Construct Completo
Construct Completo
Construct Completo
Index Pág.
1.1. Introduction 3
1.2. Phonology 4
1.3. Phonemics 4
1.4. Phonetics 5
1.5. Allophones 6
Complementary Resources 12
Bibliography 12
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Introduction
The study of the language started many years ago in India and Korea with
the simple fact of studying and analyzing the grammar of languages. Panini was
a pioneer in studying Sanskrit grammar systematically. King Sejong of Korea was
another booster in Language study. He hoped his people were literate, but it was
too difficult to know the existing (Chinese-based) system. He created by himself
a new brand scientific alphabet based on speech and named this alphabet
‘Hong Minzhong U’, ‘The correct voice educates the people’. His letters were
almost ignored until the 20th century. Now it is widely used in South Korea and
North Korea (Katz, 1991).
All these contributions made French teachers create the IPA, International
Phonetic Alphabet, a sound representation system that is widely used currently
by linguists, language teachers, book and dictionary makers and so on. That is
the way how this science evolves through time until being known at present as
Linguistics. Therefore, Linguistics is considered as the science that studies the
scientifically the language. Modern Linguistics has classified his field according
to the type of grammar it studies; Thus, Phonology, Morphology, Syntax are
primarily analyzed.
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Contrastive Phonology
Phonology studies the sound systems, patterns and rules of the language.
Kennedy (2017) considers that “phonology is the study of the organization of
sounds in human languages. It is a subfield of Linguistics concerned with
understanding how languages use certain sounds and combine them to build
meaningful units, essentially, words” (p.1).
Phonology starts with the observation on how the language use the fixed
sound systems, the vowel and consonant inventory, and the sound combination
patterns. The area of interest of phonology is the contextual variability of what are
in some senses the same sound units. However, when two or more languages
are analyzed to find out similarities and differences in their sound inventories,
Contrastive Phonology arises, focusing on Spanish as L1 and English as L2.
Contrastive Phonemics
The unit of Phonemics is the phoneme. Brooks (2015) specifies that “Phonemes
are disctinctive speech sounds; that is, they make a difference to the meanings
of words” (p.1.4). Phonemes are to be used between slant lines and do not use
diacritics. Phonemes are divided into two categories: vowels and consonants.
Examples: <pero> /ˈpeɾo/ <poro> /ˈpoɾo/, <pata> /ˈpata/ <bata> /ˈbata/, <peso>
/ˈpeso/ <beso> /beso/; <man> /mæn/, <men> /mɛn/, <bad> /bæd/, <pad>/pæd/.
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Contrastive Phonetics
Phonetics studies the sounds of the speech which are totally perceived
and reproduced. Phonetics was considered as an indispensable foundation for
the language study by Henry Sweet whose point of view is as valid today as it
was a hundred years ago.
Allophones
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https://images.app.goo.gl/3UkCJgyHsJid1HQcA
https://images.app.goo.gl/8mrfHVJSuUP4oJyn7
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Complementary Resources
• Figure 1. An example of an English Phoneme. Source:
https://images.app.goo.gl/3UkCJgyHsJid1HQcA
• Figure 2. An example of a Spanish allophone. Source:
https://images.app.goo.gl/8mrfHVJSuUP4oJyn7
Bibliography
Works Cited
Phonology 7
Tema 2
Index Pág.
1.3. Cavity 4
1.4. Articulators 5
Complementary Resources 12
Bibliography 12
Non-movable organs
Movable organs
Articulatory Diagram
The articulatory diagram deals with the organs that are part of the speech
production and are related to the cavities, articulators and point of articulation
where sounds are uttered.
Cavities
Cavities are the zones or chamber where the air flow goes through. They
are mainly the nasal (nose) and oral (mouth) cavities as pictured in figure 1.
Articulators
The articulators are the movable organs that reach certain point of
articulation to utter a sound. The major English articulators are the lower lip, the
tongue, and the lower jaw.
Point of Articulation
Complementary Resources
Figure 1.- The Organs of Speech. Adapted from (Vilhiamas, 2018)
Figure 2. Cavities. Cleghorn (2011).
Figure 3. Articulator. Cleghorn (2011).
Figure 2. Point of Articulation. Cleghorn (2011).
Hadar. (2019, Jun 25). Understand American English Vowels I Pronunciation
Master Class. YouTube. https://youtu.be/4KDkHvvksAE
aBIBLIOGRAPHY
Brooks, G. (2015). Dictionary of British English Spelling System. UK: Open
Book Publisher.
1.1. Alphabets 3
1.2. Latin Alphabet 4
1.3. International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA 4
1.4 Spanish Phonetic Inventory 5
Complementary Resources 6
Bibliography
Alphabets
The word Alphabet comes from the Greek Words Alpha and Beta.
Alphabets might be classified into Orthographic and Phonetic Alphabets. An
orthographic alphabet is a group of standardized symbols which represent vowel
or consonant letters, while the Phonetic Alphabet is a set of standardized symbols
that represent a specific vowel or consonant sound.
Latin Alphabet
Both Spanish and English use the Latin or Roman Alphabet which might
lightly vary in their orthographic symbols. The modern Latin alphabet is used to
write hundreds of different languages. Each language uses a slightly different set
of letters, and they are pronounced in various ways. Some languages use the
standard 26 letters, some use fewer, and others use more (Ager, 1998).
world. Therefore, it means that not all the symbols are used in Spanish nor in
English.
Complementary Resources
• Table 1 ISO Basic Latin Alphabet, Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet
• Table 2 The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2020) Source:
https://www.internationalphoneticassociation.org/IPAcharts/IPA_chart_ori
g/pdfs/IPA_Kiel_2020_full.pdf
• Table 3 American English IPA Chart – Consonants, Source: (IPA, 2020)
• Table 4 Spanish IPA Chart – Consonants, Source: (IPA, 2020)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ager, S. (1998). Obtenido de Omniglot Encyclopedia:
https://omniglot.com/about.htm#what
Index Pág.
1.1. Transcription 3
1.2. Phonetic Transcription 3
1.3. Phonemic Transcription 3
1.4. Transcription Features 4
Symbols used for Transcriptions 4
Bibliography 5
Transcription
Phonemic Transcription
It is featured because slant lines are used. Consequently, only phonemes are
inserted in-between. There is much to be said for making use of phonemic transcription
as a teaching aid to reinforce analytically the information which the learner may have
received imperfectly by hear. Phonemes are always the same, they have no variations
in symbols (Morris-Wilson, 1984). ie; <cartón> /kaɾˈton/, <tropa> /ˈtɾopa/, <marinar>
/maɾiˈnaɾ/; <apple> /ˈæpəl/, <church> /t͡ʃəɹt͡ʃ/, <desire> /dɪˈzajəɹ/, <famous> /ˈfejməs/,
<feature> /ˈfit͡ʃəɹ/
Phonetic Transcription
Transcription Features
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Ager, S. (1998). Obtenido de Omniglot Encyclopedia:
https://omniglot.com/about.htm#what
Index Pág.
Complementary Resources 5
Bibliography 6
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Vowels
Every language has vowels as part of its spoken or printed words. A vowel
is the nucleus of a syllable and it is always voiced because the vocal folds are
adducted and vibrating, besides the vowels use completely the mouth cavity.
American English has ten monophthongs and five diphthongs while Spanish has
five monophthongs and fourteen diphthongs. All of them are primarily defined by
the tongue position; however, some other features are considered such as: area,
muscle tension, and lip shape.
Due to English language variation because of the geolects and sociolects, the American
Phonetic Association presents the vowel quadrant as Mejía (2013) represents:
Vowels 3
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/ʌ/
Vowels 4
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Complementary Resources
• Figure 1.- IPA Vowel Chart (updated to 2020), Source: (IPA, 2020)
• Figure 2.- English Vowel Quadrant, Source: (Mejía, 2013)
• Figure 3 Spanish Vowel Quadrant, Source: (Mejía, 2013)
• Pronunciation Master Class. YouTube. https://youtu.be/9E6F57s-V7U
• Bibliography
Works Cited
Vowels 5
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Olive, J., Greenwood, A., & Coleman, J. (1993). Acoustics of American English
Speech. USA: Springer.
Vowels 6
Tema 6
Index Pág.
Complementary Resources 6
Bibliography 7
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Vowel Description
To describe Spanish and English vowels, some aspects are to be taken
into account. These are: Voicing) as previously mentioned, every vowel is voiced;
Vowel Quality) this has to do with Monophthongs and Diphthongs; Tongue
Position) law, mid, high; Area) front, central, back; Muscle tension) tense or lax
in English; however, Spanish vowels are all tense, and Lip Form) spread, neutral,
rounded. The description of monophthongs is detailed in table 2.
Tongue
Vowel Area Muscle tension Lip Form
Position
/i/ High Front tense (diphthongized) Spread
/ɪ/ High Front lax Spread
/ɛ/ Mid Front lax Spread
/æ/ Low Front lax Spread
/a/ Low Central lax Neutral
/ə/ Mid Central lax neutral unstressed
/ʌ/ Mid Central lax neutral stressed
/ɔ/ Mid Back lax Rounded
/ʊ/ High Back lax Rounded
/u/ High Back tense (diphthongized) Rounded
Note: Remember that every vowel is voiced and oral.
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As Spanish is mostly a phonetic language, it has just five vowel letters which are
pronounced as they are.
Tongue
Vowel Area Muscle tension Lip Form
Position
/i/ High Front Tense spread
/e/ Mid Front Tense spread
/a/ Low Central Tense neutral
/o/ Mid Back Tense rounded
/u/ High Back Tense rounded
Source: (Mejía, 2013)
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Another feature that Spanish vowels assume is that /e/ and /o/ might be
opened, [ɛ] and [ɔ], when they are part of any closed syllable, with the [ɛ]
exception which never opens when the syllable is closed by <d, n, s>; [ɛ] and [ɔ]
become open when they are before or after the trill sound [r] (the first that occurs):
e.g. <herramienta> [ɛraˈmjẽn̪ta], <marrón> [ marɔ̃ŋ], <errores> [ɛroɾes]; [ɛ] and
[ɔ] become open when they happen exclusively before the voiceless dorso velar
[x]: e.g. <mejoría> [mɛxoˈɾia], <ojal> [ɔxal], and finally, [ɛ] and [ɔ] become open
when they are part of a falling diphthong: e.g.; <reino> [ˈrɛi̯ no], <Eugenia>
[ɛu̯ˈxenja].
Table 4 Spanish Vowel Allophones
[teˈnas] [ˈtɛɾno]
/e/ [e] [ẽ] [ɛ] [ ɛ̃ ]
[tɛm
̃ ˈblaɾ]
[mẽnˈtiɾ]
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Complementary Resources
• Table 1.- English Vowel Description, Source: (Mejía, 2013)
• Table 2.- English Vowel Allophones, Source: (Mejía, 2013)
• Table 3 Spanish Vowel Description, Source: (Mejía, 2013)
• Table 4 Spanish Vowel Allophones, Source: (Mejía, 2013)
• Pronunciation Master Class. YouTube. https://youtu.be/9E6F57s-V7U
• Bibliography
Works Cited
Vowels 6
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Olive, J., Greenwood, A., & Coleman, J. (1993). Acoustics of American English
Speech. USA: Springer.
Vowels 7
Tema 7
Index Pág.
3. 1. 2 Triphthongs 7
Complementary Resources 8
Bibliography 9
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Diphthongs
There are five diphthongs in American English. All of them are voiced and
tense, and have two allophones: the lengthened and non-lengthened.
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Hereby, it is quite important to mention that the glide sounds /j/ and /w/ become
the semivowels [ -ʊ̯] and [ -ɪ̯ ]; therefore, the diacritic ‘ ̯ ‘ is required. Let’s remember that
diphthongs become lengthened when a voiced consonant sound follows it; otherwise,
diphthongs will be unlengthened. Besides, diphthongs must be part of a stressed
syllable.
On the other hand, Spanish diphthongs are fourteen and are classified as Falling
diphthongs (a strong and a weak vowel) and Rising diphthongs (a weak and a strong
vowel). Figure 12.
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The approximant sounds /j/ and /w/ when happen as part of a falling diphthong
become semivowels and have to use a diacritic.
The approximant sounds /j/ and /w/ when happen as part of a rising
diphthong become semiconsonants.
Table 5 Weak Spanish Diphthongs
It is remarkable to mention that both Spanish and English use the approximant
sounds /j/ and /w/ to build up diphthongs and triphthongs. When the approximants
happen in a falling diphthong, approximants become semivowels and a diacritic (a
semicircle) must be used under them. Notice the symbols to be used in Spanish as well
as in English. Spanish: [ -i̯ ] [-u̯ ]; English: [-ɪ̯ ] [-ʊ̯ ]. However, when the approximants
happen in a rising diphthong, approximants become semiconsonants and they don’t
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assume any change in their symbols. Spanish and English use the same
semiconsonants; [ j- ] [ w- ].
/ aw / [au̯] [kau̯sa]
/ ew / [ɛu̯] [ɛu̯feˈmizmo]
/ ja / [ja] [ˈbjaxa]
/ je / [je] [ˈbjene]
/ jo / [jo] [ˈpjoxo]
/ wa / [wa] [ˈkwãn̪do]
/ we / [we] [ˈpweðe]
/ wo / [wo] [ˈkwota]
/ jw / [ju̯] [sju̯ðaˈðano]
Note: These diphthongs include at the same time a semiconsonant as well as a semivowel.
So far, it has been clearly identified Spanish and English diphthongs and
their allophones.
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Triphthongs
Vowels 7
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Complementary Resources
• Figure 1 English Diphthong Construction, Source: (Mejía, 2013)
• Figure 2 Spanish Diphthong Construction, Source: (Mejía, 2013)
• Figure 3.- American English Triphthongs, Source: (Blizzard, 2012)
• Bibliography
Works Cited
Vowels 8
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Olive, J., Greenwood, A., & Coleman, J. (1993). Acoustics of American English
Speech. USA: Springer.
Vowels 9
Tema 8
Index Pág.
Bibliography 8-9
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Consonant Production
Voicing
When the air coming out from lungs goes by vocal cords, these might
vibrate or not. In this sense, if vocal cords vibrate, consonants will be voiced, if
not, consonant sounds will become voiceless.
Voicing Consonants
Voiced Consonants /b/ /d/ /g/ /v/ /z/ /ʒ/ /ð/ /ʝ/ /dʒ/ /m/ /n/ /ŋ/ /l/ /ɹ/ /j/ /w/ (16)
Voiceless
/p/ /t/ /k/ /f/ /s/ /ʃ/ /θ/ /h/ /tʃ/ (9)
Consonants
Source: (Mejía, 2013)
Voicing Consonants
Voiced Consonants /b/ /d/ /g/ /ʝ/ /m/ /n/ /ɲ/ /l/ /ʎ/ /ɾ/ /r/ /j/ /w/(13)
Voiceless
/p/ /t/ /k/ /f/ /s/ /tʃ/ /x/ (7)
Consonants
Source: (Mejía, 2013)
It is pretty noticeable that there are more sounds in the English Language
rather than in Spanish, which means that a deep attention must be paid when
learning the English language to avoid transferring Spanish sounds into the target
language.
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Articulator
The organs that move and reach certain section of the palate are
considered to be the articulators. Hence, the lower lip, the lower jaw and mainly
the tongue are the articulators which are used to pronounce different types of
consonant sounds in both languages.
Point of Articulation
The point of articulation is the place “of maximum constriction in the mouth
or upper throat, the location at which the complete or partial stoppage of the air
is effected” (De Villiers & De Villiers, 1998, p.9). The point of articulation might be
teeth, upper lip and any section of the palate.
Cavity
It refers to the area where the air flow goes by. It might be the mouth or
the nasal cavity. Thorun (2013) considers that:
The mouth cavity sets the perimeter in which other articulators are
contained, such as the (…) hard and soft palate. The primary role of the
nasal cavity is to add resonance, and it also contributes to the modification
of the air flow (p.9).
Just the Spanish-English /m/, /n/, the English /ŋ/ and the Spanish /ɲ/ are
sounds that free the air stream through the nasal cavity, the rest of consonants
sounds use the mouth cavity.
Manner of Articulation
The manner of articulation leads with the way that the air stream goes
through the articulator and point of articulation. The Manner of articulation is
another key feature in the consonant production. “This feature refers to how the
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air flows in the vocal tract, and it is, in part therefore, concerned with the degree
of structure in the vocal tract” (Knight, 2012, p.39).
Due to the manner how the air flows in the mouth or nasal cavities, sounds
are classified as stops, fricatives, affricates, nasals, laterals, R-sounds, and
approximants (glides).
Spanish English
Stop /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/ /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/
Fricative /f/, /s/, /ʝ/ /x/ /f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /θ/, /ð/,
/h/, /ʝ/
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consonant occurs; e.g; English and Spanish voiceless stop [p, t, k] + [l̥ , ɾ̥, ɹ̥ ]. Notice
how the voiced consonant changes its voicing and becomes voiceless: <planeta>
[pl̥ aˈneta], <plenty> [ˈpʰl̥ ɛːnti], <flama> [ˈfɾ̥eno], <three> [θɹ̥ i].
A diacritic is an extra mark used with the phonetic symbol. Look at the
figure 15, it shows up all the diacritics that might be used with different languages
all over the world. Each has a specific feature that depends on specific phonetic
conditions. However, not all of them are used neither in Spanish nor English. That
is why, S for Spanish and E for English have been inserted in the chart. There
are just a few diacritics to be used in both languages.
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COMPLEMENTARY RESOURCES
LIST OF TABLES
Table1.- Voiced and voiceless English Consonant, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 2.-Voiced and voiceless Spanish Consonant, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 3.- Consonants classified by their manner, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.- Spanish –English Consonant Production, Source: (Cook, 1997)
Figure 2.- Diacritics, Source: IPA Diacritics
• The ling Space. (2015, Jan 28). Places and manners of Articulation.
YouTube. https://youtu.be/zEaPQP3pXQc
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• Bibliography
Works Cited
Olive, J., Greenwood, A., & Coleman, J. (1993). Acoustics of American English
Speech. USA: Springer.
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10
Consonants
Tema 9
Index Pág.
Complementary Resources 11
Bibliography 12
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Stop Sounds
Stop or occlusive sounds occur in both Spanish and English, when the
active articulator touches the passive articulator and completely cuts off the air
flow through the mouth. They are six and in certain terms are quite similar as
phonemes. They differ in the variations that they might have and the position
where they occur in a phonological group (word). Nonetheless, they use the same
organs and share the same phonemic features.
As it is seen, the phonemes /t/ and /d/ have the same symbols in Spanish
and English; however, they differ in the point of articulation. English /t/ and /d/ are
apico alveolar while Spanish /t/ and /d/ are apico dental. Therefore, the point of
articulation is a serious aspect to be considered at the moment of uttering these
sounds in English. Otherwise, the Latin accent will be kept due to the fact of
transferring mother tongue sounds to the target language.
The voiced Spanish stop sounds /b, d, g/ become fricatives when they
happen phonetically between vowels, and after <l, r>. On the other hand, the
voiceless English stop sounds /p, t, k/ are strongly aspirated when they occur in
initial position (I) of a word, and might be released or unreleased in final position
(F) of a word (Mejía, 2013).
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Sounds that have the same articulator and point of articulation are said to
be homorganic (Ashby & Maidment , 2005). Therefore, /p-b/ is the first stop
homorganic set. The feature that differs between these sounds in Spanish as well
as in English is voicing. /p/ is voiceless and /b/ is voiced. This means that the
production of /p-b/ requires the lips to close blocking air from flowing through the
mouth.
Spanish /p/ has just one allophone while English /p/ has commonly four
ones.
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Here, the only sound that is quite similar is the one that happens in middle
position in a phonological group. Consequently, Spanish speakers must practice
the other sound in different positions.
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The /b/ sound is quite similar in both languages, but avoid transferring the
Spanish fricative sound into English since it does not occur in the target language.
As above mentioned, /b/ becomes fricative in intervocalic position, and after /l/
and /ɾ/ sounds.
/t-d/ are alveolar stops also called coronal stops in English and Spanish.
This means that the production of /t-d/ requires the tip pf the tongue known as
the coronal to block air from following through the mouth by touching the alveolar
area in English and by touching the upper teeth area in Spanish. In the process,
the vocal folds do not vibrate for /t/ and do vibrate for /d/ in both languages.
Even though the same phonological /t/ symbol is used in both languages,
it is a must to remember that the English /t/ is apico alveolar while Spanish /t/ is
apico dental. It means that they differ in the point of articulation; consequently,
the /t/ consonant quality will vary.
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alveolar meanwhile the Spanish /d/ is dental. Therefore, being careful with the
point of articulation is the concern.
The Spanish [ ð ] happens in intervocalic position and after the flap sound.
The [ ∅ ] allophone ensues only in final position and is basically used by people
who live in coastal regions.
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/k-g/ are velar stops. This means that the production of /k-g/ requires the
back of the tongue, also called dorsal, to be retracted and raised to block air from
flowing through the mouth by touching the soft palate also known as velum.
During the utterance or pronunciation process, vocal folds vibrate for /g/ and do
not for /k/. This is the same in both languages.
The /k/ phoneme is being exhibited in both languages. English /k/ has four
allophones while Spanish /k/ just one.
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Let’s remember that the voiceless stops have the same allophones:
strongly aspirated, unaspirated, released and unreleased.
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COMPLEMENTARY RESOURCES
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.- Stop sounds in Spanish and English, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 5.- English-Spanish /p / Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 6.- English-Spanish /b/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 7.- English-Spanish /t/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 8.- English-Spanish /d/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 9.- English-Spanish /k/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 10.- English-Spanish /g/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.- Homorganic Bilabial Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 4.- Homorganic Alveolar Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 5.- Homorganic Velar Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
VIDEO
Byrnes, Nanhee. (2017,Sep 11). Stops sounds overview.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yFPbLcUCraQ
• Bibliography
11
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
Works Cited
Olive, J., Greenwood, A., & Coleman, J. (1993). Acoustics of American English
Speech. USA: Springer.
12
Consonants
Tema10
1010
Index Pág.
3.1 Fricatives 3 – 12
Complementary Resources 13
Bibliography 14
2
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
Fricative Sounds
Fricative sounds occur in both Spanish and English. Fricative means that
there is no complete closure between the articulator and point of articulation,
having as a result an air turbulence known as friction. There are ten and four
fricatives in English and Spanish accordingly.
When two or more sounds use the same articulator and point of
articulation, they are known as homorganic. Therefore, the fricative homorganic
are exhibited in English but not in Spanish. Remember homorganic sounds differ
just in voicing.
3
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
Figure 19 shows up how the upper teeth and the lower lip come so close
that when air flows through the mouth, friction is produced in both languages. In
this case, vocal folds do not vibrate, consequently the /f/ sound is voiceless. If
vocal folds vibrate, the /v/ sound is being uttered and this exists just in English.
4
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
Sounds that are in free variation occur in the same context, and thus are
not predictable, but the difference between the two sounds does not
change one word into another. Truly free variation is rather hard to find.
Humans are very good at picking up distinctions in ways of speaking, and
assigning meaning to them, so finding distinctions that are truly
unpredictable and that truly have no shade of difference in meaning is rare.
Transferring the Spanish /b/ into English when having letter <v> is a
common mistake. Therefore, this English /v/ needs plenty of practice.
5
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
The /s/ phoneme happens in both languages and has as a counterpart the
/z/ just in English. As a matter of fact, /s-z/ are fricative alveolar homorganic. This
means both sounds use the tip of the tongue which gets close to the alveolar area
producing a light friction.
It is relevant to mention that meanwhile English has just one allophone that
happens in the tree position (total distribution), Spanish has six allophones. Some
6
Consonants
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/ʃ/ is a particular English sound that has its counterpart that is /ʒ/. It is
produced by raising the body of the tongue so that the passage between the
7
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
postalveolar region and the tongue body is so narrow that air rushes out with a
hissing sound. Because of the friction caused by the air and the narrow passage,
it is called fricative. When producing this sound, vocal folds do not vibrate, so it
is voiceless. If vocal folds vibrate, the /ʒ/ is produced. Ecuadorian Spanish does
not have the /ʃ/ sound (Mejía, 2013).
English /
voiced, fronto palatal, groove,
ʒ/ Position Examples
fricative
voiced, fronto palatal, groove,
(E) [ ʒ ] middle /ˈejʒə/ [ˈeɪ̯ːʒə]
fricative final /bejʒ/ [beɪ̯ːʒ]
voiced, fronto palatal, groove,
*(S) [ ʒ ] Initial /ˈʎama/ [ˈʒama]
fricative middle /ˈkaʎe/ [ˈkaʒe]
Keep in mind that /ʒ/ does not exists as a phoneme but an allophone in
Ecuadorian Spanish. It may be a phoneme in other countries in Latin America
(Mejía, 2013).
8
Consonants
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English /
voiceless, apico interdental,
θ/ Position Examples
fricative
voiceless, apico interdental, Initial /θɪŋk/ [θɪːŋkˈ ̄ ]
(E) [ θ ] middle /ˈɔθəɹ/ [ˈɔθɚ]
fricative
final /dɛpθ/ [dɛpθ]
voiceless, apico interdental,
*(S) [ -θ ] Final /sed/ [sɛθ]
fricative
9
Consonants
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English /
voiced, apico interdental,
ð/ Position Examples
fricative
voiced, apico interdental, Initial /ðiz/ [ðiːz]
(E) [ð] middle /ˈmʌðəɹ/ [ˈmʌːðɚ]
fricative
final /bejð/ [beɪ̯ːð]
*(S) [- ð - voiced, apico interdental,
Middle /seɾda/ [sɛɾ̪ða]
] fricative
10
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
Spanish /
voiceless, dorso velar,
x/ Position Examples
fricative
Initial /ˈxente/ [ˈxẽn̪te]
(S) [x] voiceless, dorso velar, fricative middle /ˈoxos/ [ˈɔxɔz]
final /reˈlox/ [rɛˈlɔx]
(S) [ h ] voiceless, glottal, fricative Initial /ˈxente/ [ˈhẽn̪te]
Middle /ˈoxos/ [ˈohɔz]
(S) [ ∅ ] Zero allophone Middle /reˈlox/ [rɛˈlɔ∅]
The [ h ] is used by people who live or are from coastal regions. It is totally
clear in the examples that [x] and [h] happen in free variation. The same thing
happens to the [ ∅ ] which is used only in final position and is part of free variation
as well (Mejía, 2013).
11
Consonants
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/ h / is a voiceless glottal fricative. Vocal folds are relaxed so that they open
and an air puff flows freely out of the lungs. In the process, some friction between
the airflow and the glottis might be heard. In Spanish, it is an allophone of /x/.
Spanish- English
voiced, fronto palatal,
/ʝ/ Position Examples
fricative
Generally, students get mixed up and use the open yoda /j/, but remember
that this is an approximant sound used as a semi consonant or semivowel as part
of diphthongs.
12
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
COMPLEMENTARY RESOURCES
LIST OF TABLES
Table 11.- Fricative Sounds in Spanish and English, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 12.- English-Spanish /f/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 13.- English /v/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 14.- Spanish-English /s/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 15.- English /z/ Allophone, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 16.- English /ʃ/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 17.-Spanish-English /ʒ/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 18.- Spanish-English / θ / Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 19.- Spanish-English / ð / Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 20.- Spanish / x / Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 21.- English / h / Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 22.- Spanish-English / ʝ / Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 6.- Homorganic labiodental English Sounds, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 7.- Homorganic Alveolar English Sounds, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 8.- Homorganic Palatal English Sounds, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 91.- Homorganic Interdental English Sounds, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 10.- Velar Spanish Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 11.- Glottal English Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
VIDEOS
Robert, (2020, Aug 28) Fricatives
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mvb2YpLD43M
13
Consonants
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• Bibliography
Works Cited
Olive, J., Greenwood, A., & Coleman, J. (1993). Acoustics of American English
Speech. USA: Springer.
14
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
15
Consonants
Tema 11
Index Pág.
Complementary Resources 10
Bibliography 11
2
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
Affricate Sounds
The front and sides of the tongue contact the alveolar ridge anteriorly and
laterally. The velopharyngeal area is closed. Air pressure build up behind the
obstruction is released by lowering the tongue, and is followed by frictional noise
associated with fricative portion of the sound.
3
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
voiceless, apico
Spanish- English
alveolar lamino
/ tʃ / Position Examples
fronto palatal,
affricate
voiceless, apico
alveolar lamino fronto initial /tʃæns/ [tʃæːns]
(E) [ tʃ ] midlle /ˈnejtʃəɹ/ [ˈneɪ̯tʃɚ]
palatal, affricate
final /pʌntʃ/ [pʰʌːntʃ]
voiceless, apico
alveolar lamino fronto
initial /ˈtʃosa/ [ˈtʃosa]
(S) [ tʃ ]
palatal, affricate middle /ˈpintʃo/ [ˈpĩnʲtʃo]
voiced, apico
Spanish- English
alveolar lamino
/dʒ/ Position Examples
fronto palatal,
affricate
voiced, apico alveolar
lamino fronto palatal, initial /dʒʌmp/ [dʒʌːmpˈ ̄ ]
(E) [ dʒ ] midlle /ˈændʒəl/ [ˈæːndʒəɫ]
affricate final /bædʒ/ [bæːdʒ]
4
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
Nasal Sounds
Nasal sounds are those ones that use the nasal cavity to let the air go out
continually, without any air blockage. Both Spanish and English have three nasal
sounds, two of them are common but one differs in each language.
5
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
/m/ is a bilabial sound as /p/ and /b/. It means the upper and lower lips
close to utter them; therefore, all these three sounds are homorganic. They might
differ in voicing or its manner how the airflow goes out from a cavity. Voicing and
manner never change. It means every nasal is voiced, occlusive and continuant
(Mejía, 2013).
voiced, bilabial,
E) [ m̩ ] occlusive, continuant, final /ˈɹɪðəm/ [ˈɹɪːðm̩]
syllabic.
6
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
/n/ is alveolar nasal in both languages. This means that the production of
/n/ requires the tip of the tongue block the sir from flowing through the mouth by
touching the alveolar area. The velum is lowered to let air flows out of the nose
instead. This phoneme differs in its number of allophones which are more in
Spanish rather than in English.
7
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
Spanish [ n̪ ] is present when a dental <t> or <d> follows it. The palatalized
[nʲ ] occurs before a palatal <ch>. The labiodental [ɱ ] goes before an <f>. The
velar [ŋ ] comes up before any other velar [k, g, x] or in final position as a free
variation case.
/ ŋ / is a velar nasal. This means the back of the tongue is retracted and
raised to block air from flowing through the mouth by touching the velar area. The
velum is lowered to let air pass out to the nose cavity.
8
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
voiced, dorso
(S) [ ɲ ] palatal, occlusive, midlle /aˈɾaɲa/ [aˈɾaɲa]
continuant
9
Consonants
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COMPLEMENTARY RESOURCES
LIST OF TABLES
Table 23.- Spanish-English / tʃ / Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 24.- Spanish-English /dʒ/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 25.- Spanish-English Nasal Sounds, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 26.- Spanish-English /m/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 27.- Spanish-English /n/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 28.- Spanish-English / ŋ / Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 29.- Spanish / ɲ / Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 11.- Affricate Spanish- English Sounds, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 12.- Spanish- English / m / Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 13.- Spanish- English / n / Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 14.- Spanish- English / ŋ / Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
VIDEO
Robert, (2020, Aug 28) Affricates
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7llEqE20Ui0
10
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
• Bibliography
Works Cited
Olive, J., Greenwood, A., & Coleman, J. (1993). Acoustics of American English
Speech. USA: Springer.
11
Consonants
Tema 12
Index Pág.
Complementary Resources 8
Bibliography 9
2
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
Nasal Sounds
Nasal sounds are those ones that use the nasal cavity to let the air go out
continually, without any air blockage. Both Spanish and English have three nasal
sounds, two of them are common but one differs in each language.
/m/ is a bilabial sound as /p/ and /b/. It means the upper and lower lips
close to utter them; therefore, all these three sounds are homorganic. They might
differ in voicing or its manner how the airflow goes out from a cavity. Voicing and
manner never change. It means every nasal is voiced, occlusive and continuant
(Mejía, 2013).
3
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
4
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
/n/ is alveolar nasal in both languages. This means that the production of
/n/ requires the tip of the tongue block the sir from flowing through the mouth by
touching the alveolar area. The velum is lowered to let air flows out of the nose
instead. This phoneme differs in its number of allophones which are more in
Spanish rather than in English.
Spanish [ n̪ ] is present when a dental <t> or <d> follows it. The palatalized
[nʲ ] occurs before a palatal <ch>. The labiodental [ɱ ] goes before an <f>. The
velar [ŋ ] comes up before any other velar [k, g, x] or in final position as a free
variation case.
5
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
/ ŋ / is a velar nasal. This means the back of the tongue is retracted and
raised to block air from flowing through the mouth by touching the velar area. The
velum is lowered to let air pass out to the nose cavity.
6
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
voiced, dorso
(S) [ ɲ ] palatal, occlusive, midlle /aˈɾaɲa/ [aˈɾaɲa]
continuant
7
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
COMPLEMENTARY RESOURCES
LIST OF TABLES
Table 25.- Spanish-English Nasal Sounds, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 26.- Spanish-English /m/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 27.- Spanish-English /n/ Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 28.- Spanish-English / ŋ / Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
Table 29.- Spanish / ɲ / Allophones, Source:(Mejía, 2013)
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 13.- Spanish- English / m / Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 14.- Spanish- English / n / Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 15.- Spanish- English / ŋ / Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
8
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
• Bibliography
Works Cited
Olive, J., Greenwood, A., & Coleman, J. (1993). Acoustics of American English
Speech. USA: Springer.
9
Consonants
Tema 14
Index Pág.
Complementary Resources 7
Bibliography 8
2
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
R-Sounds
3
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
4
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
Spanish / ɾ
voiced, apico alveolar,
/ Position Examples
flap/tap
5
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
The process repeats, causing a constantly flapping sound which is the trill. This
/ r / is quite difficult to be pronounced by foreigners.
6
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
COMPLEMENTARY RESOURCES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 17.- English R-Sound, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
Figure 18.- Spanish R-Sounds, Source:
https://www.linkedin.com/company/sounds-american/
VIDEO
Linguabilities (2020, Apr 4) R Sounds
https://youtu.be/0E7YIiUId5k
7
Consonants
Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Unidad de Educación a Distancia
• Bibliography
Works Cited
Olive, J., Greenwood, A., & Coleman, J. (1993). Acoustics of American English
Speech. USA: Springer.
8
Consonants