Name - Aman Kumar , Btech CSE (SEM IV) SECTION - 19 , Admission no.

22SCSE1010701
Assignment 1
Operating System(R1UC403B)

Q1. Enumerate the basic functions of operating system and explain each in brief.

Ans:

Operating systems (OS) serve as the backbone of computer systems, managing hardware resources and
providing essential services to applications. Here are some of the basic functions of an operating system:

1. Process Management:

• Process Scheduling: Determines the order in which processes get access to the CPU.

• Process Creation and Termination: Manages the creation, execution, and termination of
processes.

• Process Synchronization: Ensures that processes coordinate and cooperate with each other
efficiently.

2. Memory Management:

• Memory Allocation: Assigns memory space to processes and manages memory utilization.

• Memory Protection: Protects processes from accessing memory locations assigned to other
processes.

• Virtual Memory Management: Provides an abstraction of physical memory, allowing the

system to use disk space as an extension of RAM.

3. File System Management:

• File Creation and Deletion: Handles the creation, deletion, and organization of files.

• File Access Control: Manages permissions and access rights to files and directories.

• File System Integrity: Ensures the integrity and consistency of file systems through
mechanisms like journaling and file system checks.

4. Device Management:

• Device Allocation: Manages access to hardware devices among competing processes.

• Device Drivers: Provides an interface between hardware devices and the operating system.

• Device I/O Control: Controls and coordinates input and output operations of devices.

5. User Interface:

• Command Line Interface (CLI): Provides a text-based interface for interacting with the
system.

• Graphical User Interface (GUI): Offers a visual environment with windows, icons, menus,
etc., for user interaction.

• Application Programming Interface (API): Enables developers to interact with OS services

and resources programmatically.

6. Security and Access Control:

 • User Authentication: Verifies the identity of users before granting access to system
resources.

• Authorization: Determines what actions and resources users are allowed to access.

• Data Encryption: Protects sensitive data by encrypting it to prevent unauthorized access.

7. Networking:

• Network Protocol Support: Implements networking protocols to facilitate communication

between computers.

• Network Resource Sharing: Allows sharing of files, printers, and other resources over a
network.

• Network Configuration: Manages network settings and configurations, such as IP addresses

and DNS settings.

8. Error Detection and Handling:

• Error Logging: Records system events, errors, and warnings for diagnostic and
troubleshooting purposes.

• Error Handling: Manages and resolves errors gracefully to prevent system crashes and data
loss.

These functions collectively enable an operating system to provide a stable, efficient, and secure
environment for running applications and managing hardware resources.

Q2. Enumerate various OS components and give their functions in brief.

Ans:

Operating systems consist of various components, each responsible for different aspects of managing
hardware resources, providing services to applications, and facilitating user interaction. Here are the main
components of an operating system and their functions:

1. Kernel:

• The core component of the operating system.

• Manages hardware resources such as CPU, memory, and I/O devices.

• Provides essential services like process scheduling, memory management, and device
management.

• Acts as an intermediary between hardware and software, facilitating communication

between them.

2. Device Drivers:

• Software modules that enable the operating system to communicate with hardware
devices.

• Provide a standardized interface for accessing and controlling hardware devices.

• Translate high-level commands from the operating system into low-level commands
understood by hardware devices.
3. User Interface:

• Allows users to interact with the operating system and applications.

• Can be Command Line Interface (CLI) or Graphical User Interface (GUI).

• Provides tools and utilities for performing various tasks such as file management, system
configuration, and application launching.

4. File System:

• Manages the organization, storage, and retrieval of files on storage devices.

• Provides a hierarchical structure for organizing files and directories.

• Implements mechanisms for file access control, permissions, and integrity.

5. System Libraries:

• Collection of reusable code modules used by applications to interact with the operating
system.

• Provides functions and routines for tasks such as input/output operations, memory
allocation, and network communication.

• Abstracts complex operations, making it easier for developers to write applications.

6. Shell:

• Command interpreter that allows users to interact with the operating system via a
command-line interface.

• Interprets user commands and executes them by interacting with the kernel and other
system components.

• Provides features like scripting, piping, and redirection for automating tasks and managing
system resources.

7. Utilities:

• Collection of system tools and programs that perform specific tasks.

• Includes programs for system maintenance, troubleshooting, performance monitoring, and

configuration.

• Examples include text editors, disk management tools, network diagnostics, and security
utilities.

8. System Services:

• Background processes and daemons that run continuously to provide various services.

• Examples include printing services, network services (such as DHCP, DNS), time
synchronization, and system logging.

• Ensure that essential system functions are always available to applications and users.

9. Security Components:

• Implement security mechanisms to protect the system and its resources from unauthorized
access and malicious activities.
 • Includes components for user authentication, access control, encryption, and firewall
management.

• Ensures the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of system resources.

These components work together to provide a robust and functional operating environment for users and
applications, managing hardware resources efficiently while offering a range of services and utilities for
system management and user interaction.

Q3. Differentiate among multiprogramming, multi-tasking and multiprocessing operating system.

Ans:

Differentiation among multiprogramming, multitasking, and multiprocessing operating systems:

1. Multiprogramming Operating System:

• Definition: A multiprogramming operating system allows multiple programs to reside in

main memory simultaneously and executes them concurrently.

• Key Feature: Focuses on maximizing CPU utilization by keeping the CPU busy with executing
one program while another program is waiting for I/O operations.

• Example: Early batch processing systems where multiple jobs are submitted, and the OS
switches between them as needed.

2. Multitasking Operating System:

• Definition: A multitasking operating system allows multiple tasks (or processes) to run
concurrently on a single CPU core.

• Key Feature: Provides the illusion of parallel execution by rapidly switching between tasks,
giving each task a share of CPU time.

• Example: Modern desktop operating systems like Windows, macOS, and Linux, where users
can run multiple applications simultaneously.

3. Multiprocessing Operating System:

• Definition: A multiprocessing operating system utilizes multiple CPUs (or CPU cores) to
execute multiple tasks simultaneously.

• Key Feature: Enables true parallel processing by distributing tasks across multiple
processors, allowing them to execute concurrently.

• Example: High-performance computing systems, servers, and some desktop computers

equipped with multiple CPU cores or processors.

Summary of Differences:

• Multiprogramming: Focuses on maximizing CPU utilization by keeping the CPU busy with executing
one program while others wait for I/O. It runs multiple programs on a single CPU but not necessarily
concurrently.

• Multitasking: Allows multiple tasks to run concurrently on a single CPU core, rapidly switching
between tasks to give the illusion of parallel execution. It offers true parallelism but on a single
processor.
 • Multiprocessing: Utilizes multiple CPUs or CPU cores to execute multiple tasks truly simultaneously.
It achieves parallelism by distributing tasks across multiple processors.

Q4. What is interactive operating system?

Ans:

An interactive operating system is designed to support direct interaction between the user and the computer
system in real-time. Unlike batch processing systems where users submit jobs and wait for their completion
without immediate feedback, interactive operating systems provide users with a responsive environment
where they can interact with the system in real-time through input devices such as keyboards, mice, or
touchscreens.

Examples of interactive operating systems include modern desktop and laptop operating systems like
Windows, macOS, and various Linux distributions, as well as mobile operating systems like iOS and Android.
These systems provide users with intuitive interfaces and responsive environments for performing tasks,
accessing resources, and interacting with applications in real-time.

Q5. Define kernel and explain different types of kernels.

Ans:

Kernel:

The kernel is the core component of an operating system that acts as a bridge between software and
hardware. It manages system resources, provides essential services to applications, and facilitates
communication between software components and hardware devices. The kernel is responsible for tasks
such as process scheduling, memory management, device management, and system call handling.

Types of Kernels:

1. Monolithic Kernel:

• In a monolithic kernel architecture, all operating system services (such as process

management, memory management, and device drivers) are implemented as a single, large
module running in kernel mode.

• Monolithic kernels typically have better performance due to direct access to system
resources and minimal overhead from inter-module communication.

• Examples include Linux (with the default configuration), Unix, and older versions of
Windows (prior to Windows NT).

2. Microkernel:

• A microkernel architecture follows a modular approach, where only essential services like
process scheduling, inter-process communication, and memory management reside in the
kernel space.

• Device drivers and other non-essential services run as user-space processes,

communicating with the microkernel through well-defined message-passing mechanisms.

• Microkernels prioritize simplicity, reliability, and extensibility over performance.

 • Examples include MINIX, QNX, and early versions of macOS (Mach microkernel).

3. Hybrid Kernel:

• A hybrid kernel combines features of both monolithic and microkernel architectures,

incorporating essential operating system services in the kernel space while delegating
certain functionalities, such as device drivers and file systems, to user-space processes.

• Hybrid kernels aim to strike a balance between performance and reliability by providing
direct access to critical services while isolating less critical components.

• Examples include Windows NT kernel (used in modern versions of Windows), macOS (XNU
kernel), and recent versions of Linux with loadable kernel modules.

Each type of kernel architecture has its own advantages and trade-offs, catering to different design goals and
requirements of operating systems.

Q6. Explain different services provided by operating system.

Ans:

Operating systems provide a wide range of services to applications and users, facilitating efficient utilization
of hardware resources and ensuring smooth interaction with the system. Here are some of the key services
provided by operating systems:

1. Process Management:

• Creation and termination of processes.

• Scheduling processes for execution on CPU.

• Inter-process communication and synchronization.

2. Memory Management:

• Allocation and deallocation of memory for processes.

• Virtual memory management, including paging and segmentation.

• Memory protection to prevent unauthorized access.

3. File System Services:

• Creation, deletion, and management of files and directories.

• File access control and permission management.

• File I/O operations, including reading, writing, and seeking within files.

4. Device Management:

• Device allocation and scheduling access to hardware resources.

• Device drivers for managing communication with hardware devices.

• Input/output control and buffering to optimize device operations.

5. User Interface Services:

• Command-line interfaces (CLI) and graphical user interfaces (GUI) for user interaction.
 • Window management and graphical rendering.

• Input/output handling for keyboard, mouse, display, and other peripherals.

6. Networking Services:

• Implementation of network protocols for communication between devices.

• Network configuration and management (e.g., assigning IP addresses, DNS resolution).

• Network resource sharing, such as file sharing and printing services.

7. Security Services:

• User authentication and authorization.

• Data encryption and decryption for securing sensitive information.

• Firewall configuration and network security monitoring.

8. System Administration Services:

• System configuration and customization.

• Software installation, updates, and patch management.

• System monitoring and performance optimization.

9. Error Handling and Recovery Services:

• Detection and logging of system errors, warnings, and exceptions.

• Error recovery mechanisms to restore system stability.

• Data backup and restoration to prevent data loss in case of system failures.

10. Time and Resource Management:

• Timekeeping services for scheduling tasks and events.

• Resource allocation and management to ensure fair and efficient utilization.

• Power management to optimize energy consumption and battery life in mobile devices.

These services collectively form the foundation of an operating system, enabling applications to run
smoothly, users to interact effectively with the system, and hardware resources to be efficiently managed.

Q7. What are the interrupts? How are they handled by the operating system.

Ans:

Interrupts are signals sent by hardware or software to interrupt the normal execution flow of a CPU,
prompting it to temporarily suspend its current task and switch to a different task or process. Interrupts play
a crucial role in computer systems by allowing devices to communicate asynchronously with the CPU and
ensuring timely handling of events.

There are several types of interrupts, including:

1. Hardware Interrupts: Generated by hardware devices to signal events such as I/O completion, timer
expiration, or hardware errors.
 2. Software Interrupts: Triggered by software instructions (e.g., system calls) to request services from
the operating system or to signal exceptional conditions.

3. External Interrupts: Initiated by external sources, such as input from keyboards, mice, or other
peripheral devices.

4. Internal Interrupts: Generated by the CPU itself to handle exceptional conditions, such as invalid
instructions or division by zero errors.

When an interrupt occurs, the CPU responds by temporarily suspending the currently executing process and
transferring control to an interrupt handler routine. The operating system plays a crucial role in managing
interrupts by providing mechanisms for handling and prioritizing them effectively. Here's how interrupts are
typically handled by the operating system:

1. Interrupt Recognition: The CPU continuously monitors for interrupt signals during its execution
cycle. When an interrupt occurs, the CPU acknowledges the interrupt request and temporarily halts
the current instruction execution.

2. Interrupt Dispatching: Upon receiving an interrupt, the CPU identifies the interrupt type and its
corresponding interrupt service routine (ISR) or handler. Each interrupt has a unique identifier
associated with it, allowing the CPU to determine the appropriate handler.

3. Interrupt Handling: The CPU transfers control to the ISR associated with the interrupt. The ISR is a
specialized routine designed to handle the specific interrupt type. The operating system maintains a
table or vector of interrupt handlers, indexed by the interrupt number, to facilitate this process.

4. Interrupt Servicing: The ISR executes the necessary actions to service the interrupt, which may
involve interacting with hardware devices, updating system state, or executing additional processing
tasks. Once the interrupt is serviced, the CPU resumes the execution of the interrupted process or
task.

5. Interrupt Prioritization: In systems with multiple interrupt sources, the operating system
implements mechanisms to prioritize interrupts based on their importance or urgency. Priority
levels or interrupt masking techniques are used to ensure that critical interrupts receive immediate
attention.

6. Interrupt Nesting and Handling: In some systems, interrupts can be nested, meaning that an
interrupt can occur while another interrupt is being serviced. The operating system must handle
nested interrupts gracefully to prevent conflicts and ensure correct system behaviour.

Overall, the operating system plays a critical role in managing interrupts, ensuring that they are handled
promptly and efficiently to maintain system responsiveness and reliability.

Q8. Describe the essential properties of the following operating system:

(a) Real time

(b)Distributed operating system.

Ans:

Real-Time Operating System (RTOS):

1. Determinism:

• Real-time operating systems prioritize deterministic behaviour, ensuring that tasks are
completed within specified time constraints.
 • Tasks must meet strict deadlines, and their execution time is predictable and consistent.

2. Response Time:

• RTOSs guarantee quick response times to external events or stimuli.

• Tasks are scheduled based on priority, with higher-priority tasks pre-empting lower-priority
ones to ensure timely execution.

3. Task Scheduling:

• Real-time operating systems employ priority-based scheduling algorithms to ensure that

critical tasks are executed on time.

• Some RTOSs use fixed-priority scheduling, while others may utilize dynamic priority
adjustments based on task urgency.

4. Resource Management:

• RTOSs manage system resources efficiently to minimize overhead and latency.

• Memory management, I/O operations, and CPU utilization are optimized to meet real-time
requirements.

5. Fault Tolerance:

• Real-time systems often incorporate fault-tolerant mechanisms to handle errors and

failures gracefully.

• Redundancy, error detection, and recovery techniques are employed to ensure system
reliability and availability.

Distributed Operating System:

1. Transparency:

• Distributed operating systems aim to provide transparency regarding resource location,

access, and communication to users and applications.

• Users perceive the distributed system as a single, integrated entity, regardless of the
physical distribution of resources.

2. Concurrency:

• Distributed operating systems support concurrent execution of multiple processes across

different nodes in the network.

• Processes may communicate and coordinate with each other asynchronously, often
requiring synchronization mechanisms to ensure consistency.

3. Scalability:

• Distributed operating systems are designed to scale gracefully with the addition of more
nodes or resources.

• They accommodate a growing number of users and applications while maintaining

performance and reliability.

4. Fault Tolerance:
 • Distributed systems employ fault-tolerant mechanisms to handle failures and ensure
system availability.

• Redundancy, replication, and error recovery strategies are utilized to mitigate the impact of
node failures or network partitions.

5. Inter process Communication:

• Communication between processes in a distributed operating system relies on message

passing and remote procedure calls (RPC).

• Middleware layers facilitate transparent communication and data sharing between

distributed components.

6. Security:

• Distributed operating systems implement security measures to protect against

unauthorized access, data breaches, and malicious attacks.

• Authentication, encryption, and access control mechanisms are employed to ensure data
confidentiality and integrity across the network.

In summary, real-time operating systems prioritize deterministic behavior and timely task execution, while
distributed operating systems focus on transparent access to distributed resources, concurrency, scalability,
fault tolerance, and secure communication across a network of interconnected nodes.

Q9. Explain the architecture of different operating system structure?

Ans:

Operating system architectures can vary significantly depending on factors such as system requirements,
design goals, and implementation approaches. However, several common architectural models are widely
used in operating systems. Here's an overview of some of these architectures:

1. Monolithic Kernel:

• In a monolithic kernel architecture, all operating system services, including process

management, memory management, file system, device drivers, and networking, are
implemented as a single, large module running in kernel mode.

• The monolithic kernel directly interacts with hardware and provides a rich set of services to
applications.

• Examples include early versions of Unix, Linux (with the default configuration), and older
versions of Windows (prior to Windows NT).

2. Microkernel:

• A microkernel architecture follows a modular approach, where only essential operating

system services, such as process scheduling, inter-process communication (IPC), and
memory management, reside in the kernel space.

• Non-essential services, such as device drivers, file systems, and networking protocols, are
implemented as user-space processes or server modules that communicate with the
microkernel through well-defined message-passing mechanisms.
 • Microkernels aim to minimize the size and complexity of the kernel, prioritizing simplicity,
reliability, and extensibility over performance.

• Examples include MINIX, QNX, and early versions of macOS (Mach microkernel).

3. Hybrid Kernel:

• A hybrid kernel combines features of both monolithic and microkernel architectures,

incorporating essential operating system services in the kernel space while delegating
certain functionalities, such as device drivers and file systems, to user-space processes.

• Hybrid kernels aim to strike a balance between performance and reliability by providing
direct access to critical services while isolating less critical components.

• Examples include the Windows NT kernel (used in modern versions of Windows), macOS
(XNU kernel), and recent versions of Linux with loadable kernel modules.

4. Layered Architecture:

• In a layered operating system architecture, the operating system is organized into distinct
layers, each responsible for a specific set of functionalities.

• Higher layers provide more abstract services to applications, while lower layers interact
directly with hardware.

• Communication between layers typically occurs through well-defined interfaces, allowing

for modularity and ease of maintenance.

• Examples include THEOS, VMS, and early versions of Unix.

5. Client-Server Architecture:

• In a client-server operating system architecture, the operating system services are divided
into server processes that provide specific functionalities (e.g., file servers, print servers,
authentication servers) and client processes that request and utilize these services.

• Clients communicate with servers through inter-process communication mechanisms such

as remote procedure calls (RPC) or network protocols.

• This architecture allows for distributed and scalable operating systems, where services can
be dynamically added or removed as needed.

• Examples include modern network operating systems and distributed operating systems.

These are some of the common operating system architectures, each with its own set of advantages, trade-
offs, and suitability for different system environments and requirements.

Q10. What is the difference between hard and soft real time system ?

Ans :

The difference between hard real-time systems and soft real-time systems lies in their level of strictness
regarding meeting timing deadlines:

1. Hard Real-Time System:

• In a hard real-time system, meeting deadlines is of utmost importance.

 • Failure to meet a deadline could lead to catastrophic consequences, system failure, or even
loss of life.

• Timing constraints are absolute and must be guaranteed under all circumstances.

• Examples include systems in aerospace, automotive safety-critical applications, medical

devices, and industrial automation.

2. Soft Real-Time System:

• Soft real-time systems have timing constraints, but they are less stringent compared to
hard real-time systems.

• Missing occasional deadlines may not lead to system failure or catastrophic consequences.

• Soft real-time systems prioritize completing tasks as quickly as possible, but occasional
delays are acceptable.

• Examples include multimedia streaming, video conferencing, online gaming, and

interactive applications.

In summary, while both hard and soft real-time systems involve meeting timing constraints, hard real-time
systems have strict and absolute deadlines that must be met to avoid catastrophic consequences, whereas
soft real-time systems have more flexible deadlines where occasional delays are acceptable as long as they
do not significantly degrade system performance.