   2 du 1  1 
− y = 2 y2   2  -y + y = x ln(x)y 2   2 
-y  dx x   -y 
 dx x x   -y 
du 1  1 
du 2  1  1 −   = − x ln(x)
+  =− 2 dx x  y 
dx x  y  x
du 1
du 2 1 − u = −x ln(x)
+ u=− 2 dx x
dx x x
1
2 1 where : P(x)=- and Q(x)=-x ln(x)
where : P(x)= and Q(x)=- 2 x
x x 1
 − x dx − ln x
2
 x dx 2ln x I.F. = e =e = x −1
I.F. = e =e =x 2

u  e =  Qe 
Pdx Pdx
dx  general formula
u  e =  Qe 
Pdx Pdx
dx  general formula
u  x −1 =  -x ln(x)x −1dx
1
ux = −
2 2
x dx
x2 u  x −1 = −  ln(x)dx
u  x = −  dx
2

u  x −1 = −x ln(x) + x + C
u  x = −x + C
2

where: u= 1
y
where: u= 1
y 1 −1
 x = −x ln(x) + x + C
1 2 y
 x = −x + C
y 1
= −x 2 ln(x) + x 2 + Cx
x 2 = −xy + Cy  answer! y
1
y= 2  answer!
− x ln(x) + x 2 + Cx
Reduction to Separation of Variables
The reduction to separation of variables method is a technique used to solve certain types of partial differential
equations (PDEs) by transforming them into ordinary differential equations (ODEs) through a separation of variables
process. This method is particularly effective when dealing with PDEs that exhibit separable solutions, which means
the solution can be expressed as a product of functions that depend solely on one variable each.

A first-order differential equation of the form

dy
= f(Ax + By + C)
dx
Can always be reduced to a differential equation with separation of variable by using the substitution;
u = Ax + By + C
And derived the equation above in terms of variable x, then solve dy/dx;

du dy
= A+B
dx dx

dy
= ( x + y + 2)
dy 2
Example : 2.) = tan2 (x + y)
Example :1.) dx
dx
Sol'n : Sol'n :

u = x + y +2 u=x+y

du dy du dy
=1+ =1+
dx dx dx dx
dy du
dy du
= −1 = −1
dx dx dx dx
dy
= ( x + y + 2) = tan2 (u)
dy 2

dx dx
du
− 1 = tan2 (u)
− 1 = (u )
du 2
dx
dx
du
du = tan2 (u) + 1
= u2 + 1 dx
dx
du
du = dx
= dx tan2 (u) + 1
u +1
2
du
du
 u2 + 1 =  dx  tan2(u) + 1 =  dx
 cos (u)du = x + C
2
arctan(u) = x + C
1 1
where : u = x + y + 2 u + sin(2u) = x + C
2 4
arctan(x + y + 2) = x + C where : u = x + y

x + y + 2 = tan(x + C) 1 1 
4  (x + y) + sin(2x + 2y) = x + C 
y = tan(x + C) − x − 2  answer! 2 4 
2x + 2y + sin(2x + 2y) = 4x + C

2y − 2x + sin(2x + 2y) = C  answer!

Coefficients Linear in two Variables
The reduction to separation of variables method is a technique used to solve certain types of partial differential
equations (PDEs) by transforming them into ordinary differential equations (ODEs) through a separation of variables
process. This method is particularly effective when dealing with PDEs that exhibit separable solutions, which means
the solution can be expressed as a product of functions that depend solely on one variable each.

Consider a differential equation of the form

(a1 x + b1 y + C2 )dx + (a 2 x + b2 y + C2 )dy = 0

where a, b, c are constants. If c1 and c2 are both zero (0), then it becomes homogeneous differential equation. Let’s
consider an equation where c1 and c2 are not zero (0).
a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0

a1 b1
If the equation of a line above are parallel, that is = , then we can solve the differential equation using
a2 b2
reduction to separation of variables. In this case, we use a substitution;
u = a1 x + b1 y + c1
or
u = a2 x + b2 y + c2

a1 b1
If the equation of a line above are intersecting, that is  , then we can solve the differential equation using
a2 b2
reduction of variables with homogeneous coefficients. In this case, we use a substitution;
x =u+h
and
y =v+k
where (h, k) is the intersection of the two linear equation.

Example:
Find the general solutions of the following differential equations.
1.) ( x + 2y + 3) dx + ( 2x + 4y − 4 ) dy = 0
dy 3x − 2y
2.) =
dx 3x − 2y + 2
3.) (2x − y)dx + (4x + y − 6)dy = 0
1.)Sol'n : 3.)Sol'n :

( x + 2y + 3) dx + (2x + 4y − 4 )dy = 0 (2x − y)dx + (4x + y − 6)dy = 0

a1 1 b1 2 a1 2 b1 −1
= , = = , =
a2 2 b2 4 a2 4 b2 1
a1 b1 a1 b1
= 
a2 b2 a2 b2
u = x + 2y (h,k) = (1,2)

du = dx + 2dy x = u + 1 → dx = du

dx = du − 2dy y = v + 2 → dy = dv

( u + 3)(du − 2dy) + (2u − 4 )dy = 0 (2x − y)dx + (4x + y − 6)dy = 0

(2(u + 1) − (v + 2))du + (4(u + 1) + (v + 2) − 6)dv = 0

udu + 3du −2udy − 6dy +2udy − 4dy = 0
(2u − v)du + (4u + v)dv = 0
(u + 3)du −  10dy =  0
let : u = vz → du = vdz + zdv
1 2
u + 3u − 10y = C
2 (2vz − v)(vdz + zdv) + (4vz + v)dv = 0
where : u = x + 2y
2v 2zdz + 2vz2dv − v 2dz − vzdv + 4vzdv − vdv = 0
1
(x + 2y)2 + 3(x + 2y) − 10y = C 2v 2zdz − v 2dz + 2vz2dv + 3vzdv − vdv = 0
2
(x + 2y)2 + 6(x + 2y) − 20y = C  answer! (2v z − v ) dz + (2vz + 3vz − v ) dv = 0
2 2 2

2.)Sol'n : v ( 2z − 1 ) dz + ( 2z + 3z − 1 ) dv = 0
2

dy 3x − 2y (2z − 1) dz + dv
=
dx 3x − 2y + 2
 2z 2
+ 3z − 1
 v = 0
a1 3 b1 −2  −4 3  dv
= ,
a2 3
=
b2 −2
  2z + 1 + z + 1 dz +  v =  0
a1 b1 −2ln 2z + 1 + 3ln z + 1 + ln v = ln C
=
( )  = ln C
a2 b2  z +1 3 v 
u = 3x − 2y ln 
 2 

du dy 
then :
( 2z + 1 ) 
=3−2
dx dx
u x −1
dy 1  du  u = x − 1, v = y − 2, and z = =
= 3 −  v y −2
dx 2  dx 
( z + 1) v = C
3
dy 3x − 2y
=
dx 3x − 2y + 2 (2z + 1)
2

1 du  u  x −1 
3

3 − =  + 1  (y − 2)
2 dx  u + 2  y −2 
u + 6 du =C 2
=   x −1  
u + 2 dx  2  + 1
u+2   y −2 
 u + 6 du =  dx  x + y −3 
3 2
 2x + y − 4 
u − 4ln u + 6 = x + C   (y − 2) = C  
 y −2   y −2 
( x + y − 3) = C ( x + y − 4 )  answer!
3 2
(3x − 2y) − 4ln 3x − 2y + 6 = x + C  answer!
II.5 Activity 1
A. Obtain the solution of the given differential equation.
1.) (y − 12)dx − (x − y − 4)dy = 0
2.) (x − 4y − 5)dx − (x − 4y − 8)dy = 0
3.) (x − y + 6)dx + 4dy = 0
4.) (x − 2y + 2)dx + 4(x + 4y − 8)dy = 0
5.) (2x − 4y + 8)dx + 3(x − 3)dy = 0,  y(3)=2
6.) (x + y − 2)dx − (2x − 3y − 6)dy = 0,  y(4)=2
Chapter III: More Applications of First - Order ODE
Intended Learning Outcome:
✓ Apply how to model and analyze scenarios involving velocity escape using first-order ordinary differential equations.
✓ Comprehend how to use first-order ordinary differential equations to model fluid flow through an orifice.
✓ Grasp the connection between Newton's second law of motion and first-order ordinary differential equations.
✓ Master the ability to use first-order ordinary differential equations to determine trajectories of moving objects.

Chapter Overview:
The applications of first-order ordinary differential equations (ODEs) provide a diverse toolkit for modeling and analyzing
dynamic phenomena across various fields. These applications highlight the versatility and significance of ODEs in capturing real-
world processes.
Studying these applications equips learners with problem-solving skills for practical scenarios. The applications
underscore ODEs' role in modeling complex dynamics and fostering a deeper understanding of their relevance in diverse scientific
and engineering contexts.
Studying these applications equips learners with the skills to model, solve, and interpret ODEs in practical contexts. By
analyzing scenarios related to velocity, fluid flow, motion, trajectories, and curves, students develop a solid foundation in both
mathematical theory and its real-world implications. These applications underscore the ubiquity of ODEs across scientific and
engineering domains, fostering a deeper appreciation for their role in understanding dynamic systems.
Discussion:
Trajectories

trajectories are paths that objects follow through space, and they can exhibit various characteristics depending on
the context and the underlying equations that describe their motion. Here are explanations of two types of trajectories:
orthogonal trajectories and isogonal trajectories.

Orthogonal Trajectories
Orthogonal trajectories are a special kind of curve that intersects another set of curves (usually a family of curves)
at right angles. In the context of differential equations, orthogonal trajectories are the curves that intersect the given
family of curves at a right angle.

Orthogonal trajectories represent a family of curves that intersect another given family of
curves at right angles. More formally, if two families of curves are described by equations
F(x, y, C1) = 0 and G(x, y, C2) = 0 where C1 and C2 are parameters, then the condition for
orthogonal trajectories is that the product of their slopes is equal to -1.
m 1  m 2 = −1

Isogonal Trajectories
Isogonal trajectories imply that the tangent lines to the curves at their points of intersection have a constant angular
relationship. In other words, the curves cross each other at a fixed angle, which can be greater or less than 90
degrees, depending on the specific context. For isogonal families that intersect at (x, y) with slope m1 and m2, they
intersect at constant angle θ, where:
m − m1
tan  = 2
1 + m1  m 2
Example:
Find the orthogonal trajectories of the given family curves.
1.) x − 4y = C
2.) y 2 = Cx3
3.) ax 2 − by 2 = C
 1.)x − 4y = C 3.) ax 2 − by 2 = C
Sol'n : Sol'n :
dx − 4dy = 0 2axdx − 2bydy = 0
dy 1 2axdx = 2bydy
=
dx 4 dy ax
1 =
m1 = dx by
4 ax
m1  m2 = −1 m1 =
by
1 m1  m2 = −1
 m = −1
4 2 ax
m2 = −4  m = −1
by 2
dy by
= m2 m2 = −
dx ax
dy dy
= −4 = m2
dx dx
 dy = −4 dx dy
dx
=−
by
ax
y = −4x + C dy dx
=−
4x + y = C  answer! by ax
dy dx
 by = −  ax
2.) y 2 = Cx 3 1 1
ln y = − ln x + C
b a
Sol'n : a ln y = −bln x + abC
y 2 = Cx 3 ln y a = ln x − b + C
y2 y a = Cx − b
C=
x3
2yx3dy − 3x 2 y 2dx y a x b = C  answer!
0=
x6
0 = 2yx3dy − 3x 2 y 2dx
2yx 3dy = 3x 2 y 2dx

2 y x3 dy 3 x 2 y 2 dx
=
(x3 ) (y 2 ) (x 3 )(y 2 )
2dy 3dx
=
y x
dy 3y
= = m1
dx 2x
3y
 m = −1
2x 2
2x
m2 = −
3y
dy 2x
=−
dx 3y
3 ydy = −2 xdx
3 2
y = −x 2 + C
2
3y 2 = −2x 2 + C
3y 2 + 2x 2 = C  answer!
Population Dynamics
Population dynamics is a multidisciplinary field that bridges biology, ecology, mathematics, and sociology. It provides
valuable insights into how populations of organisms, including humans, respond to various internal and external
factors. Understanding population dynamics is critical for addressing environmental challenges, managing resources
sustainably, and making informed decisions in diverse fields.

Logistic growth is a mathematical model used to describe how populations or quantities change over time when
there are limiting factors. It is characterized by an initial exponential growth phase, followed by a slowing of growth
as the population approaches a maximum sustainable level, known as the carrying capacity.

Numerous efforts have been dedicated to formulating models that explore the dynamics of populations. One
method for simplifying the study of population growth is to assume a constant average birthrate per individual and
a death rate proportional to the population's size.

This assumption leads to a differential equation in the context of population dynamics:

dP
= P(a − bP)
dt
where both b and a are positive constants. This equation is commonly known as the logistic equation, and it
encapsulates the concept of logistic growth within the scope of population dynamics.

Solution of Logistic Equation.

dP
= P(a − bP)
dt
dP
= dt
P(a − bP)
dP
 P(a − bP) =  dt
by Partial Fraction:
1 A B
= +
P(a − bP) P a − bP
Solve A and B:
1 = A ( a − bP ) + BP
0 = − AbP + BP
1
1=Aa, A=
a
1 b
0 = − bP + BP, B =
a a
1 1/a b/a
= +
P(a − bP) P a − bP
1/a b/a 
  P + a − bP dP =  dt
1 1
ln P − ln a − bP = t + C
a a
ln P − ln a − bP = at + C
P
ln = at + C
a − bP

P
= Ceat
a − bP
Solve for P(t):

 P 
 = Ceat  a − bP 
 a − bP 
P = ( a − bP ) Ceat

P = aCeat − bPCeat

P + bPCeat = aCeat

(
P 1 + bCeat = aCeat)
aCeat  e− at 
P=  
1 + bCe  e− at 
at

aC
P(t) =
bC + e− at
when : t = 0, P = Po

aC
Po =
bC + e− a(0)
Po ( bC + 1 ) = aC

Po bC + Po = aC

Po = aC − Po bC

Po
C=
a − bPo
then :

 P 
a o 
P(t) =  a − bPo 
 P 
b  o  + e− at
 a − bPo 
aPo
P(t) =  Solution of Logistic Equation
bPo + ( a − bPo ) e− at
Example:
Consider a scenario where a student carrying the COVID-19 virus enters an isolated college campus housing a
population of 2,500 students. We assume that the rate of virus transmission is influenced not only by the current
number of infected students (x) but also by the number of students who have not been infected yet. Given that
there were 100 students infected after 4 days, forecast how many students will be infected after a 10-day period?

Given :

P = represent the number of infected students

k = proportionality constant that accounts for the rate of virus transmission

= kP ( 2500 − P )  model of the equation for virus transmission

dP
dt
@ t = 0 day, P = 1 student

@ t = 4days, P = 100 students

Sol'n :

= P ( a − bP )
dP
dt
from the model: a = 2500k, b = k

aPo
P(t) =
bPo + ( a − bPo ) e− at
2500 k (1)
P(t) =
( )
k (1) + 2500 k − k (1) e−2500kt
simplify the eq.

2500
P(t) =
1 + 2499e−2500kt
@ t = 4days, P = 100 students

2500
100 =  solve k
1 + 2499e−2500k(4)
k = 0.00046455921

then :

2500
P(t) =
1 + 2499e−1.161398( t )
@ t = 10 days, P = ?

2500
P(10) =
1 + 2499e−1.161398(10)
P(10) = 2,445 students  answer!
Velocity Escape
In the field of physics and engineering, particularly in scenarios involving motion and dynamics, velocity escape is a
critical concept. Velocity escape occurs when an object or particle reaches a speed sufficient to break free from the
influence of a gravitational or other restraining force.

Differential equations serve as a fundamental tool in modeling velocity escape scenarios. These equations describe
how the velocity of an object changes as a function of time and how external forces, such as gravity or air resistance,
affect its motion.

For instance, in the context of gravitational escape from a planet's surface, the equation for velocity escape may be
expressed as;
v = 2gR
Where R is the radius, g is the acceleration due to gravity. This equation is derived from differential equation.

Example:
The radius of the moon is roughly 1080 miles. The acceleration of gravity at the surface of the moon is about 0.165g,
where g is the acceleration of gravity at the surface of the earth. Determine the velocity of escape for the moon?

Given :

v = 2gR

R = 1080 miles

g = 0.165g e

m
g e = 9.81
s2
Sol'n :

1 mile = 5280 ft

1 ft = 0.3048 m

 5280 ft  0.3048 m 
R=1080 mi   
 1 mi  1 ft 
v = 2(0.165)(9.81)(1080)(5280)(0.3048)

v = 2372.07 m/s

v = 1.474 mi/s  answer!

Flow Through Orifice
Flow through an orifice is a classic problem in fluid dynamics and engineering. It involves the passage of a fluid (liquid
or gas) through a small opening or hole (the orifice) in a container or conduit. The rate of flow through the orifice is
determined by several factors, including the size of the orifice, the properties of the fluid, and Q in

the pressure difference across the orifice.

Q net = Q in − Q out
AW
dV
Q net = dh
h
dt
dV A₀
= Q in − Q out
dt
Q out = CA o v Q out

where C is the coefficient account for contraction of water at orifice, Ao is the cross-sectional area of orifice and v
is the velocity of the liquid flowing out of the tank.

For instance, in the context of flow of fluid from an orifice, the equation for the time to drain the liquid inside the
tank may be modeled as shown below, assuming no inflow and cross-sectional area of the tank is constant.
dV
= Q in − Q out
dt
for no rate entering, Q in = 0

dV
= −Q out
dt
Q out = CA o v

if the level of water is at height h,

using work-energy eq.

1
m v 2 = m gh
2
v = 2gh

Q out = CA o 2gh

dV = A w dh

dV
= −Q out
dt
A w dh
= −CA o 2gh
dt
A w dh
= −Cdt
A o 2gh
A w dh
 A 2gh = −C dt
o
Aw h2 dh t

A o 2g
h1
h
= −C  dt
0

t=
2A w
CA o 2g
(
h1 − h 2 )
Example:
A 1.25m diameter vertical cylindrical tank of 3 m high contains 2.65m of water. A 90 mm diameter circular sharp-
edged orifice is located at its bottom. Assume C = 0.63
a) How long will it take to lower the water level to 1.60 m deep after opening the orifice?
b) How long will it take to empty the tank?
d=1.25m

Given :
d = 1.25m
AW
h t = 3.00m

h=3.00m
h=2.65mm
h w = 2.65m dh
d o = 90mm = 0.09m
C = 0.63
A₀
Req'd :
t =?  h w = 1.60m
t =?  h w = 0.00m
Q out
Sol'n : @a t = ?  h w = 1.60m

dV
= −Q o b) t = ?  h w = 0.00m
dt
Q o = CA o v sol'n :

v = 2gh t=?  h1 = 2.65m

dV h2 = 0.00m, g = 9.81 m/s2

= −CA o 2gh
dt
A w = 0.25d2 , A 0 = 0.25d o2
dV = A w dh

A w dh (
2 0.25 d2 )  2.65 − 0.00 
 CA = −  dt t=

Aw
o
2gh
h2 dh t
(
0.63 0.25 do 2
) 2(9.81)  

CA o 2g
h1
h
= −  dt
0
t = 225.06 seconds  answer!
Aw h2 t
 dh = −  dt
−1/2
h
h1 0
CA o 2g
Aw h2 t
2h  = −  t 
h1 0
CA o 2g
simplify the eq.

2A w  h − h 
t=
2g 
1 2
CA o
then :

t=?  h1 = 2.65m, h2 = 1.60m, g = 9.81 m/s2

A w = 0.25d2 , A 0 = 0.25do2

t=
(
2 0.25 d2 )  2.65 − 1.60 
(
0.63 0.25 do 2
) 2(9.81)  

t = 50.18 seconds  answer!

A tank in the form of a frustum of a right circular cone 1.40 m diameter at the bottom, 2.80 m diameter at the top,
and 3.00 m height and is full of water. An orifice is installed at the bottom with coefficient of contraction C = 0.62.
Determine the diameter of the orifice if it takes 10 minutes to empty the tank.
Given :
d t = 2.80m d=2.80m

d b = 1.40m
h w = 3.00m
A
C = 0.62

h=3.00m
W

Req'd : dh

d0 = ?  t = 10min = 600sec
A₀

Sol'n : @ d0 = ?  t = 10min = 600sec d=1.40m

dV
= −Q o Q out
dt
Q o = CA o v
2.80m
dV
= −CA o 2gh 0.7
dt
dV = A w dh

A w = 0.25 (1.4 + x )
2 x
dh

h=3.00mm
2
 7 
A w = 0.25  1.4 + h  h
 30 
A o = 0.25do2
2
 7 
0.25  1.4 + h  dh 1.40m
 30 
 0.62 0.25 d 2 2gh = −  dt
( o ) 2
by ratio & proportion:
 7 
 1.4 + h  dh 0.70m x
=
1 h2  30  t

CA o 2g
h1
h
= −  dt
0
3.00m h
7
2 x= h
1 −1/2  7  30
h2 t

2
0.62d 2g
 h1
h 

1.4 + h
30 
 dh = − 0 dt
o 2
1 h2  7 

−1/2
h  1.4 + h  dh
0.62 2g h1
 30 
do =
2
t
−  t 
0
then :

t = 600s  h1 = 3.00m, h2 = 0.00m, g = 9.81 m/s2

2
1 0  7 
0.62 2g
3.0
h −1/2  1.4 + h  dh
 30 
do2 = 600
−  t 
do = 0.00569933
2 0

do = 0.0755m or 75.50 mm  answer!

III. Activity 1
Directions: Solve the following problems and ensure a clarity of your solution. Present in writing the full details of your answer
or solutions. Please provide ½ inch margin and use short size bond paper. This is purely hand written and copy the question
per item and write your solution after each question.

1. A bacterial population is known to have a logistic growth pattern with initial population 1000 and an equilibrium
population of 10,000. A count shows that at the end of 1 hour there are 2000 bacteria present. Determine the
population as a function of time.
2. Find the isogonal trajectories of the one-parameter family of curves (x + C)y 2 = 1 if  = arctan(4)
3. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of curves x2 + y 2 = Cx
4. A body of mass m falls from rest in a medium for which the resistance (in pounds) is proportional to the velocity (in
feet per second). If the specific gravity of the medium is one-fourth that of the body and if the terminal velocity is
24 ft/s, find the velocity at the end of 3 s, and the distance traveled in 3 seconds.
5. A hemisphere having a radius of 1 ft and base up was initially filled with water. Water runs out through an orifice, 1
inch in diameter at the bottom. How long will it take for the water to run out?
dP  1 P 
6. A model for the population P(t) in a suburb of a large city is given by the initial-value problem = P − 7 ,
dt  10 10 
P(0) = 5,000 , where t is measured in months. What is the limiting value of the population? At what time will the
population be equal to one-half of this limiting value?

Search this application: Chemical Reactions

7. Two chemicals A and B are combined to form a chemical C. The rate, or velocity, of the reaction is proportional to
the product of the instantaneous amounts of A and B not converted to chemical C. Initially, there are 40 grams of A
and 50 grams of B, and for each gram of B, 2 grams of A is used. It is observed that 10 grams of C is formed in 5
minutes. How much is formed in 20 minutes? How much of chemicals A and B remains after a long time?

Ans: 29.30 grams, A = 0, B = 30 grams

PROBLEM SET
Directions: Solve the following problems and ensure a clarity of your solution. Present in writing the full details of
your answer or solutions. Please provide ½ inch margin and use short size bond paper. This is purely hand written
and copy the question per item and write your solution after each question.

ACTIVITY 1
Determine the general solution of the given differential equation. Use any method of solving the problem.

dW
1.) = W 4 − 2W
dx
dv
2.) m = mg − kv 2 , k is constant
dt
dP
3.) = k(P − a), k & a are constants
dt
4.)
dT
dt
( )
= k T 4 − Tm4 , k & Tm are constants
dy 4 y
5.) = − 2 − + y2
dx x x

ACTIVITY 2
Solve what is asked in the problem.

1. Consider a large tank holding 1000 L of pure water into which a brine solution of salt begins to flow at a constant
rate of 6 L/min. The solution inside the tank is kept well stirred and is flowing out of the tank at a rate of 6 L/min. If
the concentration of salt in the brine entering the tank is 0.1 kg/L, determine when the concentration of salt in the
tank will reach 0.05 kg/L.
Ans: 115.52 minutes

2. Initially 100 milligrams of a radioactive substance was present. After 6 hours the mass had decreased by 3%. If the
rate of decay is proportional to the amount of the substance present at time t, find the amount remaining after 24
hours.
Ans: 88.53 mg

3. A small metal bar, whose initial temperature was 20°C, is dropped into a large container of boiling water. How long
will it take the bar to reach 90°C if it is known that its temperature increases 2° in 1 second? How long will it take
the bar to reach 98°C?
Ans: 145.7 seconds

4. A dead body was found within a closed room of a house where the temperature was a constant 70°F. At the time of
discovery, the core temperature of the body was determined to be 85°F. One hour later a second measurement
showed that the core temperature of the body was 80°F. Assume that the time of death corresponds to t = 0 and
that the core temperature at that time was 98.6°F. Determine how many hours elapsed before the body was found?
Ans: 1.6 hours
5. A swimming pool whose volume is 10,000 gal contains water that is 0.01% chlorine. Starting at t = 0, city water
containing 0.001% chlorine is pumped into the pool at a rate of 5 gal/min. The pool water flows out at the same rate.
What is the percentage of chlorine in the pool after 1 h? When will the pool water be 0.002% chlorine?
Ans: 0.00973%, 73.24 hours

6. A nitric acid solution flows at a constant rate of 6 L/min into a large tank that initially held 200 L of a 0.5% nitric acid
solution. The solution inside the tank is kept well stirred and flows out of the tank at a rate of 8 L/min. If the solution
entering the tank is 20% nitric acid, determine the volume of nitric acid in the tank after t min.

( ) 39
(100 − t )
4
Ans: A(t) = 0.4 100 − t − 4
100

7. A nitric acid solution flows at a constant rate of 6 L/min into a large tank that initially held 200 L of a 0.5% nitric acid
solution. The solution inside the tank is kept well stirred and flows out of the tank at a rate of 8 L/min. If the solution
entering the tank is 20% nitric acid, determine the volume of nitric acid in the tank after t min.

( ) 39
(100 − t )
4
Ans: A(t) = 0.4 100 − t − 4
100

8. After 2 days, 10 grams of a radioactive chemical is present. Three days later, 5 grams is present. How much of the
chemical was present initially, assuming the rate of disintegration is proportional to the amount present.
Ans: 15.87 grams

9. A certain chemical dissolve in water at a rate proportional to the product of the amount undissolved and the
difference between the concentration in a saturated solution and the concentration in the actual solution. In 100
grams of a saturated solution, it is known that 50 grams of the substance is dissolved. If when 30 grams of the
chemical is agitated with 100 grams of water, 10 grams is dissolved in 2 hours, how much will be dissolved in 5 hours?
Ans: 18 grams

10. A woman places $2000 in an account for her child upon his birth. Assuming no additional deposits or withdrawals,
how much will the child have at his eighteenth birthday if the bank pays 5 percent interest per annum, compounded
continuously, for the entire time period?
Ans: $4,919.21

11. How long will it take a bank deposit to double if interest is compounded continuously at a constant rate of 4 percent
per annum?
Ans: 17.33 years

12. A man currently has $12,000 and plans to invest it in an account that accrues interest continuously. What interest
rate must he receive, if his goal is to have $15,000 in 2.5 years?
Ans: 8.93%

13. Radium decomposes at a rate proportional to the amount present. If half the original amount disappears in 1600
years, find the percentage lost in 100 years.
Ans: 4.20%
14. A certain radioactive material is known to decay at a rate proportional to the amount present. If after 1 hour it is
observed that 10 percent of the material has decayed, find the half-life of the material.
Ans: 6.6 hours

15. A tank contains 100 gal of brine made by dissolving 60 lb of salt in water. Salt water containing 1 lb of salt per gallon
runs in at the rate of 2 gal/min, and the mixture, kept uniform by stirring, runs out at the rate of 3 gal/min. Find the
amount of salt in the tank at the end of 1 hour.
Ans: 37.44 lbs

16. A cylindrical tank contains 40 gal of a salt solution containing 2 lb of salt per gallon. A salt solution of concentration
3 lb/gal flows into the tank at 4 gal/min. How much salt is in the tank at any time if the well-stirred mixture flows
out at 4 gal/min?
Ans: Q(t) = 120 − 40e−0.10t

17. A ship weighing 48,000 tons starts from rest under the force of a constant propeller thrust of 200,000 lb. Find its
velocity as a function of time t, given that the water resistance in pounds is 10,000v, with v the velocity measured in
feet/second. Also find the terminal velocity in miles per hour?
t
−
Ans: v = 20 − 20e 300
, 13.6 mi/hour

18. It was noon on a cold December day in Tampa: 16°C. Detective Taylor arrived at the crime scene to find the sergeant
leaning over the body. The sergeant said there were several suspects. If they knew the exact time of death, then
they could narrow the list. Detective Taylor took out a thermometer and measured the temperature of the body:
34.5°C. He then left for lunch. Upon returning at 1:00 p.m., he found the body temperature to be 33.7°C. When did
the murder occur? [Hint: Normal body temperature is 37°C.]
Ans: 9:08 A.M.

19. When the velocity v of an object is very large, the magnitude of the force due to air resistance is proportional to v2
with the force acting in opposition to the motion of the object. A shell of mass 3 kg is shot upward from the ground
with an initial velocity of 500 m/sec. If the magnitude of the force due to air resistance is (0.1)v2, when will the shell
reach its maximum height above the ground? What is the maximum height?
Ans: 2.69 sec, 101.19 m
References:

❖ 1. Differential Equations with Boundary-Value Problems, 7th Edition, Dennis G. Zill & Michael R. Cullen, 2009
BOOKS/COLE CENGAGE Learning
❖ 2. A first Course in Differential Equations with Modeling Applications, 11th Edition, Dennis G. Zill, 2018
BOOKS/COLE CENGAGE Learning
❖ 3. Elementary Differential Equations, 6th Edition, Earl D. Rainville & Phillip E. Bedient, 1981 Macmillan Publishing
Co., Inc.
❖ 4. Fundamentals of Differential Equations, 9th Edition, Nagle, Saff & Snider, 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.