UNIT-I

Noun:
Definition: A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.
General Types of Nouns:
a) Proper
b) Common
c) Concrete and Abstract
d) Countable, Uncountable, and Collective
e) Compound
f) Gender Specific
g) Gerunds
Proper Nouns are words that name a specific person, place, or thing.
A proper noun begins .It is the name of a particular person, place, or
thing.
Examples: George Washington, California, Monday, Coca-Cola
Common Nouns are words that name people, places, things, or ideas;
but they are not the
Names of specific people, places, or things. A common noun begins
with a lower case letter,Unless it is at the beginning of a sentence.
Examples: boy, girl, hospital, store, pencil, car
Common Nouns are further classified into:
1. Concrete and Abstract
a. Concrete nouns are “sense” words, or words that can be
experienced with the five senses:
Sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch. You can see a tree, a book, a
person, etc…
Hear a bell, a horn, a voice, etc… You can smell popcorn, flowers,
scents, etc…
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Taste the pizza, the spice, the flavor, etc… You can touch an apple, an
animal, an Umbrella, etc…
Abstract nouns are words that refer to ideas, concepts, beliefs, or your
state of being.
Unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns are things you cannot see, hear,
smell, taste, or
Touch. *Be careful identifying and using abstract nouns because
sometimes a word can function as an abstract noun or a verb. The
context and use of the word in a sentence
Determines whether the word is an abstract noun or verb.
1) I love my dog. (In this sentence, the word love indicates an action
and therefore is a verb.)
2) Love is a strong emotion. (In this sentence, love is the subject of
the sentence and acts
As an abstract noun because love is a thing that you cannot see, hear,
smell, taste, or Touch.)
Other examples: love, hate, democracy, freedom, peace, trust, rage,
education, happiness
Countable, Uncountable, and Collective
a. Countable nouns are nouns that can be counted. For example: a
pencil, two pencils, three
Pencils… Thus, countable nouns have a singular and plural form.
b. Uncountable nouns cannot be counted. These nouns are
concepts, substances,
Information, feelings, materials, etc. Uncountable nouns are not
individual objects and
Thus do not take a plural form. For example: work, water, anger, metal,
sleep…
c. Collective nouns refer to a group of things or individuals. A
collective noun can be
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Singular in form when referring to a group of people or things. For
example: audience,
Class, school, family, jury, staff, team, flock, herd…
2. Compound
a. A compound noun is made up of two or more words. A
compound noun can be written
In three ways: a single word like haircut or football, two words like ice
cream or
Swimming pool, and hyphenated words like mother-in-law or dry-
cleaning.
3. Gender Specific
a. A gender-specific noun refers to the male/masculine or
female/feminine form of a word.
More often, in English, a noun will remain genderless. However, if the
noun is a word
Referring specifically to something male or female, then its gender will
be masculine or Feminine.
Examples: Dad, king, actor, bull (refer to male so it is gender-specific)
Sister, queen, actress, cow (refer to female so it is gender-specific)
Pencil, vehicle, dog, cat (refer to neither male or female so it is
genderless)
Parent, teacher, friend, doctor (refer to neither male nor female, but
since it
refers to people we know the noun must be either male or female.
These nouns are also known as common gender nouns)
4. Gerunds
a. A gerund is a verb ending in –ing that is functioning like a
noun.

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 2.PRONOUN

A pronoun is used in the place of a noun. It substitutes the noun in

a paragraph or piece of writing to avoid repetition of the noun.
Pronouns can be used in singular and plural forms. The verb used in
the sentence should be used in accordance with the particular form of
the pronoun used.
Definition of a Pronoun:
A pronoun is defined as ‘a word that is used instead of a noun or
a noun phrase’, according to the Cambridge Dictionary. The Merriam-
Webster Dictionary defines pronouns as ‘any of a small set of words
(such as I, she, he, you, it, we, or they) in a language that are used as
substitutes for nouns or noun phrases and whose referents are named
or understood in the context’. According to the Collins Dictionary, ‘A
pronoun is a word that you use to refer to someone or something
when you do not need to use a noun, often because the person or
thing has been mentioned earlier. Examples are ‘it’, ‘she’, ‘something’,
and ‘myself’.’
Types of Pronouns with Examples:
Pronouns can be classified into different types based on their
functions. Given below are the various types of pronouns. Go through
the examples carefully to have a clear understanding of each type of
pronoun and its function.
Relative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to relate one part of the
sentence to another. Some examples of relative pronouns are that,
which, where, when, why, what, whom and whose.
Possessive Pronouns are pronouns that are used to show possession.
Some examples of possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers,
theirs and its.
Reflexive Pronouns are pronouns that are used to refer back to the
subject in the sentence. Some examples of reflexive pronouns are
myself, yourself, herself, himself, oneself, itself, ourselves, themselves
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and yourselves.
Demonstrative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to point to
specific objects. Some examples of demonstrative pronouns are this,
that, these and those.
Interrogative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to ask questions.
Some examples of interrogative pronouns are who, what, when, why
and where.
Indefinite Pronouns are pronouns that do not refer to any particular
person, place or thing. Some examples of indefinite pronouns are
someone, somebody, somewhere, something, anyone, anybody,
anywhere, anything, no one, nobody, nowhere, everyone, everybody,
everywhere, everything, each, none, few, and many.
Personal Pronouns are simple pronouns that are used to substitute
proper names. Some examples of personal pronouns are I, you, he,
she, we, they, him, her, he, she, us and them.
Subject Pronouns are pronouns that perform the action in a sentence.
Some examples of subject pronouns are I, you, we, he, she, it, they and
one.
Object Pronouns are pronouns that receive the action in a sentence.
Some examples of object pronouns are me, us, him, her and them.
Reciprocal Pronouns are pronouns that are used to express a mutual
relationship. Some examples of reciprocal pronouns are each other
and one another.
Intensive Pronouns are the same as reflexive pronouns, with the only
difference being that you can remove the intensive pronoun from the
sentence, and the sentence would still make sense.
Properly.
Tom has a cat.
We are going to buy a dress for our daughter.
Carry an umbrella. I am sure it will rain.
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Fill in the blanks with the appropriate articles in the following
sentences:
1. Have you watched ______ new movie?
2. I have never used ______ computer.
3. Do you know _____ multiplication tables?
4. Sandra brought ______ apple.
5. Madhu has ____ teddy bear.
6. ______ chairs are all broken.
7. The janitor asked ______ students to walk carefully as ______ floor
was wet.
8. I have finished reading _____ book you lent me.
9. Hari is planning to buy ____ new car.
10. He has been waiting for ___ hour.
Answers.
1. Have you watched the new movie?
2. I have never used a computer.
3. Do you know the multiplication tables?
4. Sandra brought an apple.
5. Madhu has a teddy bear.
6. The chairs are all broken.
7. The janitor asked the students to walk carefully as the floor was
wet.
8. I have finished reading the book you lent me.

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 3.ARTICLES
What is an Article?
An article is a short monosyllabic word that is used to define if the
noun is specific or not. Articles are normally used before nouns and
since they are used to speak about the noun, they can be considered
as adjectives.
Definition of an Article
An article, according to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, is defined as
“any of a small set of words or affixes (such as a, an, and the) used
with nouns to limit or give definiteness to the application.” According
to the Collins Dictionary, “an article is a kind of determiner. In English,
‘a’ and ‘an’ are called the indefinite article, and ‘the’ is called the
definite article.” The Macmillan Dictionary defines an article as “a type
of determiner (=word used before a noun) that shows whether you are
referring to a particular thing or to a general example of something.
The indefinite article is ‘a’ or ‘an’ and the definite article is ‘the’.”
Types of Articles
There are three articles in English – ‘a’, ‘an’ and ‘the’. These articles are
divided into two types namely:
 Definite Article
 Indefinite Article
Definite Article
Among the three articles, ‘the’ is said to be the definite article. A
definite article is used to determine something that is specific or
particular. It is also used before plural nouns and to indicate
the superlative degree of comparison. Furthermore, it can be used
before collective nouns as well.
For example:
 The Sun sets in the west.
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In the above sentence, the nouns ‘Sun’ and ‘west’ are proper
nouns and are specific and so the definite article has to be used.
 The children are playing cricket.
In the above sentence, the definite article is used to determine the
plural noun, ‘children’.
 This is the world’s longest river.
In the above sentence, the definite article is used to denote the
superlative degree of comparison.
 The crowd sang along with the band.
In the above sentence, the definite article is used before the collective
nouns, ‘crowd’ and ‘band’.
Indefinite Article
The articles ‘an’ and ‘an’ are termed as indefinite articles. An indefinite
article, as the name suggests, is used to indicate something that is not
definite or specific. It can also be used before singular nouns.
Among the indefinite articles, ‘an’ is used before singular nouns that
start with vowel sounds and ‘a’ is used before singular nouns that
begin with consonant sounds.
For example:
 I had an apple for breakfast.
 Do you have an eraser?
 I saw an aeroplane.
 She has a pet dog.

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 UNIT-II
ADJECTIVE
An adjective modifies a noun or pronoun by providing descriptive
or specific detail. Unlike adverbs, adjectives do not modify verbs, other
adjectives, or adverbs. Adjectives usually precede the noun or
pronoun they modify. Adjectives do not have to agree in number or
gender with the nouns they describe. Adjectives answer the following
questions: What kind?, How many?, Or Which ones?
Example:
Tom bought a used car. (used describes what kind of car Tom bought.)
Sally baked ten pies for the school bake sale. (ten tells how many pies
Sally baked.)
Bob climbed that tree in the backyard. (that specifies which tree Bob
climbed.)
Types of Adjectives:
Descriptive Adjectives:
A descriptive adjective names a quality of the noun or pronoun that it
modifies
Example:Brown dog, Bigger house,Fluffy cat
Proper Adjectives:
A proper adjective is derived from a proper noun.
Example: French class, Spanish food, European car
Limiting Adjectives:
A limiting adjective restricts the meaning of the word it modifies.
Interrogative Adjectives:
An interrogative adjective is used to ask a question.
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Example: Whose book is this?
Coordinate Adjectives:
A coordinate adjective consists of two or more adjectives separated
by a comma instead of by a coordinating Conjunction.
Example:
A cold, rainy day
To determine if you can replace the coordinating conjunction with a
comma, see if the adjectives can be reversed or if and can be added
between the adjectives without changing the meaning. If the
adjectives can be reversed, they are Coordinate and a comma can be
used.
Example:
The clowns arrived in a bright, shiny car.The clowns arrived in a shiny,
bright car. (Reversing bright and shiny does not change the
meaning.)The clowns arrived in a bright and shiny car. (Adding and
between bright and shiny does not Change the meaning.)However, if
the adjectives cannot be reversed or if and cannot be used, a comma
cannot be used.
Example:
The clowns arrived in two colorful cars.
The clowns arrived in colorful two cars. (Reversing two and colorful
changes the meaning.)
The clowns arrived in two and colorful cars. (Adding and between two
and colorful changes the Meaning.)
Compound Adjectives
Compound adjectives consist of two or more words that function as a
unit. Depending on its position within the Sentence, the compound
adjective is punctuated with or without a hyphen. When a compound
adjective comes before The noun it modifies, use a hyphen to join the
adjectives. When a compound adjective follows the noun it modifies.
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Example:
She is taking a class on nineteenth-century literature. (The adjective
nineteenth-century precedes The noun literature so a hyphen is used.)
She is studying literature from the nineteenth century. (The adjective
nineteenth century comes
After the noun literature so no hyphen is used.)
Determiners as Adjectives
Determiners, such as articles, pronouns, and numbers, can function as
adjectives. When a determiner is used as an
 Adjective, it restricts the noun it modifies, like a limiting adjective.
Determiners functioning as adjectives tell Which One?, How
many?, and Whose?
 Articles (a, an, the)

 Possessive pronouns (my, our, your, his, her, its, their)

 Relative pronouns (whose, which, whichever, what, whatever)

 Demonstratives (this, these, that, those)

 Indefinite pronouns (any, each, other, some, etc.)

 Cardinal Numbers (one, two, three, etc.)

 Ordinal Numbers (last, first, second, etc.)

 Possessive proper nouns (Bob’s, Sarah’s)

Example:
Bob’s house is only three blocks from that house. (Bob’s answers the
question: Whose house? Three answers the question: How many
blocks? That answers the question: Which house is three blocks from
Bob’s house?)
Placement and Order of Adjectives
A single noun can be described as a list of adjectives.
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1.Determiners: articles (a, the), demonstratives (this, those), and
possessives (his, our, Mary’s, everybody’s), amounts
(one, five, many, few), order (first, next last)
2. Coordinate adjectives (subjective evaluations or personal opinions):
nice, nasty, packed, pitiful
3. Adjectives describing size: big, huge, little, tiny
1. Adjectives describing shape: long, short, round, square
2. Adjectives describing age: young, old, modern, ancient
3. Adjectives describing color: blue, green, red, white
4. Adjectives describing nationality: Italian, French, Japanese
5. Adjectives describing architectural style or religion: Greek, Gothic,
Catholic, Jewish, Muslim
6. Adjectives describing material: cardboard, plastic, silver, gold
7. Nouns functioning as adjectives: soccer ball, cardboard box, history
class
Example:
A big brick house (article, size, and material)
These old brown cardboard boxes (demonstrative, age, color, material)
A beautiful young Italian woman (article, personal opinion, age,
nationality)Using Adjectives
Adjectives as Subject Complements
The subject complement is a word that follows a linking verb and
modifies the sentence’s subject, not its verb. Linking verbs: appear,
become, believe, feel, grow, smell, seem, sound, remain, turn, prove,
look, taste, and the forms of the verb to Be.
Example:
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The crowd appeared calm. (The linking verb appeared links the noun
the subject crowd with the adjective Calm)
Adjectives as Object Complements
The object complement is a word that follows a sentence’s direct
object and modifies that object and not the verb. An object
Complement answers the question what? After the direct object.
Example: Bob considered the experiment a success. (Success is the
object compliment that modifies the sentences Direct object
experiment.)
Adjectives with Past and Present Participle Verbs
Adjectives are frequently formed by using the past participle (-ed, -t,
or -en) and the present participle (-ing) verb forms.
Example:The group of children scared the sleeping dog. (Sleeping
describes the baby.)
The students refused to eat the dried fruit. (Dried describes the
cookies.)
Order of adjectives
 Quantity or number.

 Quality or opinion.

 Size.

 Age.

 Shape.

 Color.

 Proper adjective (often nationality, other place of origin, or

material)
 Purpose or qualifier.

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 PREPOSITION
What is a Preposition?
A preposition is a short word that is employed in sentences to show
the relationship nouns, pronouns or phrases have with other parts
within the respective sentences. Prepositions are normally found
positioned in the latter part of the sentence, but before a noun or
pronoun.
Definition of a Preposition.
A preposition is defined as “a word that connects a noun, a noun
phrase, or a pronoun to another word, esp. to a verb, another noun, or
an adjective”, according to the Cambridge Dictionary. The Oxford
Learner’s Dictionary says that a preposition is “a word or group of
words, such as in, from, to, out of and on behalf of, used before a noun
or pronoun to show place, position, time or method.”
Types of Prepositions
Based on the different uses and functions of prepositions, they
can be divided into four main types. They are as follows:
Prepositions of Time – used to show when something is happening.
For example:
1. We will be meeting on Friday.
2. The supermarket will be closed from 9 p.m. to 9 a.m.
3. Can you come after some time?
Prepositions of Place – indicate the place or position of something.
For example:
I have kept the book I borrowed from you on the table.
Henry hid behind the door.
Prepositions of Location – employed to denote the location of a
particular object.
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 For example:

Kenny would be staying at his cousin’s place for the weekend.

Make sure you keep all the toys back in its place after you play.
Prepositions of Spatial Relationship – used to denote an object’s
movement away from the source and towards a source. For example:
Navya sat leaning against the wall.
The circus was stationed opposite the children’s park.
Prepositional Phrase – a combination of a preposition and a noun(the
object it is affecting).
For example:
See to it that you reach the venue on time.

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 VERB
Definition of a Verb.
The Oxford Learners’ Dictionary defines a ‘verb’ as “a word or
group of words that express an action (such as eat), an event (such as
happen) or a state (such as exist)”. According to the Cambridge
Dictionary, a ‘verb’ is defined as “a word or phrase that describes an
action, condition, or experience”. The Collins Dictionary provides a
much more elaborate definition of a verb. According to them, “A verb
is a word such as ‘ sing’, ‘ feel’, or ‘ die’ which is used with a subject to
say what someone or something does or what happens to them, or to
give information about them”.
Verbs Referring to Actions,Verbs referring to action (action verbs) are
those that involve the movement of one’s body in one way or the other.
Some examples of verbs referring to actions are as follows:
 Walk

 Run

 Talk

 Sit

Verbs Referring to Experiences or Feelings

These are verbs that refer to something that you can feel or
experience and do not necessarily involve a movement of any kind.
Some examples of verbs referring to feelings and experiences are as
follows:
a) Love
b) Hate
c) Envy
d) Believe
e) Trust
f) Feel
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 g) Entrust
The Various Types of Verbs with Examples
Verbs can be classified into numerous types according to their
function or role in a sentence or context. Let us look into the various
types of verbs and some examples of each type of verb.
Auxiliary Verbs/Helping Verbs:
Auxiliary verbs or helping verbs, as the name suggests, is a verb that is
used to help another verb sound sensible and meaningful. It is used to
change the other verb’s tense, mood or voice. So, every time an
auxiliary verb is used, you always have one more verb, which acts as
the main verb in a sentence.
Examples of auxiliary verbs are as follows:
Am
Is
Are
Was
Were
Have
Has
Do
Will
Can
One point you have to take care of when you use auxiliary verbs
is that you should conjugate the auxiliary verb correctly according to
the tense form of a sentence. Another specific fact about auxiliary
verbs is that they can also be used as a main verb.
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are those verbs that are used to denote the
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possibility, probability, capability or necessity of something happening.
Modal verbs, unlike other auxiliary verbs, cannot be used as a main
verb in a sentence.
Examples of modal verbs are as follows:

 Can
 Could

 Will

 Would

 May

 Might

 Should

 Must

 Ought to

Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs include phrases that are formed by combining two
or more parts of speech that performs the same function as a verb in a
sentence. In most cases, a phrasal verb results from a combination of
a verb and a preposition.
Some examples of phrasal verbs are as follows:

 Go by
 Lay off
 Log in
 Get off
 Run out
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  Go all out
 Think through

Linking Verbs:
A linking verb, just like the name suggests, is a type of verb that
is used to link the subjects in a sentence to the other parts of the
sentence so that it is meaningful. It connects the subject to the object,
an adjective and even a prepositional phrase. All ‘to be’ forms of verbs
and verbs like ‘seem’ and ‘become’ can act as linking verbs.
Different Categories of Verbs
Verbs can be divided into different categories according to their
behaviour when used in a context. Let us look at the categories
explained below.
Regular Verbs and Irregular Verbs
As you can see, verbs are used to denote actions, and they can
be used in different forms to indicate when the subject in a sentence is
carrying out an action. A regular verb can be conjugated to show if the
action takes place in the past or if the action is taking place
continuously.
In most cases, the past form of the verb is formed by adding an ‘ed’ to
the root verb for regular verbs. On the other hand, there are other
verbs that do not follow this rule. They are called irregular verbs.
These verbs have their own unique forms. If you are wondering how to
learn these irregular verbs, read the article on irregular verbs to find
out how.
Dileep searched for his white shirt in his cupboard, but he did not find
it. (Root verb – search)
Did you find the book you were looking for?
In the above examples, the verb ‘searched’ is the past form of the
regular verb ‘search’ by adding an ‘ed’ and the verb form ‘looking’
indicates the continuous form of the regular verb ‘look’ by adding an
‘ing’ to the end of the root verb.
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  Selena read the book on the evolution of life on earth.
 Vineeth found the keys that went missing yesterday.

 In the above examples, the verb ‘read’ stays the same in

the past form and when used as a past participle. ‘Found’ is
the past form of the root verb ‘find’.

TRANSITIVE VERB & INTRANSITIVE VERB

Transitive Verbs and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive and intransitive forms of verbs are used to denote
how a verb acts when used with a direct object and an indirect object.
Let us look at a few examples.
Vincent gave a box of chocolates to his brother. (Indirect object
– his brother, Direct object – a box of chocolates)
Garry passed the water bottle to Kevin, who was sitting in the
first row. (Indirect object – Kevin, Direct object – the water bottle)
The little girl ran around the park for two hours.
Francey walked to school every day.
My mom cleaned the house today. (Direct object – the house)
Seena did not like the movie. (Direct object – the movie)

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 TENSES
What does the Word ‘Tense’ Mean?
In the English language, the word ‘tense’ is used to denote a
characteristic of the verb in a sentence. The tense of a verb is used to
depict the particular time in which a specific event is taking place.
Definition of Tense
According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, the term ‘tense’ is
defined as “any of the forms of a verb that may be used to show the
time of the action or state expressed by the verb.” The Merriam-
Webster Dictionary provides a slightly different definition. According
to it, the word ‘tense’ is defined as “a distinction of form in a verb to
express distinctions of time or duration of the action or state it
denotes.”

“The tense of a verb group is its form, which usually shows whether
you are referring to past, present, or future time”, according to the
Collins Dictionary, and the Cambridge Dictionary defines ‘tense’ as
”any of the forms of a verb which show the time at which an action
happened.”
Different Tenses in English
In English grammar, there are three main tenses, and they are
each further classified into four different forms, which sum up to
twelve tenses in total. The three tenses in English are:
1. Present Tense
2. Past Tense
3. Future Tense

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The four different forms are:
1. Simple Tense Form
2. Continuous Tense Form
3. Perfect Tense Form
4. Perfect Continuous Tense Form
So, the twelve tenses in English are as follows:
1. Simple Present Tense
2. Present Continuous Tense
3. Present Perfect Tense
4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense
5. Simple Past Tense
6. Past Continuous Tense
7. Past Perfect Tense
8. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
9. Simple Future Tense
10. Future Continuous Tense
11. Future Perfect Tense
12.Future Perfect Continuous Tense

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 UNIT-III

ADVERB
What is an Adverb?
Like an adjective gives us more information about the noun in a
sentence, an adverb is used to provide more information about the
verb or the action in the sentence. It also has the property of
describing the adjective or another adverb.
Definition of an Adverb
An adverb, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is “a
word that adds more information about place, time, manner, cause or
degree to a verb, an adjective, a phrase or another adverb.” The
Cambridge Dictionary defines an adverb as “a word that describes or
gives more information about a verb, adjective, adverb, or phrase.”

The Merriam-Webster Dictionary provides a similar definition. It

defines an adverb as “a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb and often used to show degree, manner, place, or
time.” According to the Collins Dictionary, an adverb is defined as “a
word such as ‘slowly’, ‘ now’, ‘very’, ‘politically’, or ‘ fortunately’ which
adds information about the action, event, or situation mentioned in a
clause.”
Types of Adverbs
Adverbs are categorised into different types according to their
functions when used in a sentence. Given below are the different
types of adverbs.
1) Adverbs of Manner
2) Adverbs of Time
3) Adverbs of Place
4) Adverbs of Frequency
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 5) Adverbs of Degree
6) Conjunctive Adverbs

How Adverbs are Used in Sentences

Unlike other parts of speech, adverbs can be placed at any part
of the sentence (beginning, middle or end), and make complete sense
without sounding absurd. Another characteristic is that multiple
adverbs can be used in a sentence. Have a look at the following
examples to have a clear understanding of the same.
1) Normally, we go to church on Sundays.
2) Don’t you think the coffee is too sweet.

CONJUNCTION
What is Conjunctions?
Conjunctions are used to combine two or more objects, phrases
or clauses. It can also be termed as connectors as they are employed
in sentences to make connections. Conjunctions can normally be
found in the latter part of a sentence if they are used to connect
clauses. If conjunctions are used to connect objects or phrases, they
can appear in the beginning, middle or end of the sentence according
to the position of the objects or phrases.
Definition of a Conjunction:
A conjunction, according to the Cambridge Dictionary, is defined
as “a word such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘while’, or ‘although’ that connects
words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence.” The Merriam Webster
Dictionary defines a conjunction as “an uninflected linguistic form that
joins together sentences, clauses, phrases, or words.”
A conjunction is “word that joins words, phrases or sentences,
for example and, but or so”, according to the Oxford Learner’s
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Dictionary. The Collins Dictionary gives a slightly different definition.
According to it, a conjunction is “any word or group of words, other
than a relative pronoun, that connects words, phrases, or clauses.”
Types of Conjunctions
Conjunctions are mainly used to join actions, ideas and thoughts.
They are categorised into three main types:
a) Coordinating conjunctions – used to combine two
independent clauses. Examples of coordinating
conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.
b) Subordinating conjunctions – used to combine an
independent clause and a dependent clause. Examples of
subordinating conjunctions are if, although, though, after,
before, because, as if, unless, until, when, while, etc.
c) Correlative conjunctions – used to combine two phrases or
parts of the sentence which have equal importance within
a sentence. Examples of correlative conjunctions are not
only…but also, either…or, neither…nor, whether…or,
rather…or, if…then, etc.
Examples of Conjunctions
And, Or, Nor
But, Yet, So
Because, Still, For
Not only…but also ,As ,When
While As soon as,If
Unless, In case, In addition to
Whereas, Though, Although,
Until Before, After,
Even if, Rather than, So that,
Either…or, As if Neither…or,
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 INTERJECTION

What are Interjections?

Interjection are a part of speech used to convey or express
sudden feelings and emotions. There are no particular rules as to
where interjections should be placed in a sentence, but most often,
they are seen to appear in the beginning of a sentence. They are used
to form exclamatory sentences. In order to develop a clearer idea of
what interjections are exactly, take a look at how different dictionaries
define an interjection.
Definition of an Interjection
An interjection, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is
defined as “a short sound, word or phrase spoken suddenly to express
an emotion.” The Cambridge Dictionary defines an interjection as “a
word that is used to show a short sudden expression of emotion.”
According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, an interjection is
defined as “a word or phrase used in exclamation” and according to
the Macmillan Dictionary, an interjection is “a word or phrase used for
expressing a strong emotion such as surprise or anger.” The Collins
Dictionary defines an interjection as “a word or expression which you
use to express a strong feeling such as surprise, pain, or horror.”
Examples of Interjections:
Here are some examples of interjections to show you how they
can be used in sentences effectively.
i. Hurray! We won the match.
ii. Ouch! That really hurt badly.
iii. Wow! That is a beautiful dress indeed.
iv. Oh my God! That was unexpected.
v. Whoa! That guy is unbelievably huge.
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 UNIT-IV
THE SENTENCE : SUBJECT & PREDICATE

What is a Sentence? – Meaning and Definition

A sentence is an array of multiple words arranged in a particular
order. It has to be complete in itself and should convey meaning. It can
express a general idea, pose a question or argument, provide a
suggestion, make an order or request, and so much more.
The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines a sentence as “a set of
words expressing a statement, a question or an order, usually
containing a subject and a verb”. According to the Cambridge
Dictionary, a sentence is defined as “a group of words, usually
containing a verb, that expresses a thought in the form of a statement,
question, instruction, or exclamation”.
Parts of a Sentence
The basic division of sentences is in terms of,
Subjects – A noun, noun phrase or pronoun that does the action
mentioned in the sentence. It mostly occurs at the beginning of the
sentence.
Predicates – The remaining part of the sentence. It begins with the
verb.
Here are a few examples.
Example 1: Daisy teaches English.
Subject – Daisy
Predicate – Teaches English
Example 2: Anitha called me yesterday.
Subject – Anitha
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 Predicate – Called me yesterday.
Components of a Sentence
There are five components that can make up a sentence. They
are,

Subject – The doer of the action

Verb – The action in the sentence
Object – The receiver of the action
Complement -A word/phrase that modifies the subject or object in the
sentence
Adjunct – An adverb or an adverb clause that provides us with more
information about the verb, complement or another adjunct in the
sentence
While most sentences contain a subject and a verb, there are
sentences that start with a verb.
TYPES OF SENTENCE
The Sentence Types in English Grammar
The English language gives every learner the liberty to make
good use of the language in the best possible way. Using different
types of sentences will make your speech or writing sound and look
well-structured and aid you in getting your thoughts and ideas across
to your target audience in a clear and effective manner. This will also
allow you to express your emotions and let your readers experience
what you want them to experience.
The different types of sentences in English are:
1) Declarative Sentence
2) Imperative Sentence
3) Interrogative Sentence
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 4) Exclamatory Sentence
The Four Different Types of Sentences
There are four different kinds of sentences in English grammar
and they are as follows:
Declarative or Assertive Sentence – A declarative or assertive
sentence is a sentence that is informative and ends with a period or a
full stop.
Examples:
I like fantasy novels.There is a white house around the corner.
Imperative Sentence – An imperative sentence is a sentence that
expresses a command, an order, or a request.
Examples:
Please pick up the notes when you come.
Close the door.
Interrogative Sentence – An interrogative sentence is one that is used
to question something and it ends with a question mark.
Examples:
What is the name of the movie you were watching?
Can I come with you to the book fair?
Exclamatory Sentence – An exclamatory sentence is one which is
used to express sudden and strong emotions, and it ends with an
exclamation mark. We can also use interjections to form exclamatory
sentences.
Examples:Wow, how good this is! ,That was a great match!
Components of a Sentence
Like a sentence has two parts, it has five main components that
make up the structure of a sentence, and they are,
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 1) Subject
2) Verb
3) Object
4) Complement
5) Adjunct
Now, let discuss at each of these components in detail.
Subject:
A noun that performs the action in a sentence is considered as
the subject. It answers the question ‘who’ or in other words, a subject
can be identified by asking the question ‘who’. A subject takes the first
place in most cases, especially in declarative or assertive sentences.
For example:
The child kept crying.
Our school team won the match.
My son is in the eighth grade.
Hard work pays.
No one came to the wedding.
Verb:
In every sentence the most important word can be said to be the
verb. A verb shows action or activity or work done by the subject.
Remember that all verbs including main verbs, helping verbs, stative
verbs and action verbs come under this category. Most often, verbs
appear immediately after the subject.For example:
Neena is writing a letter.
It was too dark.
Object:
An object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action done by
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the subject. Objects are of two types and they are,
1) Direct Object
2) Indirect Object
1).Direct Object:
A noun or pronoun that receives the action directly is the direct
object in the sentence. It answers the question ‘what’. Direct objects
mostly appear immediately after the verb and are the primary objects
in the sentence.For example:
Eg: Harry bought a new car. My mom made a cake. I met my friend.
She knows all the songs.
2).Indirect Object
An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that is a secondary
object. It can be identified by asking the question ‘whom’. When there
is an indirect object in a sentence, it is mostly placed after the verb
and before the direct object.For example:
 Vandhana gave Keerthana a cake.

 My mom bought me a new dress.

 I gave him a chocolate.

Complement
The words required to complete the meaning of a sentence can
be referred to as the complement of the sentence. A complement can
be an adjective, a name, a position or a profession. For example:
 It grew dark.

 He is a dentist.

 That’s her dog, Bruno.

Complements are further divided into two types based on which

component it speaks about. The two types of complement are,
1. Subject Complement
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 2. Object Complement
Subject Complement
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition
of the subject is called Subject Complement.
For example:
She is a doctor.
I am Sindhu.
Object Complement
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or
condition of an object is called Object Complement. For example:
They made her angry.
The students elected Kavi the class leader.

Adjunct
An adjunct is a word or a phrase that gives more information
about an action, an event, a quality and so on. In short, it can be said
that these words can include adverbs and adverb clauses. Adjuncts
can be identified by asking questions ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘why’, ‘how’, ‘how
often’ and ‘to what extent’. When using adjuncts, keep in mind that
adjuncts can be used in the beginning, middle or end of the sentence
and that there can be more than one adjunct in a sentence.
The Different Types of Sentence Structures in English Grammar
In English grammar, there are a number of sentence structures
that you can use to make your speech or writing sound or look a lot
more organised, interesting and professional. Some of the commonly
used sentence structures are as follows.
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 Subject + Verb (SV)
Subject + Verb + Object (SVO)
Subject + Verb + Complement (SVC)
Subject + Verb + Adjunct (SVA)
Subject + Verb + Object + Complement (SVOC)
Subject + Verb + Object + Adjunct (SVOA)
Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object (SVIODO)
Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Complement (ASVC)
Examples:
Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object
Rohit / gave / Reshmi / his favourite book.
Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object
Neetu / bought / herself / a hat.
Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object

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 UNIT-V

IDIOMS & PHRASES

Idioms are the combination of words that convey a separate
meaning altogether. Idioms are an expression or way of speaking that
is used in the common vocabulary. For example, If you say you “Smell
a rat” you don’t literally mean that you are smelling a rat. “Smell a rat”
is an idiom that means “to sense that someone has caused something
wrong.”
Idioms Examples
1. Be hand and foot means to complete any task In all
possible ways or by all means
2. Be in the swim means To keep oneself informed and up-to-
date
3. Can’t cut the mustard means Someone who is not
adequate enough to compete or participate.
4. Beat around the bush means Trying to avoid a
subject/person/situation
5. Kill two birds with one stone means Accomplish two things
with the same effort.
Phrases Definition
Phrases could be defined as a collection of words that stands
together as a single unit in a sentence, typically as part of a clause or
a sentence. Phrases are just a unit of a sentence, hence they do not
express a complete statement. In English Grammar, there are different
types of Phrases namely Noun, verb, infinitive, gerund, appositive,
participial, prepositional, and absolute Phrases.
Eg:
1. The nice neighbour offered him a glass of juice.
2. There’s a chemist around the corner.
3. My English teacher teaches the English language proficiently.
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 FIGURES OF SPEECH
Definition of a Figure of Speech
A figure of speech, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary,
is defined as “a word or phrase used in a different way from its usual
meaning in order to create a particular mental picture or effect.” The
Cambridge Dictionary defines a figure of speech as “an expression
that uses words to mean something different from their ordinary
meaning.” According to the Collins Dictionary, a figure of speech is “an
expression or word that is used with a metaphorical rather than a
literal meaning.”
Figures of Speech in English Grammar
In English grammar, there are around fifteen to twenty figures of
speech. However, there are a few of them which are used more often
than the others.
1. Simile
2. Metaphor
3. Personification
4. Apostrophe
5. Alliteration
6. Assonance
7. Hyperbole
8. Euphemism
9. Antithesis
10. Oxymoron
11. Epigram
12.Irony
13.Pun
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 14.Metonymy
15.Synecdoche
16.Transferred Epithet.

Classification of Figures of Speech

The figures of speech can be categorized into types based on
their functions when used in sentences. Accordingly, the main
categories are composed of ones that:

1. Show a Relationship or Resemblance

2. Show Phonetic Resemblances and Representing Sounds
3. Show Emphasis or Unimportance
4. Showing a Relationship or Resemblance
This category includes figures of speech which are designed to
make comparisons to show a relationship or some resemblances.
Similes, metaphors, personification, euphemism, metonymy and
synecdoche are the figures of speech used for this purpose.
Showing Emphasis or Unimportance
The figures of speech belonging to this category are used to
provide emphasis or show how important or unimportant something is.
Hyperbole, antithesis, oxymoron, irony and litotes are figures of
speech that can be used for this purpose.
Examples of Figures of Speech
Here are a few examples of the different figures of speech in English
grammar.
a) Simile – Rachel is as bright as the sun.
b) Metaphor – The whole world is a stage.
c) Personification – The wind whispered in my ears.
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d) Apostrophe – O William, you should be living now to see all
this.
e) Alliteration – Sally sold some seashells.
f) Assonance – I seem to like your little green trees.
g) Hyperbole – I am so hungry I could eat a horse.
h) Oxymoron – Euthanizing their sick pet dog was considered
as an act of kind cruelty.
i) Epigram – The child is the father of man.
j) Irony – A fire station burned down yesterday.
k) Pun – Life depends upon the liver.
l) Metonymy – The Bench decided that the man is guilty.
m)Synecdoche – We need more hands to help us move this
cupboard.
n) Transferred Epithet – She had a sleepless night.

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