Jimenez 2021

The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2021) 114:63–96
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-06855-4
CRITICAL REVIEW
Powder-based laser hybrid additive manufacturing

of metals: a review
Amaia Jiménez 1,2 & Prveen Bidare 1 & Hany Hassanin 3 & Faris Tarlochan 4 & Stefan Dimov 1 & Khamis Essa 1
Received: 25 August 2020 / Accepted: 1 March 2021 / Published online: 19 March 2021
# The Author(s) 2021
Abstract
Recent advances in additive manufacturing (AM) have attracted significant industrial interest. Initially, AM was mainly associ-
ated with the fabrication of prototypes, but the AM advances together with the broadening range of available materials, especially
for producing metallic parts, have broaden the application areas and now the technology can be used for manufacturing functional
parts, too. Especially, the AM technologies enable the creation of complex and topologically optimised geometries with internal
cavities that were impossible to produce with traditional manufacturing processes. However, the tight geometrical tolerances
along with the strict surface integrity requirements in aerospace, biomedical and automotive industries are not achievable in most
cases with standalone AM technologies. Therefore, AM parts need extensive post-processing to ensure that their surface and
dimensional requirements together with their respective mechanical properties are met. In this context, it is not surprising that the
integration of AM with post-processing technologies into single and multi set-up processing solutions, commonly referred to as
hybrid AM, has emerged as a very attractive proposition for industry while attracting a significant R&D interest. This paper
reviews the current research and technology advances associated with the hybrid AM solutions. The special focus is on hybrid
AM solutions that combine the capabilities of laser-based AM for processing powders with the necessary post-process technol-
ogies for producing metal parts with required accuracy, surface integrity and material properties. Commercially available hybrid
AM systems that integrate laser-based AM with post-processing technologies are also reviewed together with their key applica-
tion areas. Finally, the main challenges and open issues in broadening the industrial use of hybrid AM solutions are discussed.
Keywords Hybrid manufacturing . Additive manufacturing . Laser . Powder . Post-processing
1 Introduction metal AM is currently applied in the most demanding industrial

sectors, i.e. aerospace [1], energy [2], defence [3], and biomed-
The advances of additive manufacturing (AM) technology have ical [4, 5]. The technology allows the generation of parts with a
broaden its application areas and AM is becoming a viable op- complex topologically optimised geometry with internal cavities
tion for producing completely functional metal parts. In fact, that were impossible to create with traditional manufacturing
processes. However, tight tolerances and strict surface integrity
requirements cannot be achieved by employing standalone AM
Amaia Jiménez and Prveen Bidare are joint first authors
technologies in most cases. Therefore, AM parts commonly
require some post-processing to meet requirements associated
* Prveen Bidare
[email protected] with surface finish, dimensional tolerances and mechanical
properties. So, it is not surprising that the integration of AM
* Khamis Essa
[email protected] with post-processing technologies into single and multi set-up
processing solutions, commonly referred to as hybrid AM, has
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, University of Birmingham, emerged as a very attractive proposition for industry while
Birmingham, UK attracting a significant R&D interest.
2
TECNUN Escuela de Ingeniería, Universidad de Navarra, Manuel de In this context, the paper is focused on hybrid manufactur-
Lardizábal 15, 20018 San Sebastián, Spain ing solutions that combine the capabilities of laser-based AM
3
School of Engineering, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK technologies for consolidating metal powders with post-
4
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, College of processing ones, e.g. machining, heat treatments and surface
Engineering, Qatar University, 2713 Doha, Qatar finishing, to produce parts with required accuracy, surface
64 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:63–96
integrity and material properties. This includes both the inte-

gration of post-processing technologies in the same set-up
with the laser-based AM processes but also sequentially in
multi set-up hybrid solutions. In order to consider multi set-
up solutions as hybrid, special fixtures or geometrical ref-
erences should be employed to minimise part-positioning
errors. Such single and multi set-up hybrid AM solutions
offer capabilities for producing metal parts with higher
complexity without compromising their accuracy, surface
integrity and material properties. The potential of such hy-
brid AM manufacturing routes has attracted a significant
industrial and research interest. The R&D efforts were fo-
cused both on broadening their application areas and on
investigation and further development of their capabilities.
This is evident from the constantly growing number of the
published papers in this field over the past 10 years as
shown in Fig. 1.
Additionally, in Fig. 2, it is shown that among the different
heat sources employed in additive manufacturing processes,
laser power has gained the highest interest from the research Fig. 2 Additive manufacturing articles published in 2019, [6]
community (31% of published research works are focused on
laser-based additive manufacturing processes). Considering research. Section 5 reviews the commercially available hybrid
the growing importance of laser-based additive manufacturing AM technologies, with specific focus on their advantages and
technologies, as mentioned above, the present work will sum- limitation. Section 6 provides an overview of relevant research
marise relevant research works regarding the hybrid additive on main application areas for the hybrid AM manufacturing
manufacturing that combines laser additive manufacturing solutions. Next, Section 7 discusses the main challenges in
and post-processing techniques. broadening the use of hybrid AM routes for producing metal
The structure of this review paper is as follows. The next parts with required complexity and quality. Finally, conclu-
section provides an overview of available AM technologies sions are made about the reviewed hybrid AM routes.
for producing metal parts, and then the most common laser-
based AM processes for consolidating metal powders are
reviewed. In particular, investigations on their limitations 1.1 Metal additive manufacturing processes
and respective post-processing requirements for producing
metal parts are reported. Then, the research on post- AM encompasses all technologies for producing parts in
processing technologies that are usually integrated with layer-by-layer fashion directly from CAD models. Initially,
laser-based AM processes into single and multi-setup AM AM technologies were mostly applied for fabricating proto-
solutions is reviewed. Next, the benefits offered by different types quickly that can be used for design verification and
post-processing technologies in addressing the shortcomings marketing purposes. They became quickly indispensable in
of metal AM parts are discussed based on the reported many application areas. However, they were still just physical
models that were not supposed to fulfil any functional require-
ments and therefore were commonly made from non-metallic
materials, such as thermoplastics, resins and ceramic powders
[7]. Meanwhile, the advances of AM technologies in the last
two decades, especially for building metallic parts, made pos-
sible the manufacture of functional components and thus en-
abling the so-called direct digital manufacturing [8].
Metallic parts can be produced by employing mainly five
different categories of AM technologies, known as material
extrusion, powder bed fusion, direct energy deposition, binder
jetting and laminated object manufacturing (LOM) [9, 10].
Each category includes metal AM technologies that employ
Fig. 1 The number of published papers on hybrid additive manufacturing different methods for producing physical models, in
over the last 10 years, [6] particular:
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2021) 114:63–96 65
& Material extrusion. Thermoplastic filaments or rods load- powder particles to a critical speed by employing a high-
ed with a metal powder are extruded through a heated velocity compressed gas stream that upon the impact on the
nozzle to build metal parts layer by layer. Afterwards, substrate, a metallurgical bond and mechanical interlocks are
the thermoplastic content in the printed green parts is re- formed to produce parts layer by layer. Laser-assisted cold
moved chemically and/or thermally that is followed by a spray has also been subjected to investigation as an improved
sintering process to produce metal parts [5, 11]. alternative to the CS process. Bray et al. [15] developed a
& Powder bed fusion (PBF). The process employs a heat system to deposit powder particles through CS in a substrate
source, e.g. a laser or an electron beam, to fuse or melt heated by laser diode and achieved deposits with densities
the powder particles layer by layer. The energy beam is higher than 99%. However, the CS process is outside the
applied to a small region of a powder bed that incremen- scope of this review paper and will not be analysed in the
tally drops down upon the completion of each layer. following sections.
Depending on the processing temperature, the powder It should be noted that among all metal AM technologies,
consolidation is done by sintering process or melting. the laser-based PBF (LPBF) process has attracted the highest
Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), selective laser melt- industrial interest due to the relatively good accuracy and sur-
ing (SLM) and electron beam melting (EBM) are the most face finish that can be achieved. However, the type of parts
widely used technologies that fall in this AM category [5, that can be produced with this technology is limited by the size
11]. of the powder bed. Therefore, DLD or also referred to as laser-
& Direct laser deposition (DLD). The process employs fo- based direct energy deposition (DED) has gain significant
cused thermal energy, e.g. a laser source or arc plasma, to industrial interest, too, because of its higher build rates and
fuse materials by melting. In particular, metal powder or bigger size of the parts that can be produced. However, such
wires are fed through a nozzle at the focal spot and depos- flexibility is at the expense of accuracy and surface integrity of
ited to a heated substrate layer by layer according to a produced parts and therefore commonly they require exten-
predefined path. In this AM category, laser engineering sive post-processing [16]. Considering the industrial interest
net shaping (LENS) or direct metal deposition (DMD) in the LPBF and DLD technologies [17, 18] and also their
technologies are noteworthy [11, 12]. often integration in hybrid AM solutions, their fundamentals
& Binder jetting. A binder agent is selectively deposited onto and a review of relevant research on these two technologies
a metal powder bed to glue particles together layer by are presented in the next section.
layer. Similar to the material extrusion, the binder content
in the printed part is removed chemically through a 1.2 Laser-based additive manufacturing processes
debinding step and then the part is consolidated by
sintering. Parts created using this method are not fully 1.2.1 Laser-based powder bed fusion
dense, and therefore, an infiltration is required to fill the
porosity with metal powder [11]. This technology is currently being used for the manufacture
& Laminated object manufacturing (LOM). It is a tech- of mostly high-value parts. LPBF is an AM technology that
nique that uses ultrasonic or laser energy source to stack employs continuous-wave laser sources to melt and fuse
previously cut metal sheets to form a three-dimensional particles selectively onto a powder bed and thus creating
object [13]. This technology is also referred to as sheet three-dimensional parts layer by layer. When the particles
lamination (SL). are melted, viscous flow due to a surface tension joins them
together into a melt pool. Then, the energy in the melt pool
The schematic diagram shown in Fig. 3 presents a classifi- is transferred to the surrounding powder through conduc-
cation of existing AM technologies for producing metal parts. tion, radiation and convection [19, 20]. After the selective
In the figure, the processes that fall within the scope of this consolidation of areas on each layer, the powder bed is
review are highlighted. As was already mentioned, this review lowered and the next layer of powder is spread and thus
is focused on single and multi-setup hybrid AM routes that successive layers are processed to create fully dense 3D
employ laser-based AM process to consolidate metal parts [21–23]. Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of the
powders. LPBF process.
In addition to the four metal AM technologies discussed so In LPBF, process parameters, namely scan strategy, laser
far, another technology called cold spray additive manufactur- spot diameter, laser power, scan speed, scan line spacing and
ing (CS or CSAM) has been attracting some research interest. the thickness of the powder layer, have to be optimised in
CS is a material deposition process that was initially devel- order to obtain the best results in terms of porosity and me-
oped for coating/cladding purposes but has recently been chanical properties of the consolidated powder [22, 24, 25].
employed as a metal AM process to build and repair compo- Laser power is considered the most influencing parameter in
nents [14]. Materials are deposited by accelerating fine regards to the density (or porosity) of the final part [26]. Also,
Fig. 3 Classification of metal AM technologies
powder characteristics, i.e. chemical constituents, particle where P and υ are the laser power and scan speed, respective-
shape and size and distribution, are a factor affecting the final ly, h is the scan spacing, and t is the layer thickness. Some
part quality [24]. In fact, it is possible to assess the laser heat studies have shown that the optimum energy density for a
input by using the so-called “energy density function” as fol- given material can be found and thus producing parts with
lows [25]: as low as possible porosity. In addition to the above-
mentioned process parameters, gas flow direction and flow
P rate in the build chamber have been identified as factors af-
Ψ¼ ð1Þ
νht fecting the part quality [27]. Insufficient gas flow rates and
Fig. 4 Graphical explanation of

the LPBF process
inappropriate flow directions could lead to part delamination. this AM technology for series production [36]. Other process
Furthermore, the height of the flow straightener from the pow- improvements include advances in gas flow systems that use
der bed and the type of the used shielding gas also affect the sub-atmospheric pressure in the build chamber which enables
build quality [28]. better quality parts at lesser laser powers ensuring reduced
There is a wide range of alloys available for LPBF. Among overall energy consumption [37]. Also, the development of
them, stainless steel (AISI 316L), aluminium, titanium and process monitoring tools has been an important R&D topic
their alloys, e.g. AlSi10Mg and Ti6Al4V, and Ni-based al- recently for researchers and manufacturing companies as a
loys, e.g. Inconel 718, are the most widely used materials. way both to understand better the underlying laser-material
Depending on the materials employed, different issues could interactions during the process and thus improving the process
arise during the LPBF process. For example, when aluminium control [38]. In particular, the chamber conditions, i.e. build
or its alloys are used, a major issue that can affect the process plate temperature, ambient temperature, pressure oxygen con-
is the material oxidation that could occur due to the presence centration, etc., should be monitored as they have a significant
of oxygen in the build chamber [29]. effect on process behaviour and can lead to the occurrence of
The available materials allow the LPBF process to be used part defects [39]. Recently, the development of advanced
in different industrial applications. Figure 5 shows some ex- monitoring systems has been reported that allow some impor-
amples of LPBF parts produced for aerospace, i.e. a bracket tant process parameters, such as laser power, porosity, melt-
and a pump, and automotive, i.e. an air duct, applications. pool status, powder layer distribution on the build surface and
Recently, a number of process advances have been report- temperature, to be controlled [40, 41].
ed. In particular, the development of a gas atomised powder The LPBF process offers some advantages with respect
with particles that are spherical, have a higher flowability and to other manufacturing processes. Especially, complex ge-
a higher packing density can be achieved [34]. As the long ometries can be built with this technology and parts with
build times and high part costs are some of the main issues relatively small features and internal cavities can be creat-
preventing the broader use of the LPBF technology, a research ed, too, with this process. It enables the manufacture of
to improve the process productivity and also to reduce residual lightweight parts, i.e. topology optimised ones and parts
stresses through the use of quad laser systems was reported with lattice structures, and therefore is a very attractive
[35]. In addition, LPBF systems that integrate powder option for a number of applications in the aerospace indus-
handling/cleaning and part post-processing in the same build try. Additionally, the LPBF parts have high specific
chamber have been developed and thus underpins the use of strength and stiffness [42, 43].
Fig. 5 Industry applications of

the LPBF technology. a Spider
bracket. b Manifold (photo
courtesy of Renishaw) [30]. c
A380 fuel connector [31]. d, e
Topology optimized aerospace
brackets [32, 33]
However, the LPBF technology has some limitations, too. a specific path to generate the desired geometry layer by layer.
Surface roughness of produced parts is a major issue for the DLD is commonly employed for applying thick coatings of
broader use of this layer-by-layer process that leads to the wide- workpiece and also for repairing worn or damaged parts. The
ly known “staircase effect”, particularly visible on sloping latter is of growing interest in the automotive and aerospace
edges. Apart from process parameters, powder size is another industries due to the cost saving that the DLD process can
factor that affects the resulting surface finish. When smaller offer.
particles are employed and a layer thickness is reduced, a better Similar to LPBF, powder characteristics have a great im-
surface finish can be obtained. However, this is at expense of pact on the quality and properties of the DLD manufactured
manufacturing time and cost [44]. In addition, as consequence parts. Chemical compositions of powders, particle size, distri-
of the high heat load during the melting process, there is a high bution and morphology together with laser parameters, i.e.
thermal gradient in the built parts that lead to higher residual laser power, powder feed rate and scanning speed, have to
stresses and a deterioration of their fatigue behaviour [45]. be optimised in order to produce parts with required physical
LPBF has some other inherited issues that can affect the pro- and mechanical properties [56]. Another important DLD pro-
cess, such as the porosity and the shrinkage of built parts. Due cessing parameter is the hatching or scanning strategy that
to liquid to solid transformations and to the inhomogeneous defines the path of the powder deposition head. The micro-
cooling to room temperature in the solid state, shrinkage and structure and mechanical properties of the DLD parts can be
accumulation of residual stresses occur. Regarding porosity, controlled by varying the hatching strategy [57]. Additionally,
instability of the melt pool [46], lack of fusion between powder the nozzle inclination angle and the set focal plane for the laser
particles [47] and a narrow particle size distribution can reduce beam are important factors affecting the properties of the DLD
the packing density [48, 49] that together with scanning strate- parts [58].
gies can promote the manufacture of low-density LPBF parts The powders used for the DLD process are similar to those
[45, 50]. Other issues include powder oxidation that could oc- utilised in the LPBF process. For example, the DLD is com-
cur due to the presence of oxygen in the build chamber during monly used to process the following materials: nickel-based
the process [51]. Figure 6 depicts disconnection in LPBF parts alloys (In625, In718, In738, In713, In939, CM-247LC,
due to residual stresses while porosity, voids and lack of fusion Nimonic 263, Hastelloy X, Hastelloy C-276, Waspaloy,
defects are shown in Fig. 7. Haynes 230, MarM247), titanium alloys (Ti6Al4V, Ti-6-2-
4-2, Ti-6-2-4-6, CP Ti), aluminium and its alloys (4047,
6061, 7050, 7075, AlSi7Mg, AlSi10Mg, AlSi12), iron-based
1.2.2 Direct laser deposition alloys (17-4PH, H13, 304L, 316L, 420SS, PH 138 Mo,
155PH, AISI 4140), cobalt-based alloys (Stellite21, CM-64,
The DLD technology employs a focused laser beam to fuse Co6, CoCr) and Copper-based (Cu-Ni) and iron-nickel-
materials in the form of metal wires and/or powder onto a chromium alloy (A286) [59]. The processing of such powders
building platform and thus producing parts layer by layer
with the DLD technology is an important enabler for produc-
[54]. As the focus of the paper is on powder-based AM pro- ing and repairing complex parts in the automotive and aero-
cesses, only the relevant research on DLD of powders is
space industries. Figure 9 shows some examples of produced
reviewed. During the DLD process, some of the laser irradia-
and repaired parts for aerospace applications.
tion is absorbed by the substrate on which the powder particles One important advantage of the DLD process in compari-
are delivered through a nozzle and thus a controlled melt pool
son to other AM technologies is the higher building rates that
is created in the laser-material interaction area [55].
can be achieved [63]. Another important advantage of the
Additionally, an inert gas, i.e. argon, is delivered onto the DLD process is that the technology not only can be deployed
deposition area in order to minimise any metal oxidation.
to produce parts but also can be used to deposit materials
The process is graphically shown in Fig. 8.
selectively on existing parts and uneven surfaces and thus
The DLD system can be attached to a robot arm or inte- creating some complex geometries/structures or repair
grated into a multi-axis machine so that the nozzle can follow
Fig. 6 Some typical defects in

LPBF metallic parts:
disconnection from the substrate
due to residual stresses in SLM
manufactured parts [52]
Fig. 7 More defects in metal components produced by SLM. a Gas pores. b Lack of fusion between powder granules. c Micro- and macrocracks [53].
The figures are reused under the Creative Commons CC-BY licence
damaged or worn out features of high-value components. However, depending on the gas shielding performance of the
Thus, the DLD technology offers significant flexibility in DLD heads and the processed material, this might not be suf-
manufacturing a nd repairing m etal components. ficient to prevent any oxidation during the deposition and thus
Furthermore, DLD enables the use of different powder mate- affecting negatively the integrity of the part. Furthermore, the
rials in the same process, sometimes even simultaneously, and DLD parts show a lower hardness, higher ductility and higher
thus producing parts from functionally graded materials or toughness in comparison with the LPBF ones [64]. Figure 10
customised alloys [18]. shows examples of defects that can be found in DLD parts.
However, as with the LPBF process, the DLD technology
has some disadvantages and limitations, too, that have to be 1.2.3 Limitations of powder-based laser additive
considered. Some of them are common across metal AM tech- manufacturing for producing metal parts
nologies and have already been mentioned in regard to the
LPBF process. In particular, the achievable dimensional accu- Laser-based AM processes, i.e. LPBF and DLD, for produc-
racy, surface roughness, “staircase effects”, porosity and re- ing metal parts by consolidating metallic powders are power-
sidual stresses are limitations that also apply to the DLD pro- ful methods to produce complex structures that were not
cess. In addition, the DLD process is not usually integrated achievable with conventional manufacturing technologies.
into chambers with a controlled environment; therefore, a Additionally, the amount of material required for their manu-
shielding inert gas is usually used to surround the melt pool facture is much lower and thus a higher resource efficiency
and thus minimising the powder oxidation, as shown in Fig. 8. can be achieved. However, laser-based AM technologies have
Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of

powder-based DLD process
Fig. 9 Industrial applications of the DLD process. a Rebuilt burner [60]. b Blade tip repair [61]. c Die insert repair [62]
limitations, too, that have to be addressed in order to broaden and defects of parts manufactured by laser-based additive
their use by industry. manufacturing processes.
The low surface integrity and accuracy together with the Figure 11a, b and c show examples of crack formation,
porosity of the produced metal parts are some of the main unmelted and stacked powder and surface roughness in
limitations of these AM technologies [67, 68]. These short- LPBF parts. Additionally, Fig. 11d shows the deformation
comings are even of a higher concern when manufacturing generated by the accumulation of residual stresses.
high-value and safety critical parts that have to meet stringent Concretely, as shown in the figure, a gap is created between
industrial requirements. Khorasani et al. [69] concluded that two components due to the distortion. Finally, Fig. 11e shows
significant post-processing was required when parts with another example of part deformation due to thermal distortion.
curved geometries were produced with the LPBF process in The area highlighted in red, which was intended to be flat,
order to improve their surface roughness. It was also presents an overhang tilt generated by this distortion.
highlighted that some of the part surfaces could be distorted In addition to the geometrical quality of parts, consistent
and cracks and lines could appear due to powder variations mechanical properties and microstructure are also required for
during the LPBF process. Figure 11 shows examples of issues many applications while LPBF and DLD parts usually show a
Fig. 10 Common defects and

surface quality of DLD metallic
parts. a Crack formation during
the deposition [65]. b Porosity
[66]
Fig. 11 Main limitations of additive manufacturing. a Crack formation [70]. b Unmelted and stacked powder [71]. c Surface roughness depending on the
scanning strategy [72]. d Part deformations [73]. e Overhang tilt due to thermal distortion (highlighted in red) [74]
significant anisotropy [67, 75]. Another factor that has a sig- then removed using a post-processing operation. However, the
nificant impact on part properties is the residual stresses gen- removal of such support structures by machining can become
erated not only in the produced parts but also in the building difficult and even impossible [78, 81, 82]. As a consequence, a
substrates. As it was already discussed, residual stresses are re-design of parts can be required to eliminate or minimise the
the result of the thermal gradient that occurs during the AM need for support structures.
process and can reduce the fatigue life of produced parts. Also, The available materials for the DLD and LPBF processes
they can lead to part deformations and distortions that can are limited, and therefore, significant research efforts are fo-
cause the built structures to separate from the base or sub- cused on the development of new alloys and also on the cre-
strates and the formation of cracks and delamination between ation of dedicated material databases and standards [68, 75,
the deposited layers [45, 76]. 83, 84]. Additionally, there is a significant research interest in
With regard to part designs, DLD and LPBF are generally the development of process models that can predict quality,
considered to provide designers with significant freedom to dimensional accuracy, and mechanical properties of the pro-
explore a much bigger if not unlimited design space. duced AM parts.
However, as with all manufacturing technologies, they have Finally, when compared to conventional manufacturing
limitations regarding the complexity of part geometries that methods for producing metal parts, the LPBF and DLD pro-
can be produced reliably and required repeatability. In particu- cesses present the following shortcomings:
lar, the build size in LPBF is limited by the dimensions of the
building substrate and the additive system [77–79]. In 2018, & High cost of the LPBF and DLD machines and the mate-
Arregui et al. [80] analysed the minimum slope that can be rials for them
achieved on inclined walls by DLD and concluded that for & Relatively low production rates are important shortcom-
small slope angles, the laser head should be inclined so that ings [67, 85].
the deposition to be carried out with a head normal to the & Powder recyclability could be a solution to high material
substrate to avoid geometrical distortions. Additionally, support costs in PBF processes. However, the powder morphology
structures are usually necessary when DLD or LPBF is used to might be affected when a recycled material is used, and
manufacture certain complex geometries, e.g. overhangs, un- this can impact the part density, hardness and mechanical
dercuts and part assemblies with moving components, that are properties [86]. Furthermore, the recycling process should
ensure that any partially melted or highly heated particles Therefore, almost all AM parts need some post-processing,
are separated from those that will be reused [87–89]. e.g. machining, heat treatment or surface treatment [93–95].
& Depending on the metallic powder used in the AM pro- Hybrid AM, as an integration of AM processes with some
cesses, chemical reactions may occur between the powder post-processing technologies, aim to combine their capabili-
and contaminants in the building environment, such as ties synergistically and thus producing functional components
oxygen, leading to changes in the chemical composition with complex geometries, enhanced mechanical properties
of the powder [90]. and improved surface integrity. Machining operations, e.g.
& Taking into account the small size of powder particles in turning and milling, heat treatments, e.g. conventional and
both laser-based AM processes, i.e. 10–20 μm in LPBF laser heat treatments, and surface treatments, e.g. shot peening
and 50–150 μm in DLD, health and safety issues have to and laser shot peening, are among the most common post-
be considered, too, when handling metallic powders [91]. processing operations used in hybrid AM.
Figure 12 shows the advantages of hybrid AM as a combi-
Table 1 provides a summary of the advantages and limita- nation of additive and CNC machining processes and thus
tions that have been reported for the LPBF and DLD achieving improvements in surface integrity and accuracy.
technologies. Hybrid AM is also aimed to enable complex shape generation
It can be stated that achievable accuracy, surface integrity, and reduce the waste material and in some cases the lead-time
porosity, relatively poor mechanical and microstructural prop- that are associated with machining processes.
erties, geometric and material limitations, need for support In addition to the external defects of AM parts that can be
structures, the high production cost and low production rates removed by machining, porosity, microstructural defects and
are the most challenging issues associated with laser-based residual stresses are other major concerns as they affect the
AM for building parts from metallic powders. Many of them mechanical properties of the parts. Heat and surface treat-
can be addressed with the use of post-processing operations, ments have shown to enhance the mechanical properties of
such as machining, heat treatments and surface finishing. In AM parts and also to reduce the porosity and improve their
the next section, the need for post-processing operations that microstructural characteristics. Additionally, some of these
can be fully integrated with powder-based laser AM processes treatments have shown to reduce the tensile residual stresses
is discussed. of AM parts; hence, their fatigue behaviour is also improved
[96–104].
As it was already discussed, the main advantage of AM
2 The need for hybrid technologies when compared to conventional manufacturing
technologies, such as machining and forging, is that they en-
As it was already discussed, powder-based laser AM technol- able the manufacture of much more complex parts that can
ogies have several shortcomings that represent a significant incorporate internal cavities while the waste material is dras-
barrier for their broader use for producing functional parts. tically reduced [105]. However, these advantages are at the
Table 1 Advantages and limitations of powder-based laser AM technologies
AM process Technology Advantages Limitations Ref
Powder bed fusion LPBF • Higher accuracy and fine details • Powder handling [87–89]
• Fully dense parts • Need for support structures [78, 84, 92]
• High specific strength and stiffness • High residual stresses [45]
• Powder recycling • Microstructural and mechanical anisotropy [75]
• Size limitation [77–79]
• Low productivity [67, 85]
• Limited process modelling and control [75, 83]
• Post-processing required [69, 78]
• Health and safety issues [91]
Direct energy deposition DLD • Repair of damaged or worn parts • Low accuracy [67, 68]
• Flexibility • Rough surface finish [67, 68]
• Functionally graded material generation • Porosity of parts [67, 68]
• Alloy development • Residual stresses [76]
• Limitations in printing complex shapes [80]
• Process modelling and control [75]
• Post-processing required [78, 92]
• Health and safety issues [91]
Fig. 12 Advantages in combining

AM and machining processes
expense of some inherent limitations associated with the operations. With regard to heat and surface treatments, it is
layer-by-layer manufacture [106]. reported that they can improve part quality, reduce surface
As an example of the benefits that hybrid AM can roughness and relieve residuals stresses that in turn improves
offer by combining powder-based laser AM with post- the fatigue life and microstructure of the AM parts [112–121].
processing operations, surface roughness values achievable It is also worth reiterating that hybrid AM can reduce
with machining and polishing operations are compared material waste and lead time and thus reducing the
with those achievable with the LPBF and DLD technolo- manufacturing costs, too. Regarding the reduction in ma-
gies in Table 2. Additionally, the surface roughness values terial waste, by using additive manufacturing as the prima-
of parts manufactured using Hybrid AM are also included. ry process, near-net-shape parts are generated. Therefore,
As shown in the table, surface roughness values achievable the amount of material that is removed later in machining
with the LPBF and DLD processes are in the ranges between operations is much lower than that in the conventional ma-
5–40 and 30–110 μm, respectively, while in turning or mill- chining processes. This is especially advantageous for the
ing, the values decrease to 1–8 μm and 1.5–10 μm, respec- manufacturing of great components employed in the cast-
tively. It is also shown that when post-processing AM parts by ing and moulding industries. Additionally, in hybrid AM
employing machining or heat and surface treatments, the systems, potential human errors can be minimised and
roughness is considerably decreased, and values can be even eliminated as all processing steps can be automated
reached that are similar to those achievable with conventional by employing CAD/CAM solutions. As a result, functional
manufacturing operations. In addition to surface roughness, and end-use parts can be efficiently produced on demand
dimensional accuracy of AM parts can also be improved and with a minimum lead time.
sections with excessive material due to distortions occurring In the next section, different hybrid AM solutions for pro-
during the AM process can be removed by milling or turning ducing metal parts are presented.
Table 2 Comparison of
roughness values achievable with Manufacturing process Technology Roughness Ra (μm) Ref.
machining operations, AM
technologies and hybrid AM Machining Turning 1–8 [107]
Milling 1.5–10 [107]
Polishing 0.2–1 [107]
Additive manufacturing LPBF 5–40 [108]
DLD 30–110 [109]
Hybrid AM DLD + turning 1.45–1.90 [110]
LPBF + shot peening 16 [73]
DLD + laser re-melting 1.5 [109]
DLD + laser polishing 2 [111]
3 Hybrid AM solutions DLD process could be conducted without them by changing

the part orientation. Then, based on the findings of this inves-
Research on combining the capabilities of powder-based laser tigation, an approach for partitioning part models into subparts
AM processes with some post-processing operations is was proposed that eliminated the need for support structures
reviewed. In Table 3, a summary of the hybrid AM solutions when different processing positions in a 5-axis machine were
that are analysed and discussed in this section is presented. used for each subpart. The pre-processing of each subpart
Different process combinations are reviewed, and their main model, i.e. its slicing, was carried out separately and thus
advantages and limitation are highlighted. using optimum DLD conditions for processing the subparts.
According to Jones et al. [135], the productivity of AM
3.1 Hybrid additive/machining solutions technologies is typically one order of magnitude lower than that
of CNC machining. Therefore, a hybrid AM solution was pro-
A review of hybrid AM solutions that combine the capabilities posed that combines the capabilities of DLD and CNC machin-
of powder-based laser AM technologies with post-processing ing processes into a single multi-axis setup and thus improving
machining processes is presented in this section. In particular, both surface integrity and productivity. In this work, the tool
in such hybrid solutions, near-net-shape components are first changer solution was proposed, too (see Fig. 14) that allowed a
produced by LPBF or DLD technologies and then they are laser cladding head and different cutting tools to be used in the
post-processed by employing machining operations, e.g. turn- same system.
ing or milling. The machining operations can be conducted The machining operation can be applied not only for
once the AM process is completed, as a finishing process, or finishing metal AM parts but also in alternation to the depo-
can be alternatively applied after the consolidation of a given sition of layers in hybrid AM solutions. In this way,
number of powder layers. Karunakaran et al. [7] reported a hybrid AM system in which
Figure 13 extracted from the work by Foster et al. [62] near-net-shape structures were first produced by using a DLD
shows an example of the improvement that can be obtained head, i.e. a welding head, mounted on a table and subsequent-
in the surface finish of additively manufactured components ly machined to net shape. As the deposition was carried out in
by post-processing through machining operations. the form of weld beads, the surface of the deposited layer was
Different approaches for combining seamlessly and syner- uneven due to the scallops and the developed thin oxide layer.
gistically the capabilities of powder-based laser AM technol- Thus, such uneven deposition of layers can have a cumulative
ogies with post-processing machining processes have been effect on the accuracy of the component in the Z direction and
implemented. In 2007, Liou et al. [77] reported a hybrid solu- therefore this shortcoming was addressed by face milling each
tion that integrates DLD and machining processes into a 5- layer to the required slice thickness. So, each subsequent
axis single setup for producing metallic parts. First, the au- weld-deposition was conducted on a pre-machined surface
thors studied the necessity for support structures during the and thus having good quality welds and build metal parts
powder deposition process and thus determining whether the consistently. A similar hybrid AM solution was proposed by
Table 3 Summary of hybrid manufacturing processes
Hybrid AM Post-processing Advantages Limitations and challenges Ref.

manufacturing technology
Additive LPBF Machining Complex geometries and good Needs part inspections, software integration, [77, 79]
manufacturing + surface finish parameter optimisation, oxidation (out of
machining DLD Machining Productivity gains and good surface chamber AM). Undercuts cannot be [10, 122,
finish machined. 123]
Additive LPBF Laser re-melting Improved microstructure, reduced Needs parameters optimisation. [124–131]
manufacturing + residual stresses and surface
heat treatment roughness and enhanced surface
properties
DLD Laser re-melting Smooth surfaces and isotropic Needs parameters optimisation [132]
topographies
Additive LPBF Laser polishing Reduced surface roughness Process optimisation is required to avoid [133]
manufacturing + oxidation
surface treatment DLD Laser polishing Reduced surface roughness Results are highly dependent on laser energy [111]
DLD Peening Refined microstructure and Integration of processes in the same machine. [134]
beneficial compressive residual
stresses
Fig. 13 Surface finish of samples

in (a) as deposited and after
machining states [62]
other researchers but it was combining LPBF with precision sector. Figure 16 depicts an application of this hybrid AM
milling in a single setup [79]. In particular, the parts were solution for producing a bi-metal part with a stainless steel
manufactured layer by layer by conducting LPBF and ma- substrate and deposited Inconel 718 on it.
chining steps sequentially onto a substrate clamped on a work- Another approach for creating hybrid AM solutions is the
table as shown in Fig. 15. By employing this hybrid AM/ integration of AM technologies with pre-processing and post-
machining process, complex internal structures, such as processing processes into multi-setup manufacturing plat-
cooling channels, were produced. The manufacture of 18Ni forms through the use of common work holding systems.
steel parts was reported, and their microstructure and hardness The design and implementation of such modular work holding
were analysed and compared with those achieved on parts system were reported for integrating the LPBF process into
produced by a standalone LPBF system and other methods. AM enable process chains [122].
It was reported that the hybrid samples showed density higher It is important to stress on differences between single- and
than 99%, fine microstructure and higher hardness than the multi-setup hybrid AM solutions, especially former execute
result obtained on parts fabricated using the standalone LPBF AM and post-processing operations in one machine tool that
process. later addresses fixturing and position issues in moving the
The development of a hybrid multi-tasking machine tool components along a given AM enabled process chain. The
was reported where a DLD head was integrated with turning multi-setup hybrid AM enabled manufacturing platforms to
and milling capabilities into a hybrid solution for reducing the address some of the limitations of single setup ones. In partic-
manufacturing time and the total in-process time [136]. This ular, the AM and machining modules integrated into multi-
hybrid manufacturing platform was implemented into a com- setup solutions can be optimised independently to address the
mercially available machine tool, Integrex i-400 AM, to ad- specific performance requirements of an individual process
dress the specific requirements in the small-lot production of rather than the requirements of all integrated manufacturing
difficult-to-cut high-hardness materials for applications in processes into a single setup [97]. So, the fundamental differ-
aerospace, energy, medical device and tool-making industrial ences in the physical characteristics of integrated processes
would not increase the engineering complexity of such
multi-setup manufacturing solutions unnecessarily and there-
fore their overall cost would not increase considerably, com-
pared to the single setup systems. Other important advantages
of the process chain approach in combining AM capabilities
with other processes is that it can deliver much higher produc-
tivity due to the parallel utilisation of the integrated operations
and also because it provides flexibility to synchronise the
throughputs of each manufacturing module [137].
The modular work holding system reported in [122] was
later employed by Badhuri et al. [82] to investigate the surface
integrity, microstructure and mechanical properties of hybrid
AM aluminium parts produced by employing LPBF followed
by some machining operations. In another research, the same
Fig. 14 Image of the cladding head, touch probe, and end mill co-existing work holding system was deployed to build LPBF structures
in the tool changer [135] on top of metal injection moulded (MIM) preforms and thus
Fig. 15 Schematic description of

the hybrid LPBF/machining
process [79]. The figures are
reused under the Creative
Commons CC-BY licence
producing small series of hybrid 316L stainless steel compo- by Lamikiz et al. [126], however, this time sequentially as a
nents [138]. The mechanical properties and interfaces of such hybrid multi-setup solution. In particular, a laser beam was
hybrid MIM/LPBF components were investigated and it was employed to melt a microscopic layer on the surfaces of
reported that they were similar and even better than those of LPBF parts that after its re-solidification made the LPBF sur-
monolithic MIM parts while conforming fully to the ASTM faces smoother. An 80% reduction of the average surface
standards for 316L stainless steel parts. roughness was achieved by applying this laser treatment
A similar multi-setup approach was employed by method. More recently, Yasa et al. [127] studied the influence
Boivie et al. [123] to combine the LPBF process with 5- of different laser processing parameters, i.e. scan speed, scan
axis milling and thus producing injection moulding tools. spacing and number of re-melting scans, on porosity, surface
In particular, the implemented hybrid AM solution en- roughness and microhardness of AISI 316L stainless steel and
abled the manufacture of conformal cooling channels in Ti6Al4V parts produced by the LPBF process. In all experi-
complex cavities that led to the production of higher qual- ments, the use of re-melting scans improved surface integrity
ity mouldings and also allowed the injection moulding and properties of produced parts. Considering the parameter
cycle time to be reduced, significantly. range employed in their work, authors observed that higher re-
melting scan speed combined with low laser power showed
3.2 Hybrid additive/surface treatment solutions low porosity values. Additionally, in low-energy input tests,
no relevant change in porosity was observed when increas-
The hybrid AM/surface treatment solutions are similar to hy- ing from one to three re-melting scans. However, as the
brid AM/machining ones as the processes are carried out se- energy input was increased and, at the same time, the num-
quentially either on single or multi-setups. In particular, in the ber of re-melting scans was also increased, the porosity
latter, near-net-shape components are produced employing an increased significantly. In another research, the same au-
AM process and then they are treated to improve their micro- thors investigated the effect of laser re-melting when ap-
structure and mechanical properties and also to reduce the plied only to the last layer of LPBF AISI 316L parts and
residual stresses. While in the former, treatment can be applied again a 90% improvement of the surface roughness was
in the same AM setup after the deposition of layers [139, 140]. reported [128]. Yang et al. [129] studied the changes in
In this review, laser re-melting (LR), laser peening and laser microhardness and microstructure after laser re-melting of
polishing are considered as surface treatments solutions to LPBF samples, too. The results showed that laser re-
improve the properties of AM components. melting had refined the material microstructure, i.e. had
Laser re-melting (LR) is a process that has attracted a grow- reduced the grain sizes, and also homogenised the material
ing interest from researchers and industry. LR has shown to composition that improved microhardness of the treated
decrease porosity and improve the microstructure of the AM samples. Wei et al. [130] carried out a study on the influ-
parts (see Fig. 17). ence of the number of re-melting scans on porosity, rough-
Huang et al. [125] defined “laser re-melting” as scanning ness and residual stresses. It was reported that the scan
strategies that have more than one laser beam pass for each number did not affect porosity and roughness. However,
LPBF layer. The second and any further beam passes aim to the residual stresses increased when one re-melting scan
increase the material densification and also to improve surface was used and then decreased after two or more re-melting
integrity and microstructure. A similar approach was applied scans.
Fig. 16 Application example of

the hybrid multi-tasking machine
tool, Mazak INTEGREX i-400
AM [136]. The figures are reused
under the Creative Commons CC-
BY licence
In another research, Yu et al. [131] studied the influence of enabled the generation of high-quality metal parts with refined
using different scanning directions during the LPBF and re- microstructure on their treated surfaces. In addition, the resid-
melting processes, on roughness and porosities of produced ual stresses of the treated surface were reduced by generating
parts. It was reported that the scan strategies investigated in beneficial compressive stresses.
this research led to the same roughness decreasing trend. Another surface treatment process that can be used to reduce
However, the use of different scan directions had affected the surface roughness of AM metal parts is laser polishing (see
the porosity of produced LPBF parts. Fig. 18c). Similar to laser re-melting, this post-processing tech-
Laser re-melting has also been employed for post-processing nology melts the external surface asperities of the AM part and
DLD parts. Bruzzo et al. [132] investigated the surface integrity thus improves surface integrity. Dadbakhsh et al [111] reported
improvements of thin-walled parts after laser re-melting. It was that the surface roughness of DLD Inconel 718 samples was
reported that, when suitable re-melting parameters were significantly improved after a laser polishing scan with the laser
employed, a smooth surface with isotropic topographies was integrated into the DLD head, especially roughness values de-
obtained. Recently, Roehling et al. [142] investigated in situ creased down to approximately 2 μm. However, it was noted
laser diode annealing integrated into a LPBF system for reduc- that the results were highly dependent on the applied laser
ing the resulting residual stresses. It was reported that such inte- power during the polishing scans.
grated heat treatment can reduce the resulting residual stresses in
316L stainless steel parts by 90% without grain growth or
recrystallisation, and with only minor changes to the solidifica-
tion structure. 4 Commercial hybrid manufacturing systems
Peening (also known as shot penning) is another hybrid
AM/surface treatment approach that can be used to improve Table 4 lists the commercially available hybrid systems that
the surface finish and mechanical behaviour of metallic AM gives a general overview of the current status with the take-up
parts (see Fig. 18b). of this technology by industry and also their general technical
In particular, it has shown to harden and strengthen the specifications for comparison purposes [144].
surfaces of AM parts by generating compressive residual In addition to the hybrid machine manufacturers listed in
stresses. As a consequence, favourable mechanical properties Table 4, there are other companies that have developed flexible
are created on treated surfaces that can increase their fatigue solutions to transform machining centres into hybrid machines
life (see Fig. 19) and wear resistance and thus delaying the capable of combining additive and subtractive technologies.
initiation and propagation of cracks. In the work by Hackel For example, 3D Hybrid [155] has developed wire arc, laser
et al. [100], authors show that laser peening can improve the and cold spray deposition heads that can be integrated into
fatigue lifetime of components more than 20 times comparing CNC machines. Fabrisonic [156] patented an ultrasonic AM
to that of the untreated part. print-head that can be integrated into any 3-axis machining
Wang et al. [134] studied the effects of in situ ultrasonic centre to convert it into a hybrid AM solution. Finally,
impact peening on Inconel 718 parts produced with the DLD Hybrid Manufacturing Technologies [157] has developed a
technology. It was reported that the ultrasonic impact peening range of tool heads for inspection, machining and DLD
Fig. 17 Benefits of LR. a

Improvement of surface
morphology [120]. b Decrease of
part porosity [141]
operations that can be integrated into machining centres and integrated furnace for heat-treatment and therefore can be con-
thus creating ad hoc hybrid AM solutions. sidered a hybrid AM system.
It is worth noting that any LPBF or DLD system available Apart from the hybrid machined presented above, robotic
currently on the market can also conduct in situ heat or surface solutions can also be an alternative for hybrid additive
treatment operations with their integrated laser sources. As manufacturing systems. These solutions are usually based on
discussed in Section 3.2, these treatments have proved to im- DED processes conducted by a robotic arm that is integrated
prove the mechanical properties, microstructure and surface into a machining environment. In fact, robot-assisted additive
quality of metal AM components. Therefore, any of those manufacturing approaches have been widely analysed lately
systems can be considered potentially as hybrid AM solutions as they offer the possibility to accomplish multi-axis additive
as AM and the post-processing operations can be carried out manufacturing that can be integrated into different
in a single setup/machine. In addition, the LPBF machine manufacturing environments [158]. As for the hybrid additive
developed by Additive Industries MetalFAB1 [36] offers an manufacturing of metals, Kimpenis et al. [159] presented
Fig. 18 Effect of surface treatment on additively manufactured components. a As-fabricated surface topography. b Improvement of surface finish
through laser shot peening. c Through laser polishing [143]
[151–153]
recently the HydraX robot that can be integrated in almost any
[145]
[146]
[147]
[148]
[149]
[150]
[154]
Ref. type of machine and enables to combine multiple processes in
a single machine. It is worth noting that almost all components
in this robotic arm were generated by AM processes.
Different working envelops

First in developing LPBF+
Up to 4 additional powder
Material recovery system

Controlled atmosphere
Up to 4 lasers can be
Deburring/polishing
Multi-material 5 Applications of hybrid manufacturing
Multi-material
3D inspection
Multi-tasking
integrated
Advantages
available
Taking advantage of the flexibility offered by AM, hybrid AM
feeders
Fexibility
SM
solutions enable the manufacture of complex parts with
geometries/structures that were previously unachievable.
Parts’ repair is among the applications that have attracted a
3 mm–1.6 mm
0.67, 2 and 3
significant industrial interest due to the direct economic ben-

Laser spot
diameter
efits it can bring in repairing high-value components. The

mm
combining AM with post-processing operations in a single

--
or multiple setups enables the repair of damaged or worn parts

-
-
-
and thus extending the parts’ life span and potentially to avoid
1000 W
1000 W
Max. laser
the need to replace them with new ones. Additionally, AM

500 W –
350 × 350 × 350 500 W –

1000 W
3000 W
2500 W
3000 W
420 × 420 × 400 500 W

power
processes enable the use of different materials and thus pro-

ducing multi-material and functionally graded material
-
(FGM) components, which is another very attractive applica-

800 × 600 × 600
600 × 600 × 500
1519 mm length
400 mm height
Max. part size
tion for hybrid AM solutions.

Ø 500 mm
Ø 658 mm
In this section, a review of the most relevant and high-

mm
mm
mm
mm
impact applications of hybrid AM solutions reported in the

literature is presented. The feasibility of applying a hybrid
-
AM approach in producing complex geometries, part repairs

5-axis milling and turning
3 + 1-, 3 + 2- and 5-axis
5-axis multitasking (mill
and the manufacture of FGM parts is discussed. In addition,

the advantages and challenges associated with the deployment
of this approach for producing parts that can address the spe-
Post-processing
Heat treatment
5-axis milling
3-axis milling
5-axis milling
cific requirements in different industrial sectors are discussed.

and turn)
milling
Milling
5.1 Manufacturing of complex end-use geometries

General specifications of commercially available hybrid system
Hybrid AM solution can combine the capabilities of metal

technology
AM technologies with those of different post-processing pro-

LPBF
LPBF
LPBF
DLD
DLD
DLD
DLD
DLD
Hybrid machine AM
cesses to produce end-use parts. One of the main advantages

that AM processes provide is the flexibility and freedom to
LASERTEC 65
produce complex geometries with internal cavities that were

Integrex i-400
Avance-25
PROCESS
HSTM-1000
LPBF + heat treatment MetalFAB1

LENS print
impossible to achieve with conventional manufacturing pro-

OPM350L
engine
LUMEX
cesses only. Collision avoidance is one of the biggest issues in

ADD+
AM
3D
generating complex geometries using hybrid AM solutions. In

particular, tool accessibility must be maintained over the proc-
essed surfaces when post-processing them through various
LENS + machining
LPBF + machining
LPBF + machining
DLD + machining
Yamazaki Mazak DLD + machining
Laser cladding +
Laser cladding +
machining operations, and therefore, this issue has to be taken

Combination of
machining
machining
into account during the process design/planning stages. In

processes
addition, to minimise any material wastage the machining

strategies and part positioning for each post-processing oper-
ation should be optimised.
Liou et al. [77] reported a hybrid AM approach for the
Rechenbacher
production of complex parts by integrating a DLD device into

DMG MORI
industries
Company
a multi-axis CNC machine. The results showed that the need

Matsuura
Optomec
Additive
Hamuel
Ibarmia
Table 4
Sodick
for support structures during the AM process could be avoided

by selecting the optimal part positioning and inclination
angles during the DLD process. A process planning method they were successfully manufactured with the OPM Series
was proposed in this research for the DLD process that includ- machine.
ed the following steps: (1) selection of part orientation, (2) part Matsuura [163] has developed a hybrid AM machine that
partitioning into subparts for creating them with the same integrates LPBF and machining operations into a single pro-
building direction, (3) determining the DLD building se- cessing setup as shown in Table 4. Figure 22 shows examples
quence and (4) verifying the machinability of built subparts of moulds and components that were manufactured using the
and thus avoiding any collisions during their post-processing. Matsuura hybrid AM system.
Recently, Chen et al. [160] proposed a new process planning Finally, Mazak [146] has developed a hybrid AM machine
when a hybrid AM approach was utilised. Their research was that integrates a DLD head into a multi-tasking machine tool
motivated by the need for proper planning of manufacturing with the technical characteristics given in Table 4. Figure 23
sequences and thus ensuring collision avoidance during both shows product examples that were produced employing this
DLD and machining operations. Their research was mainly hybrid AM solution.
focused on the application of hybrid AM solutions for produc-
ing complex geometries, such as aero-engine blisks and gears, 5.2 Repair of metallic parts
among others. Especially, a model was proposed for simulat-
ing the relative in-process movements of workpiece and cut- The development of metal AM processes has enabled the
ting tools and DLD heads, and thus determining the optimal repair of worn or damaged metallic parts and thus increase
sequence of tasks in producing complex shapes without their life span and also minimise the need for re-manufactur-
collisions. ing. Such capabilities are of special interest in the application
Sodick [149] machine manufacturer has developed a hy- areas for high-value components, e.g. in tooling applications
brid AM machine that integrates LPBF and machining oper- where saving in lead time and cost can be made by repairing
ations for the generation of complex end-use parts. the damaged dies and moulds [165]. However, taking into
Components that can be manufactured with their hybrid account the tight tolerances that are typically required in
OPM series machine are provided in Fig. 20 and Fig. 21. tool-making, aerospace and automotive industries and also
Figure 20 shows samples with internal cavities and complex considering the limitations of stand AM systems, hybrid AM
geometries that were produced by combining LPBF and mill- solutions have emerged as a viable alternative for repairing
ing operations, i.e. (a) a sample with a spiral-shaped cooling parts in these industrial sectors.
channel with machined external surfaces, (b) a sample with a As it was already stated, there is significant interest in using
high aspect ratio rib; (c) a twisted topologically optimised hybrid AM solutions for tool repair. Ren et al. [166] reported
cage tower with a machined upper surface; and (d) a punch an alternative approach for die repair that was combining
with a narrow high aspect ratio slot. DLD with CNC machining. The repair of most common die
Figure 21 shows examples of components with internal damages with such hybrid system was studied, especially dies
cooling channels and external complex geometries, i.e. an that were worn out or damaged. The bonding strength of de-
EV connector, a switch box and a duct shape core, that were posited material in such repaired dies was analysed and it was
not possible to produce with machining operations only, but concluded that it was higher when compared with dies
Fig. 19 Fatigue lifetime

improvement through laser
peening (LP) and shot peening
(SP) [100]
Fig. 20 Hybrid AM parts

produced with Sodick’s new
OPM250L machine that
combines LPBF with milling
operations [161]
repaired with the conventional welding methods. forging, and it was reported that the die performance was the
Figure 24 depicts the stages in the die repair process. same or better when compared with that of a standard die. In
Bennet et al. [167] investigated the capabilities of a DLD particular, it was noted that the adhesive and abrasive wear
head when integrated into a hybrid AM solution when applied modes of the repaired die performed better than the standard
for repairing automotive dies. First, the damaged areas of the one.
die were removed through machining and then they were re- Figure 25 shows common defects that appear in dies and
built with the DLD process. H13 dies were repaired with the moulds that could be repaired by employing hybrid AM
hybrid process and also with the conventional TIG process for solutions.
comparison. It was stated that the repaired die with the hybrid Repair of other high value components by using hybrid
AM process had the same life span as that processed with the AM approaches was also reported in the literature. Le et al.
conventional TIG method. Recently, Zhang et al. [168] report- [171] proposed a process planning approach for combining
ed a hybrid process that combined reverse engineering, pre- AM with subtractive operations. The methodology enables
repair processing, AM and material testing. The proposed the repair of parts with high accuracy and thus avoiding the
method was applied for the repair of a H13 die with different material recycling stage. The workflow for conducting a part
types of defects. First, worn out sections were scanned to re- repair with this hybrid method includes the following three
create the 3D model of the die. Then, these sections were steps: (1) a pre-processing stage, at which an inspection of
machined out and heat treated to prepare them for the AM the worn-out part is conducted; (2) a processing stage, at
process. Next, the worn out sections were restored with the which AM, subtractive, inspection and heat treatment opera-
DLD process and finally their microstructure and mechanical tions are combined; and (3) a post-processing stage, at which
properties were analysed. The results showed that a strong the final inspection of the part is conducted.
bonding was achieved between the deposited material and Praniewicz et al. [172] investigated a hybrid AM solution
the pre-machined die. In another research, Foster et al. [62] for DLD of Stellite alloy on 410 stainless steel substrates. The
investigated the feasibility of combining the DLD technology deposited material on the workpieces was analysed to assess
with finishing machining into a hybrid AM system for the effect of process parameters on their internal and external
repairing dies by cladding Stellite cobalt-based alloy onto porosity, microstructure and surface roughness. In particular,
the worn out areas. The repaired die was subjected to hot preliminary experiments were conducted first and thus
Fig. 21. Applications of a hybrid

LPBF and machining solution
developed by Sodick. a EV
connector. b Switch box. c Duct
shape core [162]
Fig. 22 Hybrid AM applications by Matsuura Lumex Series Hybrid machine, i.e. mould tools for digital camera (a), electric driver (b) and the
manufacture of a fan (c); and products for blisks (d), jet engine nozzles (e) and cooling fins (f) [163]
optimising the process parameters. Then, a disc-shaped cylin- different locations within the part volume [173]. The gradual
der was manufactured with the optimised parameters. It was changes of constituents along certain direction provide graded
reported that in spite of the fact that some areas were macroscopic and microstructures properties, such as hardness,
inspected, the DLD process led to some flaws in the part, wear resistance, corrosion resistivity, etc. In fact, some of the
including surface voids and internal cracking. hybrid AM system list in Table 4 have the capabilities for
Figure 26 shows examples of repaired parts for different multi-material deposition. In particular, Lasertec 65 3D from
industry applications where hybrid AM solutions were DMG Mori and Integrex I-400 AM from Yamazaki Mazak
applied. allow multi-material depositions and thus building FGM sec-
tions and parts. Many research groups have analysed FGM
5.3 Functionally graded materials parts produced employing different hybrid AM solutions
[174–182].
The DLD technology provides capabilities for depositing dif- Figure 27 shows a schematic diagram of FGM [183] com-
ferent materials on components and thus enabling their man- bining Haynes 282 material with progressively increasing
ufacture from so-called functionally graded materials (FGM) amount of SiC. As depicted, the composition and properties
and specially tailored alloys. FGM are characterised by varia- of the materials can be changed from one end to another along
tions of materials or their microstructures across the deposited the Z-axis. However, depending on the applications, there
sections and thus properties and functionality can be varied at might also be changes from centre to end [174].
Fig. 23 Hybrid AM applications of the Mazak Integrex i-400AM system. a A mould insert. b, c General machinery. d Surface coating added to an
impeller [164]
Fig. 24 A die core repair with a hybrid AM solution. a A worn out die before the repair. b After the DLD operation. c After the machining operation
[166]
Figure 28 shows an example of an FGM application, in Ti6Al4V to SS316. A transition composition route was
which different materials are employed for the substrate employed, i.e. as follows Ti6Al4V → V → Cr → Fe →
(steel) and for the deposition (copper). SS316, with the aim of avoiding the development of interme-
Liu et al. [175] deposited a TiC/Ti composite employing tallic phases between Ti6Al4V and SS316 and thus producing
the DLD process and graded the composition from 100% TiC a thin wall sample. A gradual transition in composition was
to almost 95% Ti across the part. The DLD head consisted of achieved to produce a structure with no cracks or intermetallic
four coaxial nozzle around the laser beam and two powder phases between Ti6Al4V and SS316 alloys. Chen et al. [177]
feeders with controlled deposition rates were used to deliver deployed the DLD process to deposit 316L/Inconel 625 FGM.
Ti and TiC powders. Results showed that the DLD system Initially, the composition was 100% 316 L stainless steel and
produced successfully FGM samples while prevented the then gradually it was changed to 100% Inconel 625. FGM
crack formation. Li et al. [176] used again a DLD system to parts with a homogenous microstructure were produced while
create FGM by gradually varying the composition from the material composition was varied continuously. A good
Fig. 25 Defects in dies and moulds that could be repaired by employing hybrid AM solutions [169, 170]
Fig. 26 Parts repaired with hybrid

AM solutions. a A turbo impeller.
b Sheet metal mould [164]
linear gradient between Fe and Ni was achieved as a result of Especially, the hybrid AM route can enable the manufacture
the good diffusion and the strong bonding between the depos- of end-use parts with high surface quality, dimensional accu-
ited layers. racy and tailored mechanical properties.
The FGM concept has been applied in several application
areas, e.g. to produce transport systems, energy transfer sys-
tems, cutting tools, machine elements, optics, biomedical
components, etc. FGM are of special interest for producing 6 Challenges of hybrid additive
structural parts that require combinations of characteristics manufacturing
that cannot be found in a single material, e.g. hardness with
toughness, or chemical inertness with toughness [178]. Hybrid AM solutions can address many of AM limitations
Table 5 includes some potential FGM applications with their and challenges; however, they have their own specific chal-
respective industrial sectors. lenges that limit the broader use of this promising technology
FGM have a wide range of applications, and hybrid AM by industry. This section discusses the main challenges of the
solutions are important enablers for producing FGM parts. hybrid AM technology for producing metal parts.
Fig. 27 A schematic
representation of functionally
graded materials [183]
Table 5 Examples of FGM applications in different industries consequently to higher cutting forces and tool wear rates
Industry Application Reference [186]. Milton et al. [187] reported that the increase of cutting
forces was possibly due to microstructural discontinuities of
Biomedical Femoral stem protheses [179–181] AM components, which entailed higher wear rates and lower
Dental implant tool life.
Energy industry Heat exchange panels [182]
The most common materials and alloys employed in
Automotive Engine cylinder liners [182]
Combustion chambers
metal AM processes can be clustered into stainless steel
Aerospace Rocket nozzle [182] alloys (316L, 17-4PH, etc.), nickel-based and cobalt-
Wings based superalloys (Inconel 625, Inconel 718, CoCrF25,
etc.), titanium alloys (Ti6Al4V, CPTi, etc.) and aluminium
alloys (AlSi10Mg, etc.). Some of these alloys on their own
are considered difficult-to-machine materials due to their
Strong et al. [185] reported a survey among traditional
outstanding mechanical properties that are maintained even
manufacturers that highlighted the open issues associated with
at high temperatures. Table 6 summarises the machinability
the access of metal AM systems, process engineering, tooling
of the alloys that are commonly employed in metal AM
requirement (tool access) and part quality control. In addition,
processes.
it was noted that hybrid processes combining AM with ma-
Machinability of materials is related to tool wear modes
chining technologies are not yet applicable in many industrial
and chip formation characteristics during cutting and also af-
sectors due to the size limitations of AM systems.
fects the surface and microstructural characteristics of the ma-
chined samples.
6.1 Materials and machinability A research on turning DLD Ti6Al4V parts was conducted
by Oyelola et al. [192] to study their machining behaviour and
The machinability of metal AM parts is one of the main open resulting microstructural and surface integrity changes. It was
issues that prevent the broader take up of hybrid AM solu- noted that microstructural inhomogeneity of deposited mate-
tions. In addition, the intrinsic characteristics of metal AM rial had a negative impact on surface integrity and machinabil-
processes affect directly the machinability of the compacted ity of the manufactured part. Furthermore, it was stated that
powder through laser-material interactions. In particular, dur- the control system used for the machining operations should
ing material deposition operations, parts are subjected to high be able to adapt to varying cutting forces and conditions in
thermal gradients, i.e. high heat and cooling rates, that lead to order to obtain the best machining performance. This require-
a higher strength and hardness of the compacted powder and ment can be explained with microstructural inhomogeneity of
Table 6 Metallic materials and alloys that are commonly employed in AM applications
Material Definition Machinability Application examples
Stainless steel Chromium content higher than 11% Lower machinability than common steels Energy industry (fossil fuel energy plants),
[188] biomedical industry (implants) automo-
tive industry (exhaust systems)
Nickel-based Higher than 50% nickel content [189] Difficult to machine as they maintain good Aircraft turbine components that are
superalloys mechanical properties at high temperatures exposed to high temperatures
[188, 189]. These alloys have a great affinity
to common cutting tools’ materials that leads
to high tool wear rates [190].
Cobalt-based Cobalt-based alloys have similar Difficult to machine as they maintain good Aerospace industry (turbine and rocket
superalloys properties, i.e. high hardness and properties at high temperatures [188, 189]. motors), submarine and chemical
wear resistance, and low thermal Cobalt-based alloys also lead to high tool industries (nuclear reactors, heat
conductivity [191]. wear rates. exchangers and gas turbines)
Titanium alloys Excellent combination of wear During machining, these alloys tend to Biomedical industry (hip implants)
resistance and hardness and good generate crater wear on cutting tools.
corrosion behaviour [188]
Aluminium alloys They were the first type of alloys Malleable alloys lead to the generation of BUE Automotive industry (wheels), industrial
employed in high performance (built-up-edge) wear mode in the cutting machinery and tool industry, thermal
machining applications due to their tools. Cast alloys lead to cutting tool and electric installations
high machinability. abrasion due to the presence of silicon in the
alloys that is a highly abrasive element.
AM parts and would be especially valid for FGM. In another of hybrid AM solutions. Residual stresses generated during
study, Hojati et al. [193] investigated the machinability of AM the AM process can lead to part deformations and distortions.
Ti-based alloys and it was compared with that of a standard Therefore, post-processing operations have to be properly
material in terms of cutting forces, specific cutting energy, planned considering the actual geometry and dimensions of
surface quality and chip formation mechanism. The results the AM parts and thus ensuring the required accuracy with
showed that there were no significant differences in regards respect to their design. As a result, part inspections are very
to the cutting forces. However, the machining of AM samples important in planning post-processing operations and thus de-
led to the formation of continuous wavy-type chips that were termining the actual deviations of AM part geometries from
larger than those of the standard samples. Aldwell et al. [194] their intended designs.
compared the machining of bulk and AM Al6061 samples, i.e. The uncertainty of additively manufactured part dimen-
the cutting forces, the chip formation mechanism and the sions is one of the greatest concerns when combining both
resulting surface morphology. It was concluded that a good additive and machining processes. During the machining pro-
machinability of AM samples could be achieved when there cesses, tool may find excess of material in non-expected
was a strong bonding between the layers and also when the places, which can cause tool damage or inadequate cutting
part porosity was low. Therefore, the optimisation of process [196]. Therefore, a great effort has been made to understand
parameters for producing AM parts with higher homogeneity and control part deformations during AM. Paul et al. [197]
and minimum porosity is critical in order to improve their proposed a model for calculating the deformation of work-
machinability. piece during AM processes that are due to thermal stresses.
Guo et al. [16] analysed the effect of the building direction It was found that the overlap between successive scanning
during the DLD process on mechanical properties, microstruc- paths, also referred to as hatch spacing, leads to continuous
ture and machinability of AISI 316L samples. Two building melting and re-solidification cycles that, in turn, determines
directions were investigated, and then the produced samples the accumulated thermal stresses. Consequently, the devel-
were machined by dry milling to meet the requirements for oped stresses entail part distortions and dimensional inaccura-
surface integrity and dimensional accuracy. It was found that cies. In addition to the hatch spacing, Das et al. [198] also
the homogeneity and microstructure of the produced AM parts studied the effects of layer thickness, support structures and
were dependent on the build direction and as a consequence build orientations on geometrical and dimensional accuracies
the cutting forces, the tool wear and the resulting surface of LPBF parts. It was found that the building direction was a
roughness deferred, too. It was concluded that some aniso- crucial parameter as it affected the properties and dimensional
tropic characteristics of AM parts could be beneficial for the accuracy of parts and determined the amount of support struc-
follow-up machining operations. Calleja et al. [195] studied tures needed. An approach was proposed to define the optimal
the machinability of Inconel 718 samples produced with a part orientation and thus minimising the support structures.
hybrid AM process that combined DLD with machining. However, the approach still required empirical data for vali-
Cutting forces and specific cutting energy during turning dation purposes. In addition, the model did not consider some
and milling operations together with the resulting roughness important factors in determining the optimal part orientations
and microhardness of the heat-treated DLD samples were such as the resulting thermal stresses. Eisenbarth et al. [199]
compared with the results obtained for standard Inconel 718 investigated the distortion of parts manufactured using two
samples. It was found that the cutting forces and microhard- different hybrid AM approaches: (1) continuous DLD build-
ness were higher for the AM samples while the best surface up of material with subsequent milling and (2) interrupted
roughness was obtained for the standard samples. DLD build-up alternated with milling. It was shown that each
In summary, it can be stated that the machinability of AM consequent DLD step led to a higher bending of the developed
parts is not sufficiently investigated and also taking into ac- part, whereas the milling steps reduce it to a certain degree.
count the constantly growing number of AM materials, further Also, it was noted that, an inspection operation was required
research is required. In addition, the laser-material interactions between the deposition and machining stems due to the part
when processing metallic powders should be studied further to distortions.
understand better the underlying conditions that lead to the However, the inspection of certain regions, such as internal
formation of hardened phases and non-uniform microstruc- cavities or complex overhanging features is also a challenging
tures and thus are detrimental to the machinability of AM task. A summary of different methods used for inspecting AM
components. parts with their open issues and challenges is provided in
Table 7 [200].
6.2 Part deformations Laser-based inspection methods for AM parts were inves-
tigated, too. Montinaro et al. [201] used a flying laser scanning
The control of dimensional and geometrical accuracy of AM thermography for inspection of AM parts with high signal to
parts in time is another challenging issue in broadening the use noise ratio of the measurements. However, it was noted that
Table 7 Inspection methods for

AM parts with their open issues Inspection method Open issues and challenges
and challenges
Visual inspection Limited to surface defect detection
Internal and difficult-to-access regions cannot be examined.
Liquid penetration test Incompatible with porous materials
Only provides information about surface discontinuities.
Magnetic particle testing Exclusive for ferromagnetic materials
No information about the bulk or internal features
Eddy current testing Exclusive to electrically conductive materials
Also detects unwanted signals.
Sophisticated algorithms for signal processing are required.
Ultrasonic testing Inspection once the part is finished which may lead to rejection
at the end of manufacturing process [201].
X-ray Again, inspection of only finished parts which may lead to rejections
at the end of the manufacturing process [201].
due to the higher surface roughness of metal AM parts laser- equipment accuracy and repeatability to be controlled suffi-
based inspection methods might not be a suitable solution. ciently well to meet standardised requirements that are also yet
In addition, the integration of inspection operations into to be developed.
hybrid AM solutions should also be considered. Their main- Coolant management and cleanness, especially for the
tenance and protection from fumes and cutting fluids together laser-based AM technologies, are other critical issues when
with the integration of inspection software with CAD/CAM integrating AM processes with conventional machining in hy-
software also present challenges and open issues in develop- brid AM systems [81, 196]. The issues associated with clean-
ing hybrid AM systems and thus increasing their efficiency ness were studied by Boivie et al. [123] and it was found that
and throughput. all chips and cutting fluids should be carefully removed before
starting any AM process. Otherwise, it could deteriorate the
6.3 Process related challenges machinability of difficult-to-cut materials such as Ti-based
alloys or Ni-based alloys. As for the cutting fluid, it can be
Hybrid AM solutions have open issues and challenges asso- mixed with the powder particles and affect their absorptivity
ciated with each integrated technology and also due to the and, consequently, the bonding with the substrate material
execution of all operations in the same manufacturing system. [196]. Additionally, machine guiding systems must be
The main process-related issues in hybrid AM can be clus- protected and properly sealed in order to avoid powder parti-
tered into (1) process parameter optimisation, (2) cleanness, cles to abrade the moving components.
(3) material oxidation and (4) issues related to the AM Another important issue in hybrid AM systems is the lack
processes. of a closed chamber to avoid powder oxidation during the AM
The process optimisation is one of the shortcomings of processes. As was already mentioned, several hybrid AM sys-
metal AM technologies and also in hybrid AM systems. tems utilised inert gases to shield processing areas and thus
There is no sufficient knowledge how post-processing param- minimising the oxidation during laser-material interactions.
eters might affect AM parts [81]. Considering the case when However, depending on process parameters and reactivity of
machining operations are used for post-processing AM parts, employed materials, this may not be sufficient to avoid any
in spite of the fact that it is a mature technology, there is not oxidation. In turn, the oxidation can induce defects in the
sufficient research on their effects on the resulting surface manufactured parts. Hebert et al. [202] found that when the
integrity. Additionally, a key open issue in broadening the AM process utilised reactive materials such as titanium-based
use of hybrid AM solutions is the achievable repeatability alloys, oxide layers might be formed in spite of shielding
and thus whether they can meet the requirements for serial conditions except when using extremely high vacuum. In ad-
production. Especially, it is necessary to determine geometric dition, the formation of hydroxides and hydrated oxides
and dimensional tolerances that can be achieved consistently should also be addressed. While oxides tend to strengthen
together with respective mechanical and microstructure prop- the materials, hydroxides can act as lubricants and deteriorate
erties of the hybrid parts. A systematic analysis of various the strength of AM parts.
factors affecting the processing conditions of integrated pro- As it was already discussed, LPBF and DLD are the most
cesses is required. This will allow processing parameters and commonly employed laser-based AM technologies and, in
Fig. 28 Example of FGM:

deposition of copper on a steel
substrate [184]
turn, they are the most commonly employed in hybrid AM 6.4 Work holding–related challenges
systems, too. LPBF enables the creation of complex parts with
high accuracy, but it is a relatively slow process. In addition, Machining of AM parts directly can be challenging because of
support structures have to be removed in follow-up post-pro- their lightweight and complex shapes. These both character-
cessing operations. Depending on the geometry and the loca- istics can lead to problems with work holding and vibration,
tion of those support structures, their removal can represent a and thus can result in poor process yields. Work holding
challenge if they are difficult to reach with the cutting tools. systems have to be designed and implemented in such a
Additionally, LPBF can be integrated only into 3-axis vertical way that they should ensure reliable workpiece fixation
machine tool configurations. Therefore, the LPBF capabilities and the required accuracy and repeatability during machin-
for producing complex part geometries may be reduced due to ing operations. Thus, these systems should be designed to
the constraints imposed by post-processing operations. withstand the cutting forces during machining operations
Furthermore, powder management is another important issue without any displacements while providing sufficient ac-
to consider in integrating the LPBF process in hybrid AM cess to all surfaces that require some post-processing.
systems. However, in the case of hybrid AM solutions, the geome-
At the same time, the DLD technology is faster than the tries of the AM structures are complex and can incorporate
LPBF one and therefore any hybrid AM system that integrates internal cavities with different stiffness and properties.
a DLD head will have a higher throughput. Also, the DLD Therefore, the work holding systems have to be sufficiently
allows complex parts to be built without the need for support flexible while providing adequate support for processing
structures because of the higher positioning flexibility of the parts with varying geometries and rigidity. This is not an
hybrid machine tool configurations. Nevertheless, the DLD easy design and implementation task.
head inclination and position have to be carefully controlled One of the solutions that have been proposed for holding
to maintain the optimum deposition rates and parts accuracies. the workpiece during the machining operations is depicted in
However, there are some shortcomings, too, as the overall Fig. 29. First, the workpiece has to be embedded into an aux-
quality of DLD manufactured parts, i.e. their dimensional iliary plastic support structure that is afterwards removed
and geometrical accuracy and surface integrity, is worse than [203]. The configuration of the auxiliary support system
that of LPBF parts. Additionally, special care should be taken should ensure both the required workpiece fixation during
to avoid any collisions between the workpieces, the DLD head the machining operations and also access to the surfaces that
and the cutting tools during both deposition and post- should undergo some post-processing, e.g. the flat surfaces at
processing operations. both ends of the rectangular pipe in Fig. 29.
Fig. 29 A special clamping

solution designed by Renishaw
for holding AM workpieces
during the machining operations.
a The AM workpiece. b The work
holding system [203]
Fig. 30 Sacrificial features for part positioning [10]. The figures are reused under the Creative Commons CC-BY licence
Manogharan et al. [10] proposed another solution for Furthermore, current and potential applications of hybrid
clamping and positioning of AM workpiece that uses some AM are discussed. Finally, the open issues and main chal-
sacrificial supports. Especially, the sacrificial support has to lenges associated with the hybrid AM solutions are discussed
be built together with the workpiece during the AM process to suggest directions for future research. Especially, the open
and thus ensure the required positioning and fixation during issues associated with machinability of common AM mate-
the machining operations. Figure 30 shows the workflow rials, part deformations, shortcomings of integrated processes
suggested in designing and implementing such work hold- and specially designed work holding systems are discussed.
ing systems. As it can be seen, the CAD model of the part The broader take up of metal AM technologies requires their
have to be modified to add required sacrificial features seamless integration with post-processing technologies and
while at the end a further post-processing step is required thus addressing deficiencies of AM parts, i.e. their accuracy
to remove them. and surface integrity, and thus meeting the requirements of
One of the main advantages of using single setup hybrid aerospace, automotive and biomedical industrial sectors.
additive manufacturing systems is that they enable to reduce Hybrid AM solutions that integrate machining, heat and surface
the time to define part zeros. This is an advantage not only in treatment operations have shown a clear potential to improve
terms of productivity of the process, but also because it min- the surface finish, geometrical accuracy, mechanical properties
imises the positioning-error that occurs when using multi- and microstructures of metal AM components. The machining
setup solutions [196]. In those cases that employ intermediate operations allow the required surface integrity and dimensional
or special fixturing systems as the ones presented above, the accuracy to be achieved while heat and surface treatments can
design of rigid and appropriate fixturing systems will be of be used to reduce porosity and improve the microstructure and
great importance to reduce those positioning problems. mechanical properties of AM parts. Additionally, deformations
and distortions of AM parts due to residual stresses along with
other defects should be considered when planning the follow-
7 Conclusions up post processing operations. Therefore, the integration of part
inspection solutions into the hybrid AM systems is crucial in
The paper presents the research work on hybrid AM solutions order to produce parts that meet the industrial requirements.
that combine the capabilities of AM with post-processing Recently, hybrid AM solutions have attracted the interest
technologies. The review has a special focus on powder- of machine tool manufacturers and also of end-user compa-
based AM processes that employ lasers as a heat source for nies and a significant number of hybrid machine tools have
material processing. Different hybrid AM solutions were re- been developed in the last decade and are now commercially
ported and their capabilities and limitations were analysed. available. In addition, modular hybrid solutions have been
Additionally, an overview of commercially available hybrid developed, too, that can be integrated into existing machining
AM systems is presented, too, that outline the machine spec- or AM systems. It is evident that hybrid AM systems are very
ifications together with their advantages and limitations. important in broadening the industrial application of metal
AM technologies, especially in high-tech industries such as Consent to participate All authors were fully involved in the study and
preparation of the manuscript, and each of the authors has read and con-
biomedical (dental applications and protheses), aerospace
curs with the content in the final manuscript.
(turbine blisks, cases, etc.) or automotive (engine cylinders).
Another key application of hybrid AM systems is the repair of Consent for publication All authors consent to publish the content in the
high-value components and the manufacture of FGM parts final manuscript.
with tailored mechanical properties.
In spite of all the benefits and the potential of hybrid AM Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
systems shown so far, several open issues and challenges re- Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
main that have to be addressed, in particular: Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adap-
tation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as
& There is still not sufficient research on machinability of you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, pro-
vide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were
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ing technologies with a special focus on difficult-to- in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a
machine materials. credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's
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ened phases and non-uniform microstructures and thus are
detrimental to the machinability of AM components.
& Issues related to AM processes, such as part distortion,
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The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2021) 114:63–96

Powder-based laser hybrid additive manufacturing

Keywords Hybrid manufacturing . Additive manufacturing . Laser . Powder . Post-processing

1 Introduction metal AM is currently applied in the most demanding industrial

integrity and material properties. This includes both the inte-

Fig. 3 Classification of metal AM technologies

Fig. 4 Graphical explanation of

Fig. 5 Industry applications of

Fig. 6 Some typical defects in

Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of

Fig. 10 Common defects and

Table 1 Advantages and limitations of powder-based laser AM technologies

AM process Technology Advantages Limitations Ref

Fig. 12 Advantages in combining

3 Hybrid AM solutions DLD process could be conducted without them by changing

Table 3 Summary of hybrid manufacturing processes

Hybrid AM Post-processing Advantages Limitations and challenges Ref.

Fig. 13 Surface finish of samples

Fig. 15 Schematic description of

Fig. 16 Application example of

Fig. 17 Benefits of LR. a

Different working envelops

Material recovery system

significant industrial interest due to the direct economic ben-

efits it can bring in repairing high-value components. The

combining AM with post-processing operations in a single

or multiple setups enables the repair of damaged or worn parts

the need to replace them with new ones. Additionally, AM

350 × 350 × 350 500 W –

420 × 420 × 400 500 W

processes enable the use of different materials and thus pro-

(FGM) components, which is another very attractive applica-

tion for hybrid AM solutions.

In this section, a review of the most relevant and high-

impact applications of hybrid AM solutions reported in the

AM approach in producing complex geometries, part repairs

3 + 1-, 3 + 2- and 5-axis

5-axis multitasking (mill

and the manufacture of FGM parts is discussed. In addition,

cific requirements in different industrial sectors are discussed.

5.1 Manufacturing of complex end-use geometries

Hybrid AM solution can combine the capabilities of metal

AM technologies with those of different post-processing pro-

cesses to produce end-use parts. One of the main advantages

produce complex geometries with internal cavities that were

LPBF + heat treatment MetalFAB1

impossible to achieve with conventional manufacturing pro-

cesses only. Collision avoidance is one of the biggest issues in

generating complex geometries using hybrid AM solutions. In

Yamazaki Mazak DLD + machining

machining operations, and therefore, this issue has to be taken

into account during the process design/planning stages. In

addition, to minimise any material wastage the machining

production of complex parts by integrating a DLD device into

a multi-axis CNC machine. The results showed that the need

for support structures during the AM process could be avoided

Fig. 19 Fatigue lifetime

Fig. 20 Hybrid AM parts

Fig. 21. Applications of a hybrid