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Modul 9 Kaynak

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Module 9

Human Factors in
Aircraft Maintenance
for

EASA Part-66

BT-A1-0900-LN
BT-B1.1-0900-LN
BT-B2-0900-LN Rev:02 – 01.12.2016
Revision and Amendment Status
These course notes have been produced in accordance with AMC 147.A.120, Part 66 and
AMC/GM Rev May 2012.

Amendment Service is not provided.

REVISION REVISION REVISION NOTE REVISED

NO DATE BY

00 01.01.2015 Initial Issue S. Güncan

01 31.03.2016 Revised for format change including cover, header and footer. S. Güncan

02 01.12.016 Contents have been slightly improved and minor editorial changes have B.Bozok
been made and entirely issued by Turkish Technic Inc. Training
Directorate.

Revision and Amendment Status Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016

BT-A1-0900-LN
BT-B1.1-0900-LN i Turkish Technic Inc.
BT-B2-0900-LN © Copyright 2016
MODULE CONTENT AND APPLICABILITY

Level
Sub Rev.
09 HUMAN FACTORS Rev. Date Page(*)
Module Nbr.
A1 B1.1 B2

9.1 General 01 31.03.2016 1 2 2 5

9.2 Human Performance and Limitations 01 31.03.2016 1 2 2 29
9.3 Social Psychology 01 31.03.2016 1 1 1 53
9.4 Factors Affecting Performance 01 31.03.2016 2 2 2 77
9.5 Physical Environment 01 31.03.2016 1 1 1 103
9.6 Tasks 01 31.03.2016 1 1 1 119
9.7 Communication 01 31.03.2016 2 2 2 133
9.8 Human Error 01 31.03.2016 1 2 2 153
9.9 Hazards in the Workplace 01 31.03.2016 1 2 2 185

(*): This number indicates the page number of the digital PDF document.

Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016

Revision and Amendment Status BT-A1-0900-LN
Turkish Technic Inc. BT-B1.1-0900-LN
© Copyright 2016 ii
BT-B2-0900-LN
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 9

Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Human Factors

9.1 General
Intentionally Blank

1.2 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

© Copyright 2016
Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only
Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy,
electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Turkish Aviation
Academy.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1
or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.

The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words
and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate. Intentionally Blank

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.1 General 1.3

1.4 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

9.1 – INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN FACTORS

9.1.1 – The Purpose of the Human Factors Course.........................................11

Brief History…........................................................................................................11
9.1.2 - System Approach and Conceptual Model..............................................13
Ergonomics.............................................................................................................13
SHEL model...........................................................................................................14
PEAR model...........................................................................................................15
The Scope of Human Factors………………………................................................16
The Main Causes of Airplane Crashes..……………...............................................17
Chain of errors........................................................................................................18
9.1.3 - Murphy Law...............................................................................................19
Does new technology introduce new risks?...........................................................19
Human-Machine Relationship………………............................................................20
Airplane Crashes and Maintenance…………………………...................................21

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.1 General 1.5

1.6 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

© Copyright 2016
Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only
Module 9.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66)
Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified
below:

Licence Category
Part 66
Objective Module 9
Reference
A B1 B2 B3

General 9.1 1 2 2 2

The need to take human factors into account 9.1

Incidents attributable to human factors / human error 9.1

‘Murphy’s’ law. 9.1

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.1 General 1.7

1.8 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

The purpose of “Human Factor in Aircraft Maintenance” course is to develop measures

to reduce human related errors in maintenance by to addressing the “human” dimension
for the ones that take part in aircraft maintenance and to facilitate technicians to know
themselves.
Aircraft maintenance technicians work with many boundaries, rules, possibilities, and
challenges and together with people that have a role in various tasks. For this reason,
emphasis will be put on approaching the maintenance process with the human factor,
addressing situations where human error emerges and identifying the practices that
should be followed in order to reduce those errors, and the purpose is to create awareness
among employees and to facilitate them to familiarize themselves with all their positive
and negative aspects.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.1 General 1.9

1.10 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

9.1.1 – The Need to Take Human Factors into Account

Human Factors training is considered a compulsory education by various Civil Aviation

Organizations and the Authorities (ICAO, EASA and other). This topic is taken into
consideration meticulously and carefully in all processes including the design of aircrafts,
its production stage, certification and operation. Aircraft design is made according to
human functions. In these courses, “human factors” that underlie all the activities of the
aircraft cockpit and cabin crew flying the aircraft, the technical team that deals with the
maintenance of the aircraft are taken into consideration, and preventing plane crashes
caused by humans is aimed.

Aircraft maintenance is one of the most important components of the aviation industry.
The purpose of the "Human Factor in Aircraft Maintenance" course can be summarized as
to underlie the situations where human error emerges and the measures to reduce
them by attending the maintenance process with the “human” dimension, to facilitate
awareness creation among employees and to help familiarize themselves with all their
positive and negative aspects.

Brief History

The field of interest on human factor issues has gained momentum since the beginning
of last century; however, the very first significant studies, especially in the field of aviation,
were done on equipment design and human performance during World War 2. The
purpose of the many analyses and evaluations that emanate from the experiences gained
in the last 50 years on principal concepts of human factors is to ensure that the
employees perform their duties more effectively, more efficiently, safer and with less
stress, or in other words, better. Structural and mental flexibility and adaptability of
humankind has been the principal guidebook in aircraft designs. Technology and human
relationship, and the incompatibilities and limitations emerging at this point have come to
be attended scientifically:

- In the 1900s, mostly medical factors took first place.

- Aircraft design and training moved to the forefront in the 1940s.
- Ergonomics Society was established in 1949, and human dimension joined the system.
- Human Factors Society was founded in 1957.
- Until „60s, the focus was more on human/machine relationships.
- In 70s, human/machine/environment relations began to be analyzed.

While human factors were handled in this sense, the first target audience has been flight
crew and air traffic controllers.

Following the Aloha Airlines / B737-300 (1988) and British Airways / BAC1-111 (1990)
accidents, aircraft maintenance activities are also included in the application area of
human factors / human errors issues.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.1 General 1.11

© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016
According to the EASA Part-145 rules, technical and support staff working at all levels
of aircraft maintenance institutions, especially the technicians in the position of
approbatory staff, are required to receive their “update” trainings including the subjects
of “Human Factors” in 2 year periods.

At the same time, within the scope of the EASA Part-66 ―Maintenance Certifying Staff
regulation, human factors topic is framed also as one of the compulsory courses that
constitutes the basic training and is required to be attended by the maintenance
approbatory staff (Aircraft Maintenance Basic Training - Module 9). The necessity of the
education in question is acknowledged by the International Civil Aviation Organization
ICAO and is deemed mandatory for all member states. ICAO Annex 1 “Personnel
Licencing”, Annex 6 “Operation of Aircraft” and Annex 13 “Accident Investigation” have
been revised in this direction.

Maximizing flight safety in terms of aircraft and to minimize the delays and disruptions
due to technical reasons are directly related to “human factors”.

It is very obvious that humans should recognize and familiar themselves with their
capacity, limitations, mental and physical abilities very well. In this course, we will also
investigate features and concepts such as the eye, ear, brain, emotional stress, the
body, fatigue, attention, sleep, nutrition, learning and forgetting that apply to aircraft
maintenance personnel as it does to all other human beings.

Additionally, dissemination of knowledge, training and equipment in use, facilities and work
environment, corporate culture, teamwork, production schedule, rewarding and advanced
technologies topics will be scrutinized.

Air traffic over the world

1.12 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

Since thousands of years ago, humankind has been trying to increase work efficiency by
using tools. In ancient times, humans were also using their physical strength while using
the tools. At the point reached, however, advanced technology enables the ability to
perform many tasks with minimal physical strength.

Human factor and ergonomics, which deals with humankind and its environment in
terms of all anthropometric, biological, physical and medical aspects, are nested
concepts. Ergonomics is a Greek word; it is composed of ERGON (work) and NOMOS
(law) the words occur.

Nowadays, human factors and ergonomics issues are focused on human/ machine/
environment relations. The aim is to ensure the harmony between machines and
humans that use them.
- Human / machine harmony (Can the pilot reach the panel?)
- The dynamics of human perception (Do the continuously blinking lights draw attention?)
- Biological and physiological effects on the human (exhaustion, hot or cold environments)

Anthropometry

Anthropometry is the scientific measurement and collection of data about human physical
characteristics and the application (engineering anthropometry) of these data in the
design and evaluation of systems, equipment, manufactured products, human-made
environments, and facilities.

Using anthropometric design principles it is possible for a variety of people to find physical
comfort at a workstation. On the other hand, not taking these physical requirements into
consideration may create bad work postures leading to fatigue, loss of productivity, and
sometimes injury.

Anthropometry is not only a concern about appropriate working height, but also about how
the operator can easily access controls and input devices. In an airplane it should be
possible for a pilot to reach the controls in the cockpit while being held back by the
seatbelt. Similarly, the controls of machine tools must be easy to reach.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.1 General 1.13

The basic approach to human factors considers the employees a part of the whole
system. People working on those issues especially focus on the relations between
human beings and other elements of the system. The crucial point in the system overview
here is the reality that, "human beings are inseparable from the other elements of the
system". This view is similar to the perspective of environmental scientists that suggests,
“All the elements of nature are in interaction with each other”. It is impossible that a
change we cause in the system will not affect the other elements of the system. Human
being has a complex structure. There are as many different human types and ways of
thinking as the number of people. With the disciplines of human factors, systems based
on the common features of these different structures are being developed.

First of all, let us remember a few general descriptions regarding the system:
- System is the constituent parts of a whole.
- System is the sum of the functional components.
- System is the sum of all kinds of elements that fulfill an objective.
- System is working together.

The main components of human & machine system:

- Humans
- Machinery
- Practices, procedures, tools and equipment
- Organizational environment
- Physical environment.

1.14 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

© Copyright 2016
Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only
The main point here is getting to know people, in other words, ourselves better, and to
scrutinize the interaction of every matter with aircraft maintenance and to be aware of
those factors. A few conceptual models that deal with all the above-mentioned system
elements as well as human and machine relationships are presented below. In each
model, employees are an integral part of the whole system.

SHEL Model

The model, rules, procedures, traditions, habits, all kinds of information, symbols, and
other elements that determine how the system will function is included within the
"software" definition. Incorrect understanding of a procedure, its openness to
interpretation, maintenance manual that contains inaccurate information, an inadequate
check-list are factors that would cause errors.

All physical assets other than humans, aircraft and components, equipment, materials
and vehicles constitute "hardware" side of the system. Lack of equipment and materials,
poor design or faulty production are always causes of error.

The physical, political, economic, geographical, historical, organizational structure where

all system components interact is referred to as the "environment". Workplace with
unsuitable conditions can include insufficient hangar lighting, extreme hotness / coldness
of the setting, physical problems such as noise or social environment related problems
such as cultural differences.

"Liveware" defines human beings and the relationship between people. Lack of human
strength, control and supervision gaps, insufficient management support and low
motivation prepare the ground for errors.

Software
(maintenance procedures, AMM, checklist)

Hardware
(components, test equipment, aircraft, material)

Environment
(physical and social environment)
LiveWare

(technicians, engineers, managers)

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.1 General 1.15

There are four elements in this model interacting with each other. The source of all the
errors and events are the system components in question and their interrelations. The
boundaries of these elements are not straight lines.

In order to prevent any possible damage, failure or accident, all the elements must be
operating compatibly with each other. Human is the most flexible element of the
system in terms of performance.

P stands for People (the humans in the system), with all our capabilities and limitations. It
includes senses such as vision and hearing; physical characteristics such as strength
and reach; as well as capabilities such as memory, communication styles, decision
making, supervision and teamwork skills (leadership/ followership etc.).

E stands for the Environment in which the work is done, not just the physical
environment, but also the organisation itself. The physical environment includes lighting,
temperature, noise level and time of day. The organisational environment covers issues
such as supervision, pressures, organisation and safety culture and existing
organisational norms and how these will affect individual and team performance and the
potential for error.

A represents the Actions people perform. Actions list the requirements of a job to help to
identify any specific areas that might increase the risk of error, such as ambiguous
information, or complex tasks that need specialist skills and knowledge.

R is for the Resources necessary to perform the work. Resources are the broadest
component of PEAR. They can be defined as anything that the maintenance engineer
needs to get the job done. Resources details both the tangible items required and
available, such as personnel, spares, technical manuals, tooling, and personnel
protective equipment (PPE), as well as less tangible (but equally important) elements
such as time and training availability.

1.16 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

Though there are many areas where human factor in aircraft maintenance exists but we
can evaluate these under three basic categories:

Cognitive Human Factors

Factors related to perception, memory, reasoning and mental processes.
- Mental workload
- Decision-making
- Training
- Human/computer interaction
- Work stress

Physical Human Factors

Factors related to physical activities, such as human anatomy, anthropometry, physical
and biomechanical characteristics.
- Materials handling
- Repetitive movements
- Workplace layout
- Safety and health

Organizational Human Factors

Factors related to the optimization of business organizations (including organizational
structure, politics and processes)
- Team / resource management
- Quality management
- Job design
- Communication / culture

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.1 General 1.17

© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016
9.1.2 – Incidents and Accidents Attributable to Human Factors/Human Error

Today, more than 18,000 aircrafts provide service in all the airline fleets of the world. In
2016, this number is estimated to go beyond 26,000.

Today, aircraft is considered as one of the safest means of transportation. However,

even though the number is small, accidents, accidents that have happened may result
in the undermining of the trust.

The result of a research conducted by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

demonstrates that the probability of a passenger losing his life in a plane crash is 1 out
of 8 million. In other words, a passenger needs to fly every day for a period of 21
years in order to lose his life. The result of another statistics is that there is a
possibility of an accident is one accident out of one million flights. Only for the
airlines in Europe, this rate was at the level of one accident out of 1.5 million
flights.

Despite the very low risk factor, when the causes of aircraft accidents were
investigated, most of the time it was found out that, "simple errors cause major
disasters”.
The table below demonstrates the Boeing statistics related to the causes of plane
crashes that occur in all jet fleets of airliners engaged in commercial air transport and
cause mortal damages.

Main causes of plane crashes that occurred between the years 1990-1999:

CAUSE OF THE ACCIDENT NUMBER OF ACCIDENTS (%)

Flight crew 91 67
Aircraft 15 11
Weather Conditions 10 7
Maintenance 8 6
Airport/ATC 5 4
Other 6 5
Known reason 135
Unknown reason as of yet 66
Total 201

1.18 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

Looking at the table below, where the 476 accidents that occurred in the U.S. between
the years 1959-1986 and the 145 accidents that occurred between the years 1987-
1996 are analyzed, we observe that the accidents resulting from maintenance have
increased from 3% to 6%.

Here, the pessimistic approach is to think that, “Poor management of maintenance

resources has a direct effect on the 6% of the accidents.”, and the optimistic approach
is to think that, “Good management of maintenance resources can prevent 6% of the
accidents”.

CAUSE OF THE ACCIDENT 1959-86 1987-96

Flight crew 73 % 72 %
Aircraft and its Systems 10 % 9%
Weather Conditions 5% 4%
Maintenance 3% 6%
Airport/ATC 4% 3%
Other 4% 6%

What maintenance problems are involved in incidents & accidents?

Three studies give an idea of the kind of maintenance problems that feature in
accidents and incidents. In 1992, the UK CAA listed the most common maintenance
errors found in occurrence reports:

 Incorrect installation of components

 The fitting of wrong parts
 Electrical wiring discrepancies (including cross connections)
 Loose objects (e.g. tools) left in the aircraft
 Inadequate lubrication
 Cowlings, access panels and fairings not secured
 Fuel/oil caps and refuel panels not secured
 Landing gear ground lock pins not removed before departure

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.1 General 1.19

© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016
In 2003, a Boeing study found that the three most common errors were

 equipment or part not installed

 incomplete installation
 cross connections

In 2008, a National Aeronautical and Space Administration (NASA) study analysed

1062 maintenance incidents reported to NASA’s Aviation Safety Reporting System. The
most common errors were:

 Required service not performed: (e.g. worn tyres not replaced)

 Documentation problems: (e.g. incorrect sign-off)
 Wrong part fitted (e.g. -250 tyre fitted to -100 aircraft)
 Unapproved or improper repair (e.g. non-compliance with maintenance
manual)
 Part not installed. (e.g. spacers and washers left off)
 Incomplete installation (e.g. nuts left ‘finger tight’).

1.20 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

Human error is defined as a human action with unintended consequences. There is

nothing inherently wrong or troublesome with error itself, but when you couple error with
aviation maintenance and the negative consequences that it

When the facts are revealed, it becomes obvious that during the time of course until
the accident occurs, a stream of human errors that we can describe as chain of errors
go unnoticed. If we could break the chain of errors during maintenance, accidents
would not occur.

In the research conducted to determine the causes of accidents, more than one of
the factors causing the accident creates knock-on effect. In the event that one of the
aforementioned factors did not emerge, or the order of events changed, in other
words, if the chain of errors was broken at some point, the accident would not occur.
For this reason, all weak links should be identified for the sake of flight safety. (Reason
Model)

negligence

exhaustion

stress

time-pressure

norms

equipment deficit

Even though aphorisms such as “Everybody makes mistakes”, “Making mistakes is

peculiar to human beings” are established in all cultures, errors may cost a very
high, and even at a level of un-payable, price.

Problems arising from the maintenance could be related to engine, landing gear,
systems, structural or components, or they could also emerge during ramp services.
One the one hand, errors can be the cause of fatal, seriously damaging accidents; on
the other hand, errors can cause damages that may result in the aircraft remaining
on the ground for a long time.

Aircraft maintenance personnel work with many boundaries, rules, possibilities, and
challenges and together with different people that have different tasks.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.1 General 1.21

© Copyright 2016
Training Purpose Only Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016
The role of humans is very substantial in this system. It would not be wrong to say,
“the most flexible, most adaptable and most valuable component of the system, while
at the same time, the most sensitive element whose performance may be adversely
affected” about humans. The factors that influence aircraft maintenance can be
summarized as selecting appropriate staff, training, health, rules, regulations,
information sharing, understandable and accessible equipment, material, physical and
social environment, production planning, trade union relations, and government
relations.

Does new technology introduce new risks?

An aircraft that is 25 years old, and hence can be defined as old, requires an intensive
maintenance and control process due to metal fatigue, corrosion, and general wear
and tear. On the other hand, a new aircraft that is a product of advanced technology
has a more complex structure and systems, and hence, the necessity of having well-
trained and equipped personnel in all areas as well as applying advanced
maintenance techniques and methods is inevitable.

Human-Machine Relationship
The advancement of technology, clarification of maintenance methods, having
established standards and rules and establishing new monitoring/control systems have
caused a decline in machine-related (technical) errors over time.

On the other hand, rapid developments in question overburden average human

capacity, and require high performance and qualifications. As a result, over time, while
the machine-related errors have been decreasing, human-related errors are observed to
increase.

1.22 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

There is a tendency among human beings towards complacency, the belief that an
accident will never happen to "me" or to "my company". This can be a major problem
when attempting to convince individuals or organizations of the need to look at human
factors issues, recognize their risks and implement improvements, rather than merely
paying "lip-service."

If everyone could be persuaded to acknowledge Murphy's Law, "If something can go

wrong, it will," this might help overcome the "It will never happen to me" belief that
many people hold. It is not true that accidents only happen to people who are
irresponsible or "sloppy." The incidents and accidents described previously show that
errors can be made by experienced, well-respected individuals and can occur in
organizations previously thought to be "safe."

Never hesitate to ask questions about a topic you have encountered for the first time
and that is new to you. Do not learn by making mistakes. Remember the following
Murphy rule if you do have reservations about what you do:

“If there is an erroneous way of doing something, the path you will follow is that way
most of the time.”

While keeping in mind Murphy's Law may increase our awareness of potential incidents
and accidents, there are other human factors to consider that are based on the
limitations of the human body and mind.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.1 General 1.23

1.24 Module 9.1 General Turkish Technic Inc.

Module 9

Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Human Factors

9.2 Human Performance and Limitations

2.1 Module 9.2 Human Performance and Limitations

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only
Intentionally Blank

2.2 Module 9.2 Human Performance and Limitations

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only
Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Turkish Aviation Academy.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the
category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.

The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common
words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate,
typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and
comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and
apply corrective action where appropriate. Intentionally Blank

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.2 Human Performance and Limitations

2.4 Module 9.2 Human Performance and Limitations

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only
.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.2 – HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

9.2.1 – General ………………………………………………………………………...9
9.2.2 – The Eye and The Visual System ..………………...................................10
Common Eye Problems ……………………………………………..………………..12
Colour Blindness .…………………………………………………………………… 13
9.2.3 - Hearing, Sound and Noise.....................................................................14
Hearing.................................................................................................................14
Sound and Noise.................................................................................................15
9.2.4 – Information Processing.........................................................................17
Right Brain& Left Brain……………..……………...................................................19
Basic Performance Model………………………....................................................20
9.2.5 – Attention and Perception......................................................................20
9.2.6 – Memory....................................................................................................21
Learning and Forgetting.......................................................................................22
9.2.7 - Phobias....................................................................................................24

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.2 Human Performance and Limitations

2.6 Module 9.2 Human Performance and Limitations

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016
Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only
Module 9.2 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66)
Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:

Licence Category
Part 66
Objective Module 9
Reference
A B1 B2 B3

Human Performance and Limitations 9.2 1 2 2 2

Vision; 9.2

Hearing; 9.2

Information processing; 9.2

Attention and perception; 9.2

Memory; 9.2

Claustrophobia and physical access. 9.2

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9.2 – HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

9.2.1 – General

Knowing human abilities and the limitations of those abilities, understanding human
capacity, and paying attention to those in every application constitute the basis of our
topic. Humans have strengths and weaknesses. Not taking human limitations into
account when assigning people to tasks makes errors inevitable. The correct
question is not “Can this job get done?”; but should be “Can this job get done
safely and properly by the relevant person?”.

Our work performance cannot be considered separately from our life performance.
When we consider our 24-hour life performance, we encounter biological rhythm.
Sleeping / wakefulness order is a determinant of this rhythm. Moreover, diet and
social life are also included in this rhythm. All of these are phenomena that a carried
over to work life. Persons have two types of performance, namely actual and ideal
performance. Actual performance is the sum of the effort and skills that can be
displayed under private life and work life conditions. Ideal performance, on the other
hand, is the sum of the effort and skills that we can be able to display when private
life and work life conditions can be controlled.

Achieving the ideal performance and ensuring its continuity begins with taking control
of the factors that influence our performance.

Human performance and limitations mainly includes the following topics:

- Visual / hearing - Phobias / physical access
- Attention / perception / memory - Being healthy / fit
- Stress - Alcohol / drug / substance usage
- Motivation - Workload management
- Physically work / fatigue - Repetitive tasks / overconfidence

The vestibular system of the body is a system that regulates the balance and
movements that significantly affect the performance of the body. The brain enables
coordination through the synchronization of eyes and ear. In case of contradictory
information flow between the eyes and ear, orientation of the brain is impaired.
Because, understanding and comprehension begin with the eyes and ear. It is
worth remembering our visual and audible systems in order to ensure our
personal control.

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9.2.2 – The Eye and the Visual System
Visual system, including the eye and the related nervous system is considered
the most important system in obtaining information from external sources. Visual
performance depends on various factors. Some of these factors are internal
variables that are commanded and controlled by the brain, such as adaptation,
sharpness, and zoom-in/zoom-out. Factors such as light intensity, contrast,
metering, settlements, color and movement are called external variables. All
these factors are influential in determining the accuracy and speed of visual
performance.

Light enters the eye through the cornea, then passes through the iris and the lens
and falls on the retina. Here the light stimulates the light-sensitive cells on the
retina (rods and cones) and these pass small electrical impulses by way of the
optic nerveto the visual cortexin the brain.

The cornea is a clear ‘window’ at the very front of the eye. The cornea acts as a
fixed focusing device. The focusing is achieved by the shape of the cornea
bending the incoming light rays. The cornea is responsible for between 70% and
80% of the total focusing ability (refraction) of the eye.

Eye, has the ability to adapt to different levels of light, daylight and the darkness.
The iris (the coloured part of the eye) controls the amount of light that is allowed to
enter the eye. It does this by varying the size of the pupil (the dark area in the
centre of the iris). The pupil of the eye protects the retina, which is the part that is
sensitive to light, by growing / shrinking with the effect of the beams entering
the eye. When the person tries to see in darkness, the pupil grows; when the light
is bright, the pupil shrinks. In addition, the process that enables the coloring
begins. Rod cells become the main sensor in the dark. In the dark, vision is not
sharp and is colorless. The person only sees shades of gray. As the light intensity
decreases, the sensitivity of the eye against colors decreases.

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Rod and cone cells in the eye sense the color. Rods only enable the
differentiation of black and white, whereas cones allow for the separation of all
the colors. The stimulating light that enters the eye causes protein release
from the rods through electrical current. Electrical stimulation goes to the visual
cortex of the brain, and vision occurs. Vitamin A constitutes the protein that
mobilizes the vision. When blood fails to flow to the visual cortex of the brain,
blackouts and vertigo occur.

In order for the objects to be seen from different distances, eye needs to focus
and the pupils need to zoom in on that object. It is the movement of the eye
muscles that arranges the vision of distant objects. The brain might interpret the
perceived visual messages with some confusion and hesitation due to past learning
and experiences. That is, the memory contains records. If there is a difference
between records and the vision, the eye might misapprehend.

The ability of an aircraft maintenance technician to see is of vital importance. A

technician should know his own eyesight level very well. Besides, the lighting level
of the current environment should not be at a level that would drop the sight
performance. Visual access is very significant both when doing the job and also
when validating. As a result of poor visual access, faulty links, control
(inspection) errors or the taking longer time to get the job done are inevitable.

Vision can be improved by increasing the lighting level, but only up to a point, as
the law of diminishing returns operates. Also, increased illumination could result in
increased glare. Older people are more affected by the glare of reflected light than
younger people. Moving from an extremely bright environment to a dimmer one
has the effect of vision being severely reduced until the eyes get used to less light
being available. This is because the eyes have become light adapted. If an
engineer works in a very dark environment for a long time, his eyes gradually
become dark adapted allowing better visual acuity. This can take about 7 minutes
for the cones and 30 minutes for the rods. As a consequence, moving between a
bright hanger (or the inside of an aircraft) to a dark apron area at night can mean
that the maintenance engineer must wait for his eyes to adjust (adapt).

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.2 Human Performance and Limitations

Refractive Errors

The cornea and lens of your eye helps you focus. Refractive errors are vision
problems that happen when the shape of the eye keeps you from focusing well.
The cause could be the length of the eyeball (longer or shorter), changes in the
shape of the cornea, or aging of the lens.

Four common refractive errors are

o Myopia, or nearsightedness - clear vision close up but blurry in the distance
o Hyperopia, or farsightedness - clear vision in the distance but blurry close up
o Presbyopia - inability to focus close up as a result of aging
o Astigmatism - focus problems caused by the cornea

The most common symptom is blurred vision. Other symptoms may include
double vision, haziness, glare or halos around bright lights, squinting,
headaches, or eye strain.
Glasses or contact lenses can usually correct refractive errors. Laser eye
surgery may also be a possibility.

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9.2.3 – Hearing, Sound and Noise
Hearing
Audial activity starts with emergence of the sound waves. Sounds are captured
by means of the ear and are sent to the brain by means of hearing nerves.
Hearing takes place as a result of the common action of many components.
Perception and understanding of sounds depends on the physical environment.

Outer ear collects sound and composed of pinna, auditory canal and the
eardrum. Middle ear, which transmits the sound to the inner ear, is composed
of 3 small bones called the hammer, anvil and stirrup. At the same time, middle
ear opens to the nose and the throat. The pressure here is equalized with the
pressure of the external environment through swallowing, yawning or sneezing.

Unlike the middle ear, the inner ear is filled with fluid. The last of the ossicles in
the middle ear is connected to the cochlea. This contains a fine membrane (the
basilar membrane) covered in hair-like cells which are sensitive to movement in
the fluid. Any vibrations they detect cause neural impulses to be transmitted to the
brain via the auditory nerve.

In the inner ear, there are three semi-circular canals that are perpendicular to
each other that equilibrate and transmit information to the brain. The axis of
these canals is parallel to the axis of the aircraft. Bristles with the appearance
of fluid and hair are responsible for balance. The regulate acceleration and
speed. If the fluid inside the canal and the body move in the same direction, the
balance does not deteriorate as the bristles in the canal remain in an upright
position. Otherwise, the balance of the body is impaired. (When the person stops
suddenly or turns the head to the opposite direction after shaking or rotating the
head in the same direction). Inner ear is the main element of the vestibular
system, and transmits balance and movement information to the brain.

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Temporary hearing loss may be caused by relatively short exposure to very
loud sound, as the hair-like cells on the basilar membrane take time to
‘recover’. With additional exposure, the amount or recovery gradually
decreases and hearing loss becomes permanent. Thus, regular exposure to
high levels of noise over a long period may permanently damage the hair-like
cells in the cochlea, leading to irreversible hearing impairment.

There are very diverse causes of hearing problems. For example, the blockage
of the connection between the middle ear and mouth / nose as a result of
catching cold decreases the hearing ability. Moreover, audio transmission is
restrained as a result of the calcification of the small bones in the middle ear or
due to accumulation of fluids, and again, the person might encounter hearing
problems. However, the most important reason is that the ear is exposed to high
volume of sounds for a long time. Permanent damage to the ear is inevitable in
this case. Disease conditions in the brain also affect hearing. The impairment of
hearing ability as inversely proportional to age is a natural consequence.

Sound and Noise

Sound has two significant parameters:

Sound intensity (loudness): Its unit is decibel (dB). Increases logarithmically.
Sound intensity that the ear may be exposed to varies between 0 to 180 dB.
Sound frequency (treble): Its unit is Hertz (Hz). Ear can be exposed to sounds
between 20 to 20,000 Hz. However, in daily life, human ear encounters sounds in
range of 500-2000 Hz.

Noise is unwanted sound judged to be unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing.

Noise affects speech, reduces work performance and causes health problems.

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There are three areas where we can take precautions and reduce the effects of
noise on employees:

o Source of the noise

o Field between the person(s) who are exposed to the noise and the source
o Person(s) who are exposed to the noise

It is extremely inconvenient that the ear is exposed to one of the following

circumstances that can be defined as high noise levels:
o Continuous exposure to noise levels above 85 dB
o Exposure to a noise level exceeding 115 dB for more than 15 min. per day
o An instant noise of 140 dB

Employees should have annual hearing exams, if they work in a job with
consistent exposure to sound levels more than 85 dB.
Continued exposure to very loud noise leads to fatigue and therefore to a higher
potential for error.

Think about closing the hangar doors to remove external sources of noise, for
example, but if you cannot prevent the noise, ensure that appropriate personal
protective equipment (PPE) is used. In noisy environments, use appropriate
communication headsets where possible, bearing in mind that ear plugs and
headsets may restrict you from hearing warnings from other team members, or
being aware of approaching hazards.

Activity Level of Intensity (dB)

Leaf rustling/whisper 20
Speaking (2 m) 50
Automobile (15 m) 70
Machine gun (2 m) 90
Airplane – propeller (300 m) 100
Airplane – jet (300 m) 110
Airplane – propeller (near-by) 120
Pain treshold 140
Instant hearing loss 150

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9.2.4 – Information Processing

Positive and negative many factors affect people in the process of gathering
information about the world around them (seeing, hearing, etc.), perceiving
(interpreting), evaluating and reacting.

To process this information, warning signals stimulate the person’s attention and
perception systems. Signals are sent to the brain. They are processed in the
brain. The result depends on the nature and structure of the received message.
Decision-making process begins with the shaping of the results of the stimulus.

The schema below constitutes an example of the process experienced by an

aircraft technician while working at his workplace. Brain transforms what it sees,
hears and the knowledge it learns into action by combining it with the information
and experience it possesses.

Mobile feeding

Experience
& memory

Action of
the
technician

Visual feeding

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There is always the possibility of mistakes in the process of information. We may
encounter many factors that may lead to erroneous decisions. For example, if
equipment with faulty design is used, that equipment will lead to a faulty operation
sooner or later. There are many things that can be done in order to minimize the
errors:
o Putting emphasis on staff training
o Prioritizing ergonomics when designing the test and control systems
o Making all written documentary complete, clear, understandable, and easily
accessible
o Taking precautions against stress causing factors such as noise,
temperature, humidity
o Improving communication at all levels
o Increasing motivation
o Avoid potential errors through crosschecking, etc.

Since our brain undertakes the most important duties, it would be appropriate to
mention the interesting facts about the brain that surfaced in recent years:
Rapid development of the brain that begins in the mother‟s womb continues until
the end of 20 years of age. However, during and after this development, if the
brain is not used enough (reading, writing, learning, playing sports etc.), and not
protected (balanced diet, foods that make vascular obstruction, avoidance of
smoking and alcohol etc.), building blocks of the brain, in other words, “neurons”
will disappear rapidly.
Ageing cannot be prevented, however, just like a well-maintained machine or
aircraft, there are simple but crucial things we can do for the brain in order to
have a healthy and happy life. Preventing obliviousness and strengthening the
memory is only possible through the use of the brain.
Our brain performs functions such as controlling and coordinating every organ of
our body, muscles, senses, emotions, memory, and our balance, and thinking,
information storage, speaking, hearing, seeing, paying attention, motivation,
moving, sleeping, rejoicing, worrying hoping, anxiety, fear, respiration, blood
circulation, decision making, learning, forgetting, and remembering.

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Right Brain & Left Brain

The human brain is a complex organ responsible for intelligence, senses,

movement, and behavior. The halves of the brain -the “right brain” and the “left
brain”- perform different functions and communicate information with each other
through a band of nerves that connect them. The right side of the brain controls
most of the movement and functions of the left side of the body, and the left side of
the brain controls most of the movements and functions of the right side of the
body.

You may hear that someone is a “right-brained” or “left-brained” individual. This is

called “brain dominance,” meaning that an individual has a natural preference for
processing information on one side of the brain. The right side is considered the
intuitive or spontaneous side, while the left side is logical. Knowing an individual’s
brain dominance can help you understand his/her “ways” of thinking, behaving,
speaking, and functioning. Also, it can help parents and educators tailor activities to
a child’s natural learning preferences.

Right-brain characteristics include creativity, the ability to see patterns, spatial

awareness, and the understanding of how things relate to one another in different
contexts. You may find that individuals with this brain dominance are good at
recognizing faces, places, and objects. These individuals seem to “have a knack
for”:

o “Out-of-the-box” thinking
o Art, including the ability to draw, paint, sculpt, etc.
o Imaginative thinking
o Music, including the ability to play instruments with ease or to recognize a
song melody and play it back upon “hearing it”

Left-brain characteristics include a gift for language, analytical skills, and

mathematical concepts such as time and sequence. You may find that individuals
with this brain dominance are good with letters, numbers, and words. These
individuals seem to “have a knack for”:

o Language skills
(reading, writing, speaking)
o Math
o Logic and reasoning
o Science

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Basic Performance Model
The basic performance of the brain is defined as a process of information processing.
First of all, through the five senses, subject, material, or event is comprehended and
perceived. Brain performs the required operations, makes a decision and takes
action as the third step.

What does decision making mean? Decision-making processes should be well

understood. The ability to access information required for decision-making should
be possessed and analysis capability should be developed. New achievements
must be analyzed with respect to old experiences, and the habit of questioning the
correctness of information should be acquired.
Comprehension and perception is interpreted by incorporating retrospective
information. In the decision to be taken, if priorities are in question, abilities to
repeat the process of information processing should be acquired. In all the three
steps of the process, there is a possibility of making an error.

9.2.5 – Attention and Perception

Attention
It refers to the characteristic of a person to ignore irrelevant event and focus on
the issue of interest. It is always prevalent during the monitoring of the situation,
assessment of the acquired response and reaction to the response. A person
that continues his normal speech in a noisy environment constitutes an example
to this issue. It is the ability to focus on a source among many sources. On the
contrary, keeping track of more than one thing at the same time is considered as
fragmented or scattered attention.

Perception
The structure that should be the basis for normal functioning of the brain is the
correct and regular perception. Five sense organs inform the brain regarding
what is happening outside. Perception refers to the awareness of objects, attributes
or events that stimulate sense organs. Perception is influenced by the
environments, emotional experiences, personal feelings, attitudes, goals, and
urges.

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9.2.6 – Memory
The ability to recall is an important stage of the information process. Even the
simplest system cannot function without the memory. Human memory is a limited
resource that is also is linked to education. Disciplines that would prevent the
overload of the memory when designing any kind of system must be considered.

Memory makes long-term, short-term or ultra short-term storage according to the

duration of information storage and retention.
Ultra short-term (sensory) memory has already been described when examining
the role of sensory stores. It has a duration of up to 2 seconds (depending on
the sense) and is used as a buffer, giving us time to attend to sensory input.
The capacity of short-term (working) memory is very low. It can store only a
relatively small amount of information at one time, i.e. 5 to 9 items of information,
for a short duration, typically 20 to 30 seconds.

The materials and tools to be used are brought from storage in the shop and held
on the workbench so that they can be easily reached during construction. Similarly,
working memory is our mental workbench where new information can be combined
with material already in long-term memory to form a new product.

The capacity of long-term memory appears to be unlimited. It is used to store

information that is not currently being used, including:
• knowledge of the physical world and objects within it and how these behave;
• personal experiences; abilities, such as language comprehension
• beliefs about people, social norms, values;
• motor programmes.

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Learning and Forgetting
“Learning” is one of the critical stages of the information process. Since there are
different methods on this issue, prior to a training, one should find out which
method or combination of methods would be more effective for the target audience.
The most basic three methods are learning by seeing, hearing and doing.

Some people learn faster visually. For them, information and messages that are
perceived visually are more permanent.
Some people, on the contrary, find learning by listening a more effective. For
them, it is the words they remember that makes learning more long lasting. Yet
others learn better through direct application. The knowledge they receive this
way becomes permanent. “Learning” method that combines all three methods,
however, speeds up the learning process and makes it permanent. The order
information that is transmitted during a presentation is important, such that last
information provided is the one that is best memorable one. Information that is
provided in-between is the least memorable one.

Forgetting is one of the significant functions of the brain. It prevents memory

over-loading. It can also be considered as a function enabling human living. Would
it be possible to put up with life if we were to remember great suffering and
huge losses on a constant basis? However, people sometimes forget what they
wish to remember. From time to time, we forget or mix the steps of required tasks.
Forgetting depends on the above-mentioned learning method and also on its
duration. What is learned during childhood and young ages are more memorable.
Activities that are learned via movement are also remembered easily. A person
that has not swum or biked for 15 years may perform these actions even after 15
years. However, a procedure that is repeated every 6 months may sometimes be
forgotten.

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The fact that a person has received education on any subject and has proved his
knowledge does not necessarily mean that he would have the same knowledge
five years later. Sometimes we can face situations that we can refer to as the
negative impact of education. For instance, if the new things we learn are similar
to the information that is located in our long-term memory, in practice we might
make mistakes by mixing old and new information. Therefore, when dealing with
similar yet not exactly the same things, we should make more detailed controls.

Scientists explain the reasons of forgetting in 3 ways:

- Time lapse
- Unclearness of information
- The desire to forget

The important thing to keep in memory the things that we should not forget.
Everyone has to develop his own technique to improve memory. In other words,
everyone has his own form of learning. Some techniques to remember, to improve
memory, or to learn easily are summarized below:
- Repeating vocally
- Note-taking
- Summarizing
- Preparing check list
- Using abbreviations
- Linking subjects together
- Reproducing meaningful words with initial letters
- Establish relations between numbers
- Observing during implementation or implementing directly

Unfortunately, the negative effects of an increase in the mental workload are

many. As aviation technology progresses, mental workload has become more
important than the physical workload. As advanced technology and the automation
systems step in, the users themselves in different physical and mental activity.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.2 Human Performance and Limitations

We all have both anxiety and fear. This is natural. However, when the degree of
fear reaches a level that hampers the person’s daily life and hinders his normal
functioning, it becomes abnormal. In that case we speak of phobias.
One of the most prominent features of phobias is that its source is unconscious.
According to Freud's approach, the source of phobias is unresolved dilemmas in
the subconscious. Without resolving those dilemmas, it would inadequate and
meaningless to seek to eliminate the phobia alone. Because the dilemma will be
unresolved, the person may adopt another phobia.

Claustrophobia is defined as the fear of closed spaces. In the aircraft, fuel tanks,
cargo, tail sections, sections of ventilation systems are narrow, dark and
distressing places. Working in such places may trigger such discomfort; people
with claustrophobia prefer to be close to exits from closed spaces. These people
should at least not work alone; work plans should be prepared taking this factor
into consideration.

Acrophobia is the fear of the height. For example, a technician with the phobia
may feel discomfort when working on the wing or tail of the aircraft. His inability
to focus fully on the task increases the likelihood of making a mistake. In this kind
of operating conditions, seat belts and appropriate platform / dock should be
used in order to prevent the occurrence of phobic symptoms.

Managers are required to take this situation into consideration when assigning
tasks to staff.

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 9

Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Human Factors

9.3 Social Psychology

Intentionally Blank

3.2 Module 9.3 Social Psychology

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the
category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.

The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common
words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate,
typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and
comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other
subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and
apply corrective action where appropriate. Intentionally Blank

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.3 Social Psychology 3.3

3.4 Module 9.3 Social Psychology

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.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.3 – SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

9.3.1 – General ……………………………….........................................................9

Social Influence…….............................................................................................10
Peer Pressure ……………………………………………………………………….. 10
Compliance with the Group……...........................................................................11
Obedience to Authority.........................................................................................11
Polarization...........................................................................................................12
Norms...................................................................................................................12
9.3.2 - Responsibility..........................................................................................13
Management, Supervision, Leadership................................................................14
Decision Making...................................................................................................15
9.3.3 – Motivation................................................................................................16
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy……………..................................................................17
Herzberg Theory...................................................................................................16
9.3.4 -Culture.......................................................................................................20
Corporate Culture.................................................................................................20
Safety Culture.......................................................................................................21

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3.6 Module 9.3 Social Psychology

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Module 9.3 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66)
Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:

Licence Category
Part 66
Objective Module 9
Reference
A B1 B2 B3

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 9.3 1 1 1 1

Responsibility: individual and group 9.3

Motivation and de-motivation 9.3

Peer pressure 9.3

Culture issues 9.3

Team working; 9.3

Management, supervision and leadership 9.3

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3.8 Module 9.3 Social Psychology

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9.3 – SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

9.3.1 – General

We can define social psychology as a field that scrutinizes how we think, feel and
move in social environments, and how social environments influence our thoughts,
emotions and actions.
Social psychology highlights that human behavior is a function of both the individual
and the group. Every individual knows the existence of many other individual and
thinks that the burden of responsibility does not belong to him alone. He may
think that “Somebody must have done something or somebody else will definitely
intervene”. The presence of others distributes the responsibility to take action. The
individual behaves according to the requirements of the social system he is a part of.
Aircraft maintenance technician is a also part of the system. The system is treated
in 6 stages:
o At the core of the system is the technician himself with his knowledge, training,
skills, abilities, and all other characteristics.
o The second ring is his immediate surroundings. Hangar, workplace, external
environment, aircraft, components, equipment, materials, time pressure,
teamwork, and shift order are included in this context.
o The third ring includes planning, control, OJT, directions, priorities, performance,
and management stages.
o The fourth ring is the organization. It includes concepts such as policies,
strategies, vision, mission, and personnel selection, processes, procedures,
training and quality assurance.
o The fifth ring is defined as the rules. Safety rules their implementation, the
command of the senior management are included here.
o The sixth and last in the ring is the extended environment. It includes the
economic situation, the society’s perception about the institution, and social
relations.
Company position, organizational structure and the type of management directly
affect the employees. Similarly, the economic situation, perception of outsiders,
relationships, collaborations, and staff turnover is closely related to incidents and
accidents caused by human factor.

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Social Influence
In social influence, unlike in attitude change, the changes in behaviors and beliefs
of the individual are unfolded by the behaviors and conducts of the person or
people in the individual’s immediate environment.
Social influence occurs in three ways:
- Compliance with the group
- Obedience to authority
- Polarization (conflicting by going to extreme opposites)

Peer Pressure
Peer pressure is influence on a peer group, observers or individual exerts that
encourages others to change their attitudes, values, or behaviors to conform to
groups. Social groups affected include membership groups, in which individuals
are "formally" members (such as political parties and trade unions), or social
cliquesin which membership is not clearly defined. A person affected by peer
pressure may or may not want to belong to these groups. They may also
recognize dissociative groups with which they would not wish to associate, and
thus they behave adversely concerning that group's behaviors.

An organisation with a positive safety culture, for example, will exert pressure on
newcomers to operate with a professional and positive attitude to safety. However,
an organisation where shortcuts and non-compliance (violations) to achieve
unrealistic goals are commonplace will have a negative influence on the behaviour
of individuals. If individuals are expected to cut corners to get the job done, peer
pressure can influence others to do the same.

In a group you are more likely to agree with the majority, rather than disagree, or
rock the boat (think back to peer pressure). The desire to reach unanimous
agreement can result in what is known as group think, and may override any
individual desire to put forward an alternative view. It is human nature to want to fit
in with the group, but you must be prepared to challenge the group if you believe
actions are irresponsible or unsafe.

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Compliance with the Group
Social influence occurs in environments where face-to-face interactions exist. One
of the phenomena related to social influence is compliance with the group. It is
possible to define compliance behavior as the influence of the majority. Do people
give up on their opinions when they realize that their opinions are not supported
by the majority in the group they belong to? Or do they just pretend to give up? Is
the majority effective in changing people’s ideas? The person who complies
with the other group members, but who actually does not agree with them, is
deemed to be in disagreement with the group opinion. On the contrary, the
person who thinks and acts in accordance with the group both when he is in front
of the other members and when he is alone maintains this new opinion even when
the group pressure is out of question. In compliance behavior, the characteristics
of the group causing pressure, i.e. the number and the unanimity of thought of
the majority, is a significant factor for showing this behavior. Could culture have
a distinguishing effect on according with the majority decision? Do cultural
norms affect compliance behavior? According to a study, compliance in
individualist approaches is at lower levels than the compliance in collectivist
approaches.

Obedience to Authority
The most important difference that separates obedience with compliance is that
obedience occurs unconditionally and without any questioning. Sometimes
compliance may confront us as a social necessity. Obedience, however, is more
of an obligation than choice against the authority. When the society is
traditional, authority is instigated and, hence, social compliance takes the form
of obedience. According to the instructions given by the authority, i.e. through
violation of the rules, one can find himself in a situation of infringement of written
instructions. Written rules must absolutely be adhered to and recorded.

Polarization
Polarization occurs as the individuals forming the society take sides and, at a
more advanced stage, to defend his side in a way to cause conflicts. It destroys
common values such as participation, communion and production in the society.
A technician that is stuck between different decisions is extremely inclined to
make mistakes.

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Norms
They are the unwritten and often unspoken rules and conducts regarding how
work is done. In every department of every company, in every work environment,
there are norms influencing what we do and how we think. Some norms are
legitimate and beneficial, and we could never give up on them. However, there
are other norms that almost inhibit our work. For example, when using a
stepladder, going up on the highest step despite the warning signs and its danger
for safety is a common situation.

Norms that emerge from many factors such as overconfidence, pressure and lack
of resources have the potential to cause errors.

Social norms are unspoken rules and expectations regarding how we should
think and act. Social norms tell us to look forward when stepping in an elevator
and not to sit next to a stranger in an uncrowded bus or train. Moreover, social
norms create and maintain all racial discrimination or gender discrimination
ideology in a society.

Unsafe norms are non-productive or detract from the productivity of the group.
Taking shortcuts in aircraft maintenance, working from memory, or not following
procedures are examples of unsafe norms. Newcomers are better able to identify
these unsafe norms than long-standing members of the group. On the other hand,
the newcomer’s credibility depends on his or her assimilation into the group. The
newcomer’s assimilation, however, depends on adherence to the group norms.
Everyone should be aware of the perceptiveness of newcomers in identifying
unhealthy norms and develop a positive attitude toward the possibility that norms
may need to be changed. Finally, as newcomers become assimilated into the
group structure, they build credibility with others. Once this has been done, a
relative newcomer may begin to institute change within the group.

Tagging connections implementing checklist/procedures Installing safety equipment

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9.3.2 – Responsibility
Responsibility is being aware of the potential influence on team success, and
acting in a way to contribute to this success.

Tendency to feel less personal responsibility within the group:

“Somebody else will do it anyway.”
“The whole team agrees anyway.”
“Nobody has seen me, anybody could have done it.”

Examples of assuming responsibility:

To acknowledge the error and fix it.
If something goes wrong, revealing it.
Take charge even in non-critical issues.
Maintaining professional responsibility.
Staying technically up to date

Professional responsibility of a technician:

Follow maintenance manual (Ensure full compliance with the published
maintenance data. -Never skip steps.)
Follow maintenance program (Apply the maintenance program approved by the
civil aviation authority.)
Receive written authorization (Oral authorization by any person in order to apply
maintenance or reparation procedures apart from the approved technical data will
not be accepted.)
Be in the possession of technical data.
Identify the deviations and inform the person of concern.
Processed parts should be documented:
Document/record all parts that you removed, attached, distributed for the purpose
of the maintenance task or all parts that you have done anything with for any
reason.
Provide clear, understandable and full documentation (Maintenance records that
identify the work should be extremely clear and sufficiently detailed so as to allow
everybody, even a person unfamiliar with the job, to understand which methods
and procedures are used to get the job done.)
If there is a technical data that is referred to, source of the reference should be
given in detail.
Ensure that the changed part is approved.
Ensure that the special part to be used is approved.
Do not undertake tasks you are not trained on.

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Management, Supervision, Leadership
To achieve their objectives effectively and efficiently, performing creativity,
planning, organizing, directing, coordinating, and controlling functions based on
an information system and systemic backbone by creating a positive internal
environment and by carrying it out in accordance with external environment.
Leadership is the ability to steer and co-ordinate the activities of the team
members and to induce them to work as a team.
Authority required to achieve group objectives are given to the leader by group
members; the manager, however, has to perform the leadership role without
obtaining any authority from the group he is responsible for.
Leader, the group is required to achieve the objectives of the authority given by
the group members; the manager is responsible for the group without any authority
is obliged to fulfill the role of leader.

Leadership Types
Designated – Leadership with authority, rank, or title (Official / permanent)
Functional - Leadership with the knowledge and experience (informal/ temporary)
Leader Responsibilities
Directing and coordinating team activities
Delegating tasks to team members. Ensuring that the team apprehends his
expectations. Drawing attention to critical aspects of the team. Providing the team
with the mission information.
Questioning the team’s knowledge about the mission
Providing feedback to the team members on their performance
Creating and maintaining a professional atmosphere

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Decision-making
Decision-making is to comprehend the situation by taking all available information
into account, to review alternative courses of action and their consequences, and
to select the appropriate action and implement it. Decision- making is easy;
however, making the correct decision that includes knowledge and skills
depends on many factors.
Some of the factors that create difficulty in the moment of decision-making, that
reduces the attention and performance of the responsible person, and that
eventually disrupts the decision-making ability are as follows:

o Limited time: A decision that is correct but late is no different than an

incorrect decision,
o Limited knowledge: Lack of education and insufficient information flow
increases the likelihood of making mistakes,
o Limited alternatives: Lack of the staff and tools,
o Adverse conditions: Negative environmental circumstances, lack of
communication, etc.
o Procedure: Stringent guidelines, check lists, and corporate policies,
o Physical and physiological problems: Fatigue, insomnia, heat, light,
vibration, noise and other elements,
o Psychological status: Lack of motivation, stress, anxiety, panic, prejudice
and attitudes etc.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.3 Social Psychology 3.15

Motivation is one of the main parameters of psychology. It is derived from the Latin
word “movare” which means movement. Motive is any condition that effects the
preparation to begin or continue certain behavior. Motives are the reasons and
processes that push the organisms to behave in a certain way and give direction to
these behaviors. Motivated behavior is directed towards a goal and has a purpose.
Therefore, motivation is a process that allows the person to move forward towards
the goal.
Although it seems that the most important factor that creates motivation is to
desire/want success, it is just as important to believe that the effort will result in
success. For example, if a person does not believe that he can win the reward, even
if he is longing for the reward, he will not make the necessary effort.
From a different perspective, together with skills, motivation determines
performance. Therefore, lack of motivation decreases the performance. That is to
say, the performance of a person that has average skills and yet high motivation
may be better than the performance of a person that has superior skills and yet
low motivation.
One of the most important factors of motivation is that the person feels
belongingness to a group. However, due to some factors that are either way related
to the character of the person or related to undesirable life experiences, factors such
as stress, negative impact on the environment, failures and bad events, the person
might be demotivated. In other words, lack of motivation can be experienced. (Such
as not desiring anything, decrease in movement, and underperformance).

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Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy
One of the most well-known of motivation theories is the one that is revealed by the
American social scientist Abraham Maslow (1954). Maslow represented these needs
as a hierarchy in the shape of a pyramid. A hierarchy is an arrangement that ranks
people or concepts from lowest to highest. According to Maslow, individuals must
meet the needs at the lower levels of the pyramid before they can successfully be
motivated to tackle the next levels. The lower levels represent deficiency needs, and
the upper level represents growth needs.
Maslow considered that humans are driven by two different sets of motivational
forces:
o those that ensure survival by satisfying basic physical and psychological
needs;
o those that help us to realize our full potential in life known as self-actualization
needs (fulfilling ambitions, etc.).

Motivation = Desire X Belief

Performance = Skill X Motivation

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Herzberg Theory
Another very popular motivation theory is the “two factor” theory that is put
forward by Frederick Herzberg in the late 1950s. Herzberg concluded that
there are certain factors, some of them rendering job satisfaction, others
rendering job dissatisfaction in business life.

The group of factors leading to satisfaction is called motivators. These are topics
such as “challenge at work”, “responsibility” and “creativity”. Herzberg defined
the other group as hygiene factors. Company policy, management, compensation,
job security, status and personal life are the most prominent ones. These factors
that are mostly related to tangible negativities at work create direct
dissatisfaction. Failure to satisfy expectations is also a cause of disappointments.
They easily demotivate the person. In order to prevent this phenomenon, the
positive thinking may be sufficient. A positive message is more motivating than a
negative one. On the contrary, our negative thoughts influence us negatively. We
need to continue to believe in ourselves despite consecutive setbacks.

Giving people a purpose is the most vital thing in terms of motivation.

Development of staff in the work environment serves the purpose of
encouraging people to take responsibility. Every individual needs to feel assured
that they will not receive negative reactions when they explain their ideas. Only
in that case people would perform in their jobs enthusiastically. Knowing which
job they will do, why and how would increase motivation, and hence, the
performance. Which outstanding work, why, and once you know how to do it will
also increase motivation and therefore performance.

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High motivation not only ensures that the individual feels happy about himself,
but also has a positive economic impact as well. Organizations, where staff
shares a common outlook and is motivated, increase profits and productivity,
and minimize errors, accidents and shirking. It is not all that expensive to
motivate staff. Feeling needed is a motivating factor by itself. However, in case
of lack of interest, it is a sign of indifference, condescending and punishment. In
this case also, the motivation disappears. The same situation is encountered
when fear factor is in play. (Such as job loss fear, repressive behavior of an
authoritarian manager.)

Primary factors affecting motivation directly is a good orientation, training and

career planning. Indirect factors, on the other hand, are health and safety
policies, wage and salary practices.
Highly motivated people tend to show the following characteristics:
characteristics:

o high performance and results being consistently achieved;

o the energy, enthusiasm and determination to succeed;
o unstinting co-operation in overcoming problems;
o willingness to accept responsibility;
o willingness to accommodate change.

De-motivated people tend to demonstrate the following characteristics:

o apathy and indifference to the job, including reduced regard for safety
whilst working;
o a poor record of time keeping and high absenteeism;
o an exaggeration of the effects/difficulties encountered in problems,
disputes and grievances;
o a lack of co-operation in dealing with problems or difficulties;
o unjustified resistance to change.

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9.3.4 – Culture
Corporate Culture
Corporate culture is an important factor that keeps institutions alive. It consists of
beliefs and values that are recognized by the whole or the majority of a group. It
directly impacts the attitudes and behaviors of the group or the company.
Just as we describe people through personalities such as introverted, extraverted,
solid, conservative, and emotional, we may describe our corporation through these
types of personalities.
In other words, the corporate culture is the way the organization is perceived by its
employees and from the outside in general.
The concept of culture is comprised of the non-formal traditions, customs and habits
of the investors, managers, employees, and even the customers.
Shared values, symbols, myths, overtime, shifts, and even rumors are a part of the
corporate culture.
Scientifically speaking, the main characteristics of corporate culture are as follows:

o Ratio of employees taking initiative

o Degree of risk-taking
o Integration between units
o Predisposition of employees to teamwork
o Management style
o Control mechanisms
o Clarity of work descriptions, duties, powers and responsibilities
o Reward Systems
o Conflicts at work, and the methods to deal with them
o Attitudes in crisis situations
o Communication Models

Management functions and mechanism also determine corporate culture. Habits

and conducts that are achieved and continued during any stage of planning,
organization, execution, decision-making and control functions affect the corporate
culture. Let us remember some sayings that explain corporate behaviors in this
aspect and that we can describe as the extensions of the culture:

"THAT IS THE WAY THINGS WORK AROUND HERE."

"NEW TRICKS TO OLD DOGS."
"THAT IS LIFE. IT IS INEVITABLE."

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What make institutions go beyond concrete buildings, annual balance sheets and
budgets, and what bring life into institutions and their lifeblood are the persons in
that institution. What bring personality to an institution are stories, ceremonies,
and symbols.
Organizations are somewhat like complex living structures. They have
consciousness and memories. They have the ability to create and solve problems.
If the managers and decision-makers in an organization can be considered the
brain of the institution, employees constitute the body. And corporate culture is the
identity. The emergence of dangers can be avoided through certain approaches
and mentality. The role of institutional/organizational culture in the occurrence of
accidents is very significant.
Social culture has a significant effect on determining how a person would be
integrated into the organizational culture. Attitude and conducts of a person outside
of the organization constitute the basis for the attitude and conducts that person
would follow within the organization
Social and cultural differences are the main reasons for the internal pressures
and conflicts of a work place. (Different nations, different political affiliation,
different religions / belief, etc.)

Safety Culture
Basically all organizations are founded with the purpose of profits and increasing
production. For aviation, a significant dimension in this respect is flight safety. For
airliners, “safety” should be the priority. Being successful in controlling risks and
preventing accidents is only possible by embedding the concept of safety in
corporate culture.
It is a necessity to develop an understanding of the classical human factor, and
an understanding and act of safety in order to reduce and prevent behaviors that
place safety at jeopardy. In this direction, any effort towards “human” reduces the
risks of the institution.
Since aviation is a technological system is complex and is dependent on many
sub-systems, many organizational errors are found to be the underlying reason
when accidents and the factors causing accidents were analyzed.
In other words, an understanding in the corporate culture that even partially
underestimates the safety principle may be nourished in the long-run, and may
trigger certain conditions and lead to an accident.
Even in companies that adhere to rules and make no compromises in terms of
safety, unofficial behaviors (culture) that tolerate and even encourage deviations
from the procedures may develop. This tendency of corporate culture is extremely
dangerous and harmful. There should definitely be a combat against these
kinds of understandings and behavior. In order for the safety culture to develop in
an organization, all employees regardless of their positions should be actively
involved in the prevention of error.

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It is good for the organization to have a “safety reporting and review” plan,
however, if the resources for this plan are not sufficient and if people do not act in
accordance with the safety-related rules and the recommendations, it is not
possible for the plan to be efficient.
If there is a proper safety culture, the errors that influence aircraft safety or errors
that cause damages to the aircraft and the equipment, and the work accidents
related to personnel safety would be reduced.

Components of the safety culture can be listed as follows:

Information Culture - System managers and administrators should have up to
date information about human, technical, organizational and environmental factors
that as a whole determine the safety of the system
Communication culture - People having the will to report errors or activities that
are prone to errors
Learning culture - People having the willingness and authority to make correct
inferences from events and to implement major reforms when they emerge.
Fair of Culture - A culture of no blaming; a climate of trust is ensured and people
are encouraged; providing a piece of information that is directly related to safety
may be rewarded; however, there is always a distinct line between acceptable
and unacceptable behaviors.
Flexible Culture - Typically, a culture that has organizational flexibility that can be
described as switching from a traditional hierarchical structure to a more smooth
professional structure.
All of these elements constituting the safety culture are related to the
organizational structure and involve “Organizational Human Factors”.

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In conclusion, the organization must have a "Safety Management System".
However, this system must remain in integrity of the existing systems and
procedures, and should involve the following long-term oriented initiatives and
practices:

o The protection of personnel against the hazards at the workplace

o Identification, detection, assessment, priority setting, controlling, recording
and monitoring of workplace hazards
o Monitoring exposure to hazardous / harmful substances at the workplace
o Emergency plan
o Informing, training, co-operating and inspecting the employee regarding
health and safety issues
o Registering, reporting and inspecting of the accidents, incidents, injuries and
illnesses at the workplace

Recently, a revision introduced in the EASA Part-145 Regulation requires that

appropriate procedures and practices be in place on the following topics directly
related to human factors in order to contribute to the generation of the safety
culture in an aircraft maintenance organization:

o Security policy
o Workforce resources
o Man-hour planning control for the planned maintenance
o Procedures for identifying and correcting maintenance errors
o Shift / task turnover procedures
o Procedures for notifying the company regarding the errors
and uncertainties in maintenance data.

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 9

Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Human Factors

9.4 Factors Affecting Performance

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Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy,
electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Turkish
Aviation Academy.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing
the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate. Intentionally Blank

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.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.4 – FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANC

9.4.1 – Physical Shape and Health………………….............................................9

9.4.2 -Stress..........................................................................................................10
Dealing with Stress……….....................................................................................11
Stress and Performance Relationship...................................................................12
Sources of Stress (Stressors)................................................................................13
9.4.3 – Time Pressure & Deadline......................................................................15
9.4.4 - Workload...................................................................................................16
Being Vigorous-Energetic……………....................................................................16
Factors Determining Workload………………………..............................................17
Workload Management………...............................................................................17
9.4.5 – Working in Shifts, Sleep and Exhaustion.............................................18
Working in Shifts....................................................................................................18
Exhaustion.............................................................................................................19
Fatigue…………………..........................................................................................19
Sleep......................................................................................................................21
The Importance of Circadian Rhythm…….............................................................21
Insomnia.................................................................................................................22
Stages of Sleep......................................................................................................23
9.4.6 – Eating Habits (Usage of Alcohol, Medicine etc.)…...............................24
Alcohol....................................................................................................................24
Diet.........................................................................................................................25

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Module 9.4 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66)
Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:

Licence Category
Part 66
Objective Module 9
Reference
A B1 B2 B3

Factors Affecting Performance 9.4 2 2 2 2

Fitness / health; Stress: domestic and work related 9.4

Time pressure and deadlines; Workload: overload and 9.4

underload

Sleep and fatigue, shiftwork; Alcohol, medication, drug 9.4

abuse

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9.4 – FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE

9.4.1 – Physical Shape and Health

Being physically fit and healthy also affects the work performance. Beyond doubt,
aforementioned shape and health not only includes the sportive activities that are
done to get fit for the purpose of appearance, but also ensures that we deal with
physical and mental exhaustion at the workplace. Limiting those to sports is not
right. It covers a broad area ranging from running to gardening. It rather depends
on the subject of interest to the person. The important thing is that it is done
consistently. Especially for people working in shifts, outdoor activities such as
fishing and walking are very effective in controlling sleeping problems. On the
other hand, solving riddles, being interested in brainteasers, playing games such
as chess and bridge are the sports for the brain. Besides, physical and intellectual
shape is crucial in dealing with tensions.

A sick and weak physique may have adverse effects on (work) performance.
The quality of work done may be poor. The likelihood of making mistakes is high.
The technician should be made aware of how he should behave if he feels sick
or is exhausted to the level that he is unable to work.
He should undertake an easier task. He should ask a colleague to control the
work he does. He should not neglect his treatment.

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9.4.2 – Stress

Stress is how our body responds to our lifestyle. If our lifestyle contains many
factors that increase stress, our tensions will also increase. However, stress is one
of the essentials of life. If it disappears completely, it may yield to biological and
psychological consequences that might be equivalent of death. Therefore, we
should first stop having a negative perception of stress in life, and learn to live with
it and learn how to control it before it controls us.

In face of stress, we may encounter:

o Alarm reaction
o Resistance and protection reaction
o Fatigue and disease symptoms.

The first symptom of stress is physical and the response of the body is in the
form of alarm. Alarm initially begins in the pupils; then mental alertness increases,
heartbeats become variant; we start sweating or feeling cold; gastric secretion
increases, blood sugar rate alternates, blood pressure may increase
(hypertension); and observable symptoms such as appetite and sleep disorders,
muscle pains, back and chest pains begin.

Human adapts to stress positively or negatively. Positive adaptation happens

when we begin resisting and putting up a fight against stress. Negative adaptation,
however, happens when we disregard the above-mentioned symptoms, allow
the repetition of the symptoms, and prepare the ground for many diseases.

Diseases caused by stress:

o Heart Attack
o Stomach Ulcer
o Cancer
o Constipation
o Irritability
o Obliviousness

In addition, stress also affects a person psychologically. Especially stress that

leads to impairment of concentration in work life should absolutely be brought
under control. Conditions such as clumsiness, unwillingness, sudden emotional
outbursts, and tantrums arise as the results of mental effects of stress.

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Dealing with Stress
People who have healthy relationships, who manage to control their lives, who
have inner discipline and who love challenges in life are better at dealing with
stress and living with it.
The secret behind keeping in with stress and living with it maybe lies in simple
daily solutions such as listening to the music you like, shopping, going for walks
or runs, and traveling. One of these simple solutions is to take short breaks
especially if you are at work, and to take a break from thoughts first and then to
take a glance at yourself, to clarify emotions, and consider the issue one more
time and to take action.

Exercises in Dealing with Stress

Both the discipline of work life and the order of social life cut across dealing with
stress. Since stress causes tension in the body, doing relaxation exercises in a
conscious way is highly recommended. During the moments of stress, neck and
shoulder muscles get tensed up instantly.
Exercises that can be done at any time are summarized below:
o Leaning the head slowly against the neck to losing the neck and shoulder
muscles, repeating this motion symmetrically for 5 times, and moving the
shoulders backwards and forward
o First tightening yourself as much as possible, then letting it go and thinking
mentally only about the idea of loosening
o Taking deep breaths
o Closing the eyes, and taking deep breaths
o Thinking about loosening, closing the eyes, taking deep breaths, and
focusing mentally on the organ (such as right hand, left food etc.) that needs
to be loosened, and then stretching and releasing it.

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These kinds of exercises together with regular sports activities help avoiding
anger. It reduces physical tension and anxiety, and improves the quality of life. It
facilitates concentration, and helps acquire the habit of concentrating on issues.
It provides self-confidence and self-respect. It is extremely beneficial to your
health; it reduces the risk of diseases.
Another way of dealing with stress at work is related to the quality of social life.
The following activities and behaviors contribute in this regard, provided that the
person foremost stays away from unhealthy food and beverages:

o Finding new endeavors

o Establishing closer relationships with close friends that are outside of the
work environment
o Learning to behave more diplomatically
o Being more tolerant
o Not being stubborn about topics that are not in your power to change
o Being more informed and aware of the issue of stressful life
o Living spare times to the fullest

Stress and Performance Relationship

There is a relationship between performance and stress, as shown in the figure
below. During periods of little or too much stress, the desired level of performance
cannot be achieved. Stress first stimulates the employee and reaches its ideal
level for a while, but then when it becomes continuous, negativity comes into
question.

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Sources of Stress (Stressors)

Situations that are considered stress provoking are known as stressors.

The sources of stress are divided into two, namely physical and psychological
stress.

Physical sources

- Diseases
o Acute Illnesses (Colds, flu)
o Chronic Disease (Diabetes, heart disease, alcoholism)
- Environment
o Climate - Temperature (Heat, cold, wind, humidity, health effects,
performance effects)
o Noise (hearing, cognitive performance and health effects)
o Motion - Vibration (operating the power engine, moving platforms, devices,
laying rivets, performance and health effects)
o Gas - Smoke (disturbing environment, threats to health)
- Fatigue
o Shift work (circadian rhythm, activities outside of work, lack of sleep)
o Workload (overtime hours, inadequate rest periods)

Psychological sources

- Age and tragedy

o Unhealthy effects (long-term). Abnormalities in sleep patterns.
o Bad habits (alcohol, drug usage). Attention deficit. Passiveness
- Daily challenges
o Time pressure – Deadline
o Pressure from the immediate environments
o Workload Distraction, Pauses

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- Chronic stress
o Family circle
o Negative norms in the workplace
o Peer pressure
o Policies and procedures of the company (lack of manpower, shift policy)
o Chronic health problems

The sources of stress that particularly come to mind when it comes to aircraft
maintenance are time pressure and emergencies.
We can say that speed is the symbol of our industry. Undoubtedly, time pressure
and speed becomes a source of stress for us when safety (especially human life)
is included in the formula.
Urgent and important tasks become “firefighting” for us every day. Such a working
environment is a natural source of stress, and when we add shifts in the picture,
it becomes apparent that we need definitely to control it.
Another effect is temperature. When working in a (-) 15 oC environment, especially
in winter and night conditions, naturally, subconsciously we think about “warming
up”. On the contrary, when working at 30oC, focusing on the thoughts of
“drinking something cold” and “cooling down” increase the possibility of error
making.

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9.4.3 – Time Pressure & Deadline

Being unplanned and unscheduled in time management eventually puts time on

the individual. We feel the time pressure in situations such as when we cannot
complete a task on time, when we try to get prepared in the last minute without
any arrangements made, and when we try to get work done rapidly towards the
end of the deadline. Time pressure would lead us towards tension, restlessness,
urgency and panic, and would eventually adversely affect our behavior. For
example, time pressure might increase as we try to perform a transaction related
to the maintenance board at hand. However, there is always time “on the ground”.
Adverse effects start emerging when the allotted time is not well-used, the allotted
time period has decreased, and when other tasks intervene. (Such as the anxiety
of not being able to complete the task).
A practice that is considered to be a compensation for the time pressure is
working more than required or working too hard. We even appreciate working
very hard. The important thing is not to work very hard, but instead to work
effectively and efficiently.

Undefined targets Not listening to others

Insufficient information Lack of time planning
Postponed decisions Lack of skilled labor
Delayed jobs Insufficient delegation
Lack of information Lack of self-discipline
Ordinary deeds Visitors
Absence of documents, records Training of new staff
Conditions preventing work Lack of priorities
Telephone Crisis management
Undertaking more than one task Passion to “do it myself”
simultaneously Not being able to say "no"
Time estimation mistake

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9.4.4 – Workload
Described earlier in the chapters covering stress and lack of time, aircraft
maintenance personnel should be energetic. However, if this state of being
energetic exceeds its dosage, it may lead to more stress. The opposite of this
situation can also create similar problems. Before delving into the workload topic,
let us evaluate the ideal dosage of being energetic.
Being Vigorous-Energetic
In order to achieve high performance in a job, it is necessary to be energetic or
vigorous at a certain level. These levels vary from person to person.
Some people cannot deal with more than one workload simultaneously. Some
others are happy to be under the burden of work overload. Working under stress
makes them more successful. In the following figure, you can observe the
relationship between being energetic-vigorous and productivity.

When we are not vigorous and energetic, or when it is at low levels, our attention
mechanism is not fully ready. At the same time, our production capacity is low.
Boredom and inattention dominate. At the other end of the curve above, that is,
when the person is over energetic, productivity also drops. The reason for that is,
to some degree, people divide their job to pieces when they work and try to finish
the job by focusing on the information they deem necessary. We can call this,
focusing on a narrow area.

Being energetic at a workplace varies with the level of job satisfaction. At the same
time, however, environmental factors such as sound level (noise) also affect the
status of being energetic and vigorous.

Yerkes Dodson Curve

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Factors Determining Workload
A maintenance personnel has the ability to easily determine work he is capable
of doing. The difficult task is to estimate the level of workload that the work would
create.
As described earlier in memory and information topics, humans can hold a limited
amount of information in their memory. We are also limited with our physical
senses. Workload has different effects on everyone. The following factors affect
the degree of workload.
o Content of the work
o Physical/Logical effort required
o Working conditions
o Standards of required efficiency
o Time allocated for work. This also affects the speed of work to be
performed.
o Requirement to perform another related task simultaneously together
with the work to be performed
o Perception of how work control is done
o Environmental factors
o Person and the state of the person
o Physical and other capabilities
o Experiences (especially the ones related to the job to be performed)
o Health and healthy state of being

Workload Management
Another factor affecting the performance is situations of work overload or work
having little work to do. Very long working hours, and particularly, having a lot of
work requiring concentration of attention creates stress among employees and
increases the risk of making mistakes. The level of mental and physical exhaustion
increases.
Managing your workload is important. (Do not wait until the deadline to speed up
the job.)
If the speed of the job is prioritized over the accuracy of the job, the likelihood of
it being of low quality and erroneous increases.
Accidents / incidents often emerge from poor management of the workload.
To do it fast, to do it right?
Can a task that is completed fast be correctly completed? Can a task that is
completed correctly be speedily completed?
Notwithstanding, having a small workload also creates tension. Purposeless free
time emerges and creates certain habits among employees. This situation
prevents commitment, achievement and the desire to be challenged, and hence
brings about consequences such as indifference and disruptions to the peace of
mind.
If you say “Hurry up and finish your work” to someone, you are calling in errors.

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9.4.5 – Working in Shifts, Sleep and Exhaustion

Working in Shifts
Since aircrafts mainly fly during the day, aircraft maintenance is required to be
done at night. Human organism, however, is in a more active condition during the
day. It is programmed to rest and sleep at night. It is inevitable that the efficiency
of the business is affected negatively due to this adjustment disorder due to the
working conditions. Health and physical conditions of the aircraft maintenance
technicians is very important for the efficiency of the system. Most of the
maintenance errors that led to airplane accidents are made at night shifts. Based
on this fact, we can conclude that working in shifts is an important factor affecting
human performance.
Sleep disorders caused by shifts, discomfort in stomach due to bad eating habits,
and stress caused by inharmoniousness in social life is reflected seriously on
work if no precautions are taken.

Some people welcome the variety of working different times associated with
regular shift work patterns. Advantages may include more days off and avoiding
peak traffic times when travelling to work. The disadvantages of shift working are
mainly associated with:
o working ‘unsociable hours’, meaning that time available with friends, family, etc.
will be disrupted;
o working when human performance is known to be poorer (i.e. between 3 a.m.
and 5 a.m.);
o problems associated with general desynchronisation and disturbance of the
body’s various rhythms (principally sleeping patterns).

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Exhaustion
Exhaustion is conditions caused by lack of rest, and results from physical or
mental work that is done by the individual for a long time and in excess of certain
limits. Exhaustion should be separated from insomnia or carelessness. These
three factors have a cause-and-effect relationship with each other. For example,
deeds requiring intensive attention may lead to exhaustion. Exhaustion is inversely
proportional to the effort required to perform the job.
Muscle tiredness or physical tiredness is objective and measurable. However, in
case of mental tiredness, emotional stress is experienced despite normal resting.
This is a subjective situation that is not easy to measure. Deterioration of the
body rhythm due to exhaustion is one of the crucial reasons of making mistakes.

Extreme Exhaustion (Fatigue)

This is another factor affecting work performance. Fatigue is experienced following
long-term tasks or tasks that are expected to be completed in a shorter period
than originally required. There are two types of fatigue, namely acute and chronic.
Acute fatigue is experienced for a short time after an intense physical and/or
mental activity, and vanishes after a good night's sleep.
Chronic fatigue takes a long time to incur and pass. Its symptoms are observed
in the form of decreased attention, memory loss, indifference to events, and
social withdrawal. The conditions of getting out of exhaustion and entering a
resting state are not yet much known. Sometimes the person can remain to be
exhausted even after an adequate sleep.
The effects of exhaustion on human beings are demonstrated in the table below.
Increasing signifiers are indicated by (+), decreasing signifiers are indicated by (-).

PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOMOTOR
Body temperature - Memory -
Muscular strength - Communication skills -
Sight - Visual monitoring of objects -
Blood circulation - Attention -
Muscle glycogen - Personal care -
Blood sugar + Mobility -
Light reflex + Job sharing -
Visual adaptation time + Being open to criticisms -
Pulse + Fear, depression +
Errors +
Response time +

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Monotonous tasks also cause exhaustion. The level of attention arises from both
the environment and the nature of the subject. Monotony is defined as the
repetitive, continuous and almost exactly the same tasks completed on duty.

Not only the repetitive tasks that are completed with the minimum number of
moves or simple moves per unit of time, but also the littleness of the information
obtained per unit of time increase monotony. Monotone jobs result in tiredness
and decreased attention, and hence increase the likelihood of errors.

In order to reduce the negative effects of exhaustion, Planning critical tasks for the
day shift. Validating jobs done at the night shift with appropriate control tools next
day. Breaking long and repetitive tasks into smaller pieces by putting small breaks
in- between.

Avoiding errors during a state of tiredness:

o Accept that you are tired!

o Exercise / do stretching frequently
o Talk to people
o Drink plenty of liquid
o Try a short sleep
o Avoid boring tasks
o Work with others
o Double-check what you have done

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Sleep
It is a periodic phenomenon realized almost at the same time every day.
Sleep is also recognized as a habit. It usually starts at the end of day and
continues for 6-8 hours. Minimum sleep is accepted to be 4 hours, and maximum
sleep is 11 hours. During sleep, all the organs of the body switch to a resting
mode and the body temperature decreases.
Body temperature is an excellent biological clock. Nighttime workers‟ biological
clock is behind, and daytime workers‟ biological clock is forward. For the daytime
workers, the beginning of sleep is at around 22:00 hours, and for the nighttime
workers, it is at around 01:00. During workdays, people bear with these differences
in their days; however, they seek to put the hours of going to bed at night or
waking up in the morning as forward as possible during holidays. We almost
fight against sleep. Insomnia is a serious factor for error and stress. Good and
quality sleep positively affects focusing, learning, memory and emotional balance.
Sleep is oriented by direct time determinants such as clock, radio, television and
newspaper, as well we indirect time determinants such as light, sound,
temperature and vibration. In an isolated environment, sleep-wake cycle continues
again.
The disruption of the "circadian" rhythm of a person requires him to spend more
energy. The person mobilizes his resources. This could result in operational as
well as physiological problems. In the long-term, illnesses may occur.

The importance of the circadian rhythm

As is known, the rhythm is the periodic repetition of the events that occur in the
same time period and in the same order. Persons appointed for a job do not
move in the same way day and night. Similarly, mental functions also demonstrate
variations during 24 hours. In tasks that require particular attention, performance
starts increasing in the morning, reaches the maximum in the afternoon, and starts
going down by the evening. The same situation may be experienced after having
lunch.

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Insomnia
We have already mentioned that sleep is a periodic event that takes place at the
same time almost every day. Due to the variations between sleeping and waking
hours, insomnia occurs. On the other hand, the physical and mental exhaustion,
stress and health problems are also causes of insomnia.
Disorders caused by insomnia and its effects are given in the table below:

HEALTH EFFECTS
Irregularities in the stomach and intestines Decreased attention
Irritability Lack of concentration
Weight loss Memory loss
Exhaustion Intense sensuality
Weakness against diseases Unwillingness

Some of the precautions against insomnia include staying away from beverages
that contain caffeine and theine before going to sleep, not allowing small naps
(snoozing/catnaps) during the day, staying away from stress (actions that would
create emotional or physical impacts), drinking a warm drink (milk etc.), and
doing light exercises.
There is still no definitive answer to “Why do we need to sleep?”, however, there
are two available theories:
1 - Sleeping in order to conserve energy – to save energy
2 - Regeneration
Dreaming is important for learning, reasoning, controlling emotions and other
mental activities. The importance of the dreamless period is that in this period
proteins are structured, and the brain and the nervous system regain their control
over the other systems of the body. The factors affecting the need for sleep are
age, health, circadian rhythm, the body metabolism, physical working level, sleep
quality, the most recent amount of sleep, body temperature, and personal
differences.

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Stages of Sleep

REM (rapid eye movement) (or dream) sleep

The person dreams.
Characteristics of the stage of being awake – heart beat is irregular, the muscles
are active, blood circulation speeds up and slows down..
The lightest sleep stage – the person wakes up easily.
REM is repeated (slightly longer) each time.
Emotions are processed and the information to be stored in the long-term memory
is extracted. 25% of the total sleep time is REM sleep.

Non-REM (or dreamless) sleep consists of four levels.

1st Stage: the transition between tired/awake-wakefulness and sleepiness. It

takes a few minutes.
2nd Stage: Transition – This is the first level of the real sleep, and it can easily
be broken. Its duration increases during the sleep cycles.
3rd & 4th Stages: Deep sleep – the most important phase for our health. It is the
deepest and the most restful sleep.
It is difficult to awaken the sleeper at these stages.
Its duration decreases during the sleep cycles.

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9.4.6 – Eating Habits (Usage of Alcohol, Medicine etc.)

Alcohol
It is common knowledge that nutrition is an influential factor in human behavior
and performance. For instance, protein, fats, and refined sugar may cause
negative situations such as restlessness, short temper and sleepiness.
Coffee, tea, rich seasonings, spicy meat and well-cooked food affect the nervous
system and accelerate the metabolism.

Alcohol has negative effects on vision and hearing, and long-term and short-term
memory. It hinders decision-making and conception systems, and impairs reflexes.
It deteriorates motion coordination. And worse of all, it alters the individual’s
perception about himself, and puts forward emotions of overconfidence or lack of
confidence.
Alcohol, drug and substance usage influences performance. Three main effects
are:
o Impairment of the central nervous system (examples: alcohol, pain killer and
sleeping pills): reflexes and thinking ability slows down.
o Stimulation of the central nervous system (examples: amphetamine and
caffeine): reflexes and thinking speeds up, however, too much of it creates
negative effects
o Hallucinations (examples: marijuana and LSD): the ability to perceive the
reality is influenced. Alcohol threshold allowed in the blood is 0.4%.
It is established that 10% of the causes of fatal accidents between 1975 and
1981 is alcohol. Moreover, as for accidents whose causes are still not determined
fully, the effect of alcohol is unknown.
The individual needs to know what kinds of effects the drugs etc. that he uses
have on their performance. If the drug is a prescribed one, the individual needs to
know its side effects. (Examples: sleepiness or decrease in mental capacity).
That way, the person can act consciously, being aware of the effects of the pill on
his performance (Not working with technical equipment; Not undertaking
complicated tasks; Staying home.)

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Diet
Our feeding habits also have a crucial role in combating fatigue.
Depending on the type and amount of food we receive, we sometimes feel heavy,
and lazy, and at other times we feel like we have received energy support. Some
recommendations regarding this issue are summarized below:
o Before or during the shift, instead of feeding by eating a lot in just a few
meals, eating less but more often should be preferred.
o For shift workers, eating in small meals at the hours before heavy physical
labor is also a diet strategy.
o Carbohydrate-rich foods that are preferred before or during the shift should
contain slow burning carbohydrates. (Brown rice, orange, beans,
grapefruit, milk, yogurt, apples, peanuts, etc.)
o Good nutrition is very important for the work performance. If the individual
is engaged in diet to lose weight, he should make sure to begin the
shift full, not hungry.
Grains and vegetables have positive effects on the nervous system since they
are rich in vitamin B. Moreover, they also assume the supporting role in the
digestion process.
The negative impact of sugar should not be ignored. For the balance of the body,
there should be a certain level of sugar in the blood. For example, if
something very sweet is eaten in the morning, suddenly blood sugar increases.
If it is not possible to use the energy immediately, an indistinct nervousness is
possible.
If you are, you will not be able to use the energy, the nervousness is uncertain.
Especially sugar directly affects the level of stress. In such cases, headache,
fatigue, lack of concentration, and stress increase; the person starts feeling
depressive and sluggish, and goes for coffee or tea.
Drinks such as coffee and tea are stimulators since they contain caffeine and
theine; they increase nervousness and tension, and lower the reaction time when
they are consumed a lot. As they have the characteristics of diuretics, they cause
the loss of water in the body.
Using antianxiety drugs is a method people use very easily and very
unconsciously. While providing temporary comfort, it will have no effect unless
the main cause of lowered performance is eliminated, and at the same time, it
might create an addiction.
When we turn our attention to the activities that help get/stay fit instead of drugs,
alcohol, tea, coffee and habits like smoking, a positive impact on health will
emerge in a short span of time.
In conclusion, many of the factors affecting our performance will be
eliminated from our life through simple precautions we can take in our daily life
(i.e. balanced diet, constant activity, etc.).

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Intentionally Blank

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 9

Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Human Factors

9.5 Physical Environment

Intentionally Blank

5.2 Module 9.5 Physical Environment Turkish Technic Inc.

© Copyright 2016
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy,
electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Turkish
Aviation Academy.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common
words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate,
typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and
comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate. Intentionally Blank

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.5 Physical Environment 5.3

5.4 Module 9.5 Physical Environment Turkish Technic Inc.

9.5 – PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

9.5.1 – Noise and Harmful Gases......................................................................9
9.5.2 – Lighting..................................................................................................11
9.5.3 – Temperature and Climate…………………................................. ..........12 ..

High Temperature.................................................................................. .............13

Low Temperature................................................................................................13
Hypothermia……………......................................................................................14
9.5.4 – Motion&Vibration...................................................................................15
9.5.5 – Working Environment...........................................................................16

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.5 Physical Environment 5.5

5.6 Module 9.5 Physical Environment Turkish Technic Inc.

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Module 9.5 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66)
Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:

Licence Category
Part 66
Objective Module 9
Reference
A B1 B2 B3

Physical Environment 9.5 1 1 1 1

Noise and fumes 9.5

Illumination 9.5

Climate and temperature 9.5

Motion and vibration 9.5

Working environment. 9.5

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.5 Physical Environment 5.7

5.8 Module 9.5 Physical Environment Turkish Technic Inc.

9.5.1 – Noise and Harmful Gases

As explained under the hearing topic, noise has adverse effects on employees
both in the short term and in the long-term. It reduces the ability of the employees to
hear, lowers performance, disrupts communication, results in unheard warning
notifications, adversely affects employee health, and also results in errors due to lack
of concentration caused by distractions. Due to the inherent nature of the workplace,
noises produced by the aircraft engines, APU, the vehicles on the apron, equipment
used during maintenance comprise the undesirable and disturbing factors in this
context. In order to be protected from this effect, rules and protection measures
should be paid utmost attention.

Noise-induced hearing loss occurs because excessive noise damages the delicate
hearing mechanism of the inner ear. Initially, the excessive noise causes a temporary
hearing loss, or temporary hearing loss, and hearing recovers to normal over a period
of time.

A temporary hearing loss may occur when a person’s exposure to noise exceeds the
equivalent of 85 dB for 8 hours, or a peak sound pressure level of 140 dB. However,
repeated exposure to such excessive noise normally transforms this into a permanent
loss, or permanent hearing loss.

Temporary and permanent threshold shifts may also be accompanied by ringing in the
ears, called tinnitus. This can also become permanent, and may be extremely
distressing to the individual.

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The extent of noise-induced hearing loss depends on the intensity of the noise, its
duration and its frequency (or pitch). Put simply, the more time a person’s ears are
exposed to excessive noise, the greater the degree of hearing loss. More time equals
more acoustic energy and hence more damage. The damage that results is
irreversible, and treatment is limited.

Employees working on the aircraft use a variety of liquid and chemical substance as a
work requirement. For example, technicians are in contact with oil, grease, hydraulic
fluid, fuel, paint, cleaning fluids and solvents.

Besides, they also are exposed to exhaust gas and other dirty and harmful gases.
Other than the negative effects of being in contact with these fluids, the gas
(evaporation) or the unpleasant odors released by these fluids enters into our
body during respiration. Normally it is possible to realize these gases from their
smells, however, some gases are odorless and are not possible to realize. The
amount of gas increases with the increase of temperature, increased surface or
spraying.

These gases cause not only breathing problems, but also vision problems and
irritations in the eye; the situation may be even more serious if the individual is
exposed to those gases in confined areas (such as the fuel tank). For this reason, the
use of masks or protective equipment is required. These harmful gases both disrupt
the employee health and diversely affect the performance as it creates the desire
to move away from the environment as soon as possible because of the negative
circumstances.

5.10 Module 9.5 Physical Environment Turkish Technic Inc.

For the aircraft technicians to perform their jobs in a safe and efficient way, having
a proper lighting is a must. Detailed information regarding eye and vision was
provided in the 9.2.2 section; besides, we have already mentioned that spotting
colors and details would be easier with adequate lighting. Inappropriate or inadequate
lighting results in errors during job execution, zoning out or extensions in time in task
completion. Many factors need to be considered for proper lighting (The color of
the light, its dissemination, direction and amount etc.). The structure of the
illuminated surface is also important. A dark gray colored dirty surface reflects only 10-
12 percent of the light falling on the surface, whereas a light colored clean surface
can reflect more than 90 percent of it.

Lighting should be bright enough to enable easy vision; and its direction of
propagation should not be in a way to dazzle the eye(s). At the same time, the
level of lighting should be high enough to allow vision. Not only general illumination of
the workplace, but also the lighting of the lodge is important.

Reflection of light from the surface or the direct contact of light with the eye
impairs vision. Dazzling causes hampered vision and decreased operating capacity as
well as increased accidents.
More specifically, working continuously under light that dazzles the eye, may result in
eye disorders. For this reason, the eye needs to be protected from the undesirable
dazzling. In order to prevent dazzling, the light is placed well above the line of
vision or is coated with a glassy (opaque) or a semi-transparent material. Any dirtiness
on the source of light significantly decreases the amount of light emitted by the
source. In the industry, the dusting of the sources of light results in a 50% decrease
in lighting in six months; and in cases of dusty environments, it results in a much
higher decrease. Therefore, if the intensity of lighting that was measured when light
sources were clean is barely sufficient, lighting intensity when these sources get dirty
will be very low and insufficient. It is hence an inevitable requirement to clean the
sources of light on a regular basis, and to prepare a program for the maintenance.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.5 Physical Environment 5.11

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Training Purpose Only Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016
When working outdoors, daylight provides a natural lighting and good sight; however,
the shadow of the aircraft or a building reduces its efficiency. Yet, when working
inside aircraft cabin or in closed areas, extra illumination is needed even at daytime.
When working at night, airport or hangar lighting may not be sufficient; therefore, it is
useful to use a torch although we can only use one hand to do the job when we use
a torch. In order to solve this problem, we use lanterns attached to the head.
In summary, good lighting enables rapidness and accuracy of vision and offers
timesaving, whereas with insufficient lighting, the result is low productivity together with
the negative effects on the moral and physical health of the employee.

9.5.3 – Temperature and Climate

Workplaces are determined by the climatic conditions in the setting, the thermal
state of the environment and the atmospheric pressure.
Human organism has the ability to maintain a level of almost invariant body
temperature for a very short time (in a restricted manner). Good functioning of the
human body is ensured by maintaining the body temperature at a normal level,
which is an essential condition for the health and life of the human. The person should
have thermal comfort, and should live in equilibrium with the environment.
Air temperature, air moisture, airflow rate, and the thermal state of the environment
determined by the thermal radiation (radiant heat that is a function of the
temperature surrounding the object and its environment) may affect the temperature
fluctuations in human organisms positively or negatively (the body gives or receives
heat). The ambient temperature does not consist of one variable only. Together with
the temperature increasing or decreasing in degrees, the condition of the humidity
and the airflow velocity increases or alleviates the effects of the temperature.

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High Temperature
Excess heat that occurs during resting or in functioning condition, or that stems
from the heat the organism absorbs from the environment must be disposed from the
body surface (skin), so that body can function effectively and well. Body mechanism is
designed in such a way that its temperature ranges within a very narrow limit (35ºC
- 38ºC). Sweating is the most important process to regulate temperature and lose
heat. In a human that is resting and is not under stress, approximately 10 to 12 grams
of salt is lost along with the water every day through sweating.

Low Temperature

Just like high-temperature, low temperature also may have adverse effects on
work success. At low temperatures, perception and reaction time is reduced. Manual
dexterity decreases. However, the effects of low temperature are not as significant
as the effects of high temperature on success. The adverse effects of low temperature
can be significantly reduced with proper and overclothing.

Extreme temperature changes may cause the following:

o Weariness, Irritability, Carelessness
o Increase in the number of errors
o Low efficiency in mental work and craftworks
o Increase in the number of work accidents
o Water and acid-base imbalance in the body
o Impairments in blood circulation
o High level of fatigue

Aircraft maintenance technicians are exposed to a very wide range of temperature

and climate changes when working in the hangar or outdoors as a workspace
requirement. They are required to perform maintenance in the summer heat, wind,
rain, humidity, snow and frost.
Maintenance hangars must be at appropriate temperature and climatic conditions.
However, an employee working in a closed or narrow area remains exposed to
cold and current due to the open hangar doors.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.5 Physical Environment 5.13

Hypothermia occurs when a person's body temperature drops below 35C (95F). Normal
body temperature is around 37C (98.6F).

Hypothermia can quickly become life threatening and should be treated as a medical
emergency.

It's usually caused by being in a cold environment and can be triggered by a

combination of factors, such as being outdoors in cold conditions for a long time, living in
a poorly heated house or falling into cold water.

Hypothermia is caused by getting too cold, as the body loses more heat than it can
generate and body temperature drops below 35C (95F).

There are different types of hypothermia, depending on how quickly the body loses heat:

When your body temperature drops, your heart, nervous system and other organs can't
work normally. Left untreated, hypothermia can eventually lead to complete failure of
your heart and respiratory system and to death.

5.14 Module 9.5 Physical Environment Turkish Technic Inc.

Vibration is low frequency and high amplitude, vibrating energy emission that is
usually emitted in the solid medium and is perceived by the sense of touch. Its
qualities and effect depends on the level of vibration, its frequency, duration of
impact, direction, personal sensibility, region affected and the risk factors.
Stationary engine causing vibrations on the workplace floor, equipment, supplies, all
sorts of hand-held air-compressed, vibrating tools and equipment produce vibrations.

Exposure to vibration can also cause fatigue. If it is for a long-term and severe, it
leads to headache and muscle disorders. Unlike noise, vibration does not cause
permanent damages. Sometimes, however, when rivet gun and similar devices are
used for a long time, they can cause permanent damages to the body. It may result in
pain in the waist, the back and to a lesser the extent the neck spine, and may also
cause disc deformation.

Tissue damages arise as a result of the energy created by the vibration flowing into
the organism. There is a vibration that affects the organism generally or locally.
The degree of harmful impact varies according to the level of vibrations, frequency,
duration, impact site, impact direction, characteristic of the tissue affected, personal
sensibility, and risk factors.

Mobility system (bones), blood vessels, and nervous system get damaged by the
vibration. Towards the end of the shift, pain, numbness, movement difficulties, and
sometimes cramps in the hand, wrist, elbow and shoulder making it difficult to work;
wrist swelling and local pain in the wrist; pain and movement difficulties in the back,
the neck, and sometimes the spine; and bone and joint problems in the elbow may
occur.

Moving platforms or lifts also cause adverse effects on some of the employees.
These tools swing in the air due to height, and hence, are causes of a negative feeling
of uneasiness.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.5 Physical Environment 5.15

There are hundreds of different work-environment characteristics: Some can be easily

measured and quantified -- examples being the amount of office space available and
the color of the walls. And some are more qualitative -- such as general feelings of
malaise or enthusiasm that may be rippling through employees.

A positive work environment makes employees feel good about coming to work, and
this provides the motivation to sustain them throughout the day.

The working environment must be appropriate for the task carried out and in particular
special requirements observed. Unless otherwise dictated by the particular task
environment, the working environment must be such that the effectiveness of
personnel is not impaired.

The working environment comprises the physical environment, the social environment
and the tasks that need to be carried out. Each of these three components of the
working environment interacts, for example:

o engineers are trained to perform various tasks

o successful task execution requires a suitable physical environment
o an unsuitable or unpleasant physical environment is likely to be de-motivating.

5.16 Module 9.5 Physical Environment Turkish Technic Inc.

Module 9

Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Human Factors

9.6 Tasks
Intentionally Blank

6.2 Module 9.6 Tasks

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the
category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.

The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common
words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate,
typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and
comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other
subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and
apply corrective action where appropriate. Intentionally Blank

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.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.6 - TASKS
9.6.1 – Physical Work........................................................................................9
9.6.2 – Repetitive Tasks and Overconfidence.................................................9
9.6.3 – Visual Inspection ………………….......................................................10
9.6.4 – Complex Systems................................................................................11

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.6 Tasks 6.5

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Turkish Technic Inc.
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Module 9.6 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-
66) Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels
as specified below:

Licence Category
Part 66
Objective Module 9
Reference
A B1 B2 B3

Tasks 9.6 1 1 1 1

Physical work; 9.6

Repetitive tasks; 9.6

Visual inspection; 9.6

Complex systems. 9.6

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.6 Tasks 6.7

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9.6 – TASKS

9.6.1 – Physical Work

Lifting, pulling or pushing heavy load (in heavy lifting, other than the weight of the
object, the repetition of the lifting is also important) can result in factors such as
heavy physical activity and prolonged standing, poor body posture, bending,
twisting, and repetitive movements; and at the same time, not working in the
correct position, insensibleness, and the negative physical conditions of the
workplace can adversely affect the health and performance of the employees
and result in errors. Other factors that affect physical work are the number of
years worked, number of working days per week, daily working hours, the intense
work pace of the body, job dissatisfaction, working in a stressful job, lack of
exercising and vibration.

9.6.2 – Repetitive Tasks and Overconfidence

Since aircraft maintenance has a lot of repetitive tasks, danger of all sorts is
present at all times. As self-confidence increases, the person starts taking less
cognizance of the work and stress decreases, and at this stage, the probability of
error increases. The higher the self-confidence is, the more the necessary warning
to ensure reaction.

What could we do personally to minimize the errors caused by overconfidence and

acting according to estimations?

To be conscious is the most important weapon in preventing errors caused by

overconfidence. Overconfidence/arrogance brings about real dangers or
deficiencies. If a mechanic has completed the same task many times without
making mistakes, this situation may create overconfidence in him. Similarly, if an
inspector has repeated an inspection many without finding any problems, this
situation may also result in overconfidence.

If a task is performed often enough, it may eventually become automatic and the
required skills and actions are stored in long term memory. These are known as
motor programmes and are ingrained routines that have been established through
practice. The use of a motor programme reduces the load on the central decision
maker.

Weight Position Frequenc y Vibration

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.6 Tasks 6.9
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Training Purpose Only Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016
9.6.3 – Visual Inspection

Visual inspection is one of the most important controls done by the maintenance
staff in order to provide the status of airworthiness. Visual inspection is done with
the eye alone or with many different assistive instruments in order to evaluate
and examine the condition of the aircraft, and the components or the systems in
the aircraft. In order to enhance their visual capabilities, technical personnel
makes inspections using instruments such as magnifying lens and boroscope.
Furthermore, status information can also be obtained through methods such as
moving or touching the surface.

Visual inspections constitute many of the controls done in the aircraft. However,
these are still a lot of factors that affect the soundness of these controls.

Physical and environmental factors

Topics such as workspace design, lighting conditions, the noise intensity in the
environment, and cooperation belong to this group. If the lighting in the
environment where work control is done is insufficient, it is very likely that a small
damage is neglected. Too much lighting, on the other hand, may lead to conditions
that prevent sufficient vision, such as glare and reflection on the controlled part.
An excessively noisy ambiance may also distort the attention of the person, and
in case the situation is continuous, it can cause quick tiredness of the eye
muscles. Benefiting from the opinions and suggestions of the experienced
colleagues also helps the person in charge to do the control better.

Work-Specific Factors
Topics such as control time, types of damage, repetitiveness / monotony of the
job, probability of damages, feed forwards and feedbacks constitute this
group. The job taking a long time may create weariness, exhaustion and attention
deficit in the employee. Routine and repeated tasks also may result in the
decrease in concentration to the task. Let us think about a task where no
negativities are experienced during the many controls done. In these kinds of
controls, the likelihood of not noticing a damage is very high.

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9.6.4 – Complex Systems

All modern large aircrafts can be described as complex systems. Some of these
many different systems that are different from each other and are complex in
themselves are: flight/cruise controls, power engines, air-conditioning
systems, and the like.
Any complex system has a wide range of different data; it functions using
these data or these data are used to trigger other systems. One or many
different outputs may materialize from the system. It is easy for the technician to
understand the purpose formation, the function and the duty in simple
systems. In other words, the system is clear and concise for him; it is relatively
easy to find and identify troubles.

It can be difficult to maintain attention for long periods on complex tasks. Think
about scheduling appropriate breaks during the task, and ensuring workload is
maintained at an appropriate level.

The technician knows that the system serves, however, in complex systems, the
difference between the systems and how they are envisaged in the mind may
cause complications. Technicians need to be trained to be in possession of
detailed information about the complex system in order to be able to understand
how the system functions, the components comprising the system or why it may
have malfunctioned. It should be ensured that the training provided for the above-
mentioned reasons does not overload the technician with excessive information
and complicates the task even more. For this special training to be successful, the
technician should maintain the balance between knowing the details of the system
and his ability to find and solve the problem.
Written procedures and reference resources about complex systems of an aircraft
are very significant resources. These resources include wide-ranging explanations
regarding the fulfillment of the maintenance drafts, inspection, testing, and
adjustment operations. These explanations provide information regarding the
relationship between one system and the other systems; and more importantly,
they include warnings and alerts about the system, specific regions and
components.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.6 Tasks 6.11

Keeping regular records of the works done, and withholding these records for a
certain periods of time is very important in aviation. Records have been highly
emphasized in most of the audits conducted.
All operations carried out on an aircraft must be documented. This ensures
traceability. When implementing a maintenance board, if the job has more than
one step, the block related to the document must be signed / stamped after the
completion of each step. Before signing all the blocks, the task should be fully
completed. If an operation not mentioned in the aircraft maintenance manual is
completed, it must be absolutely put into records. (Such as the requirement to
remove a clamp on a tube in order to remove the pump, etc.).
It is known that lack of information resulting from insufficient recording has a role
in many of the events and accident that occurred.
Procedures and Practices

According to MEDA investigations, documentation was found to be the most

common factor leading to maintenance errors.
Documents used in aviation are very diverse. Documents related to the national
and international rules, documents of the manufacturers, and instructions,
procedures and maintenance boards prepared by the enterprise itself can be
considered to constitute this group.
It has always been in the agenda of the enterprises that the documents are
updated, clear and complete, easily accessible and reproducible.
Problems encountered regarding the documentation are summarized below:
o Not being understandable
o Including erroneous steps
o Including contradictory information
o Absence or insufficiency of pictures
o Not using the document to become the norm

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When preparing the document, the emphasis should be on using an action verb
for each phrase, and the use of abbreviations should be avoided.

A clear and complete procedure written in plain language decreases the risk that
the person performing tasks in accordance with this procedure makes mistakes,
and also decreases the likelihood that he performs additional tasks that are not
included in this procedure.

It is required that the apparatus/equipment that is present in the written

maintenance board and is to be used in that task should be present in the
workplace in a proper condition (i.e. it is calibrated etc.); and it is also required
that the relevant personnel have received adequate training to be able to use the
apparatus correctly. Unless all these conditions are provided, the ground is
prepared for the employee to act beyond the procedure and, over time, for this
type of behavior to become the norm in the enterprise.

The most important issue required by all systems and regulations is that the
records of the transactions are kept once the transaction is complete in a time
manner. That is to say, in simple words, our rule should be as follows:
DO WHAT IS WRITTEN, AND WRITE WHAT YOU HAVE DONE

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.6 Tasks 6.13

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 9

Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Human Factors

9.7 Communication
Intentionally Blank

7.2 Module 9.7 Communication Turkish Technic Inc.

Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only

Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Turkish Aviation Academy.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the
category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.

The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common
words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate,
typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and
comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other
subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and
apply corrective action where appropriate. Intentionally Blank

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.7 Communication 7.3

7.4 Module 9.7 Communication Turkish Technic Inc.

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.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.7 - COMMUNICATION
9.7.1 – Communication Process.......................................................................9
Factors affecting communication........................................................................11
Poor communication ……………………………………….....................................12
9.7.2 – Communication within and between Teams.......................................13
Shift change........................................................................................................14
9.7.3 – Work Logging and Recording..............................................................15
9.7.4 – Keeping up to date and currency.........................................................16
9.7.5 – Dissemination of Information...............................................................17

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.7 Communication 7.5

7.6 Module 9.7 Communication Turkish Technic Inc.

Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only

Module 9.7 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66)
Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:

Licence Category
Part 66
Objective Module 9
Reference
A B1 B2 B3

Communication 9.7 2 2 2 2

Within and between teams; 9.7

Work logging and recording; 9.7

Keeping up to date, currency; 9.7

Dissemination of information. 9.7

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.7 Communication 7.7

7.8 Module 9.7 Communication Turkish Technic Inc.

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9.7 COMMUNICATION

9.7.1 – Communication Process

Communication process can be defined as a process of message transmission from

a sender (source) to a receiver in understandable way. It is very important to master
communication skills in our professional as well as personal lives.

Communication process consists of five key steps:

1. Idea formation
2. Message encoding
3. Message transmission (through communication channel)
4. Message decoding
5. Feedback (not necessarily present in a communication process)

A sender (individual, group or organization) is the one who initiates the

communication process. It usually starts when the sender generates an idea of the
message he/she would like to communicate to a receiver. The next step of
communication is message encoding process.

Encoding here means converting the sender’s idea into words and/or gestures with
the purpose to convey its meaning to the receiver. In case of verbal communication,
the main problem is the tendency of some words to have different meaning for
different people.

It is important to remember that the idea creation and encoding process are
influenced by professional and cultural background, his/her knowledge, experience,
and skills, as well as the context of the situation and mood.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.7 Communication 7.9

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Then the encoded message is sent to the receiver through communication channel.
The communication channel is a medium for transmitting the message. The channels
are usually oral (talk, oral report, telephone talk, etc.) and written (letter, e-mail, fax,
etc.). Although with current technology development, visual channels (like video
conferences and presentations) became widely used.

The effectiveness and efficiency of various channels depends on the characteristics

of a communication. When immediate feedback is necessary, it is useful to choose
oral communication channels. On the other side, when reaching several recipients,
using e-mail or other written channel is more appropriate.

For choosing the right communication channel the sender should ask him/herself
different questions, like:

• Is the message urgent?

• Is immediate feedback needed?
• Is documentation or a permanent record required?
• Is the content complicated, controversial, or private?
• Is the message going to someone inside or outside the organization?
• What oral and written communication skills does the receiver possess?

The answer to the question of where perform the communication is our physical and
social environment. The most important factor in the physical environment in a work
setting is noise, and the most important factor in the social environment is
relationships.

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Factors affecting communication

A very important factor in communication is the idea of stress. It's a natural feeling
that people have, especially when they are operating in a high-pressure
environment or situation and, in some cases, stress can actually enable them to
communicate more effectively. However, stress can often be a factor that
influences bad communication. When people are suffering from too much stress,
they are more likely to misread other people, act inappropriately or fall into bad
behaviors that end up diminishing the quality of communication with other people.

People's perceptions are also very important to the communication process. How
people interpret the messages given to them by other parties can greatly influence
what is actually communicated and where a relationship leads. It's very important
that people listen closely to one another when communicating because if people
don't do this, the communication can be totally ineffective.

Nonverbal communication is another big factor in how communication arises and

proceeds. When people use nonverbal communication like facial expressions and
gestures, they can often greatly influence the message behind their verbal
communication. Sometimes, nonverbal communication is the only kind of
communication used, which can determine what is communicated in a
conversation.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.7 Communication 7.11

Communication abilities have a significant impact on the motivation that employees

feel to do a good job at work. When communication is vibrant in the workplace,
employees are more productive, feel the freedom to be more creative and rely more
on their inspiration to drive them. When communication breaks down, the amount of
enthusiasm plummets because employees question the value of their assignments.
Over time, morale goes down because employees have to endure presentations
and projects that seem meaningless because of a lack of context.

When communication is not ideal, neither is organizational efficiency. Email

messages that do not provide enough elaboration, documents with errors requiring
rewriting, and speeches and presentations that show a lack of information all
influence work flow within an organization. Leaders who desire the timely
completion of projects use effective communication skills, and their employees
understand their expectations and fulfill them.

For a healthy communication, we need to know the factors impeding

communication. The main ones are as follows:
o Defense mechanisms
o The size of the organization
o Using terminology
o Assuming to be understood
o Not checking whether you are understood or not
o Our listening habits

It is said that our brain has the capacity to understand 600 words in 1 minute.
However, a person speaks with an average pace of 120 words in 1 minute. Thus,
we evaluate the remaining 480 words either as a good listener or, as explained
below, as a bad listener:
o by criticizing the subject or the speaker
o by occupying our minds with other things
o by planning what we will say
o by wandering off the subject
o by interrupting the other person

THE SECRET BEHIND COMMUNICATION

2 ears + 2 eyes + 1 mouth = 5

USE YOUR EARS, EYES AND MOUTH ACCORDING TO THEIR RESPECTIVE
ORDER AND PROPORTIONALLY.

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9.7.2 – Communication within and between teams
When we consider whom we communicate with in business life, we need to
distinguish between formal and informal communication. Our formal relationships
tend to be with the managers and the customers, and the informal relationships
tend to be with our colleagues.

The most important issue regarding human errors encountered in aircraft

maintenance is communication. The implementation of flight safety rules grow
difficult in case of insufficient communication between the managers in the
maintenance organization, the producers, the dispatchers, flight crew, ground
operations, the passengers, other airliners, agencies, public institutions, civil
aviation authorities, suppliers, airports, meteorology and other related parties.

Individuals develop and coordinate activities to achieve goals by communicating

with each other by exchanging information.

Effective communication is a complex process and there are numerous places

where this communication can break down. ‘Someone transmits information’ and
‘someone else receives that information’ sounds quite straightforward, but the
person communicating the information may not be using the most appropriate
means for their audience. Sending information in an email may be effective for one
group, for example, but not for others, for whom a face-to- face toolbox talk would
be more appropriate.

The choice of delivery method also depends on what has to be communicated. If it

is simply technical information, or task instruction, an email or written briefing may
be appropriate. However, more sensitive team building or motivational
communication will require a more personal, face-to-face delivery, where both
parties can use visual and verbal cues, such as body language, to understand how
what is being said is being received.

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Adapting the tone and language of your communication to your audience is also
vital. The language of an academic journal, for example, is very different to that of
a daily news bulletin. Academic journals are more formal, and are often written in
more technical language for a narrow, specialist audience. The daily news bulletin
needs to be written in accessible, plain English, to reach as broad an audience as
possible.
For maintenance teams to work effectively, anyone passing on information to the
team needs to ensure that the individual team members understand the meaning
and context of what is being conveyed.
Regular, effective communication is vital to forming and maintaining a shared
mental model, and ensuring everyone is on the same page. Good communication
is also necessary for maintaining a high level of situational awareness—and having
high levels of situational awareness will help teams to be more effective.

Shift Change
When maintenance operation needs to be completed or the rest of the operation
needs to be transferred due to the changes in shifts or duties, it is important for
the safety that the details of all the completed, unfinished and incomplete or
postponed maintenance activities - that are done so as to realize the shift change
process in a communicative manner and within sufficient time between the
incoming and the outgoing employees- are written down in a clear way.

Recording jobs on the shift cycle book,

o Which jobs are completed?
o Where exactly did the job start and where was it dropped?
o Special situations / claims (e.g. whether an inspection
needs to be made)
o Jobs done outside of the task board (e.g. tightening a loose clamp)

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9.7.3 – Work Logging and Recording

Keeping regular records of the works done, and with holding these records for
a certain periods of time is very important in aviation. Records have been highly
emphasized in most of the audits conducted.
All operations carried out on an aircraft must be documented. This ensures
traceability. When implementing a maintenance board, if the job has more than
one step, the block related to the document must be signed / stamped after the
completion of each step. Before signing all the blocks, the task should be fully
completed. If an operation not mentioned in the aircraft maintenance manual is
completed, it must be absolutely put into records. (Such as the requirement to
remove a clamp on a tube in order to remove the pump, etc.).
It is known that lack of information resulting from insufficient recording has a role
in many of the events and accident that occurred.

According to MEDA investigations, documentation was found to be the most

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.7 Communication 7.15

Aircraft maintenance technicians undertake an approved course to obtain the

knowledge and basic skills to enter the profession. This training is followed by
instruction in more specific areas, such as maintenance of individual aircraft and
specific systems. However, the aviation industry is dynamic: operators change their
aircraft, new aircraft types and variants are introduced, new aircraft maintenance
practices are introduced. As a consequence, the engineer needs to keep his
knowledge and skills up-to-date.

To maintain his currency, he must keep abreast of pertinent information relating to:
o new aircraft types or variants;
o new technologies and new aircraft systems;
o new tools and maintenance practices;
o modifications to current aircraft and systems he works on;
o revised maintenance procedures and practices.

Engineers are likely to keep up-to-date by:

o undertaking update courses;
o reading briefing material, memos and bulletins;
o studying maintenance manual amendments

Responsibility for maintaining currency lies with both the individual technician and
the maintenance organisation for which he works. The technician should make it
his business to keep up-to-date with changes in his profession. The organisation
should provide the appropriate training and allow their staff time to undertake the
training before working on a new aircraft type or variant.

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9.7.5 – Dissemination of Information

Maintaining validity is the responsibility of both the maintenance personnel and

the organization. We have already mentioned how dangerous it is for the
technician to perform his duties based on estimations; that is why he is responsible
to follow the updates as required by his very own job. The organization, on the
other hand, is required to provide the time, planning and facilities needed for the
personnel to accommodate those needs. Moreover, it must ensure that the
personnel can access and read the written bulletin, can easily understand
them and overcome ambiguities.
From the perspective of human factors, even the smallest alterations in technology
and the procedures, generates a major risk in aircraft maintenance. There is no
need to provide training specifically for these minor amendments; it is sufficient to
take a look at the areas where the changes made in documents are recorded.

Employees and the organization share the responsibility to learn about new
information and events. Safety culture is a good information sharing and
enlightenment inside organizational forms. Typically, the organization will be the
transmitter of information, and the maintenance personnel will be the recipients.
Planning helps the technician regarding how the maintenance should be done or
regarding how he should guide the team members in terms of how to do things.
A part of this method is to understand the information regarding the task to be
completed and to check the information in order to draw conclusions. It is required
to investigate and control whether there is a certain way of doing the job or
whether there is an important warning that explains the equipment to be used, and
the relationship of that equipment with the components or parts. It is also an
obligation that the employees working outside of the main centre (external stations)
are aware of these warnings and new alterations.

There should normally be someone within the maintenance organisation with the
responsibility for disseminating information. Supervisors can play an important role
by ensuring that the engineers within their team have seen and understood any
communicated information.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.7 Communication 7.17

o Employees working in the same shift

o Shifts
o Line maintenance stations
o All other relevant departments of the institution
o Manufacturers, airliners, maintenance institutions, suppliers
o Civil aviation authorities

Competitive conditions between airliners may disrupt their communication from

time to time. In case the information is used for the purpose of creating advantage
against the airliner that provides the information, information sharing between
airliners for security purposes gets harmed.

What we establish communication with is mostly associated with our business. In

aircraft maintenance, we establish communication with computers, maintenance
manuals, and, most importantly, with indicators and all kinds of tools.

Considering the work environment of aircraft maintenance, the question of how

we communicate often presents itself as written and oral communication. Aircraft
maintenance technicians communicate through written and oral means together
with the use of devices such as telephone and radio.

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Written statements:
- Must contain the entire message provided.
- Must be easily understandable.
- Must be easy to be read.
- Must be directly related to the available problem, if there is any.
- Must be composed taking the knowledge, experience, language skills, attitudes
and behaviors of the recipient of the message into account.

Below are some of the written communication tools that are subject to rapid
changes and that may lead to errors and malfunctioning when they are not
updated
- Maintenance boards (work card) / non-routine boards
- Bulletin (SB / TYE)
- Circular (A/C, A/D)
- Note, letter, fax, e-mail

Let us remember the bad habits and jargon regarding written communication,
and let as try to avoid those as much as possible:
- The less I write, the less I get into trouble in future!
- If I do not write this, they cannot prove what I am doing!
- All these papers and records cannot ever ensure that the aircrafts fly better!
- I do not have the time to fill out this form!

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 9

Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Human Factors

9.8 Human Error

Intentionally Blank

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Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Turkish Aviation Academy.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the
category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.

The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common
words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate,
typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and
comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other
subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and
apply corrective action where appropriate. Intentionally Blank

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.8 Human Error

Module 9. 8 Human Error Turkish Technic Inc.

9.8 - HUMAN ERROR

9.8.1 – Error Models and Theories………….………..….....................................9
Unintentional Errors, Violations and Unsafe Acts …………………..…...………..10
J. Reason Cheese Model (Swiss cheese)............................................................14
Dirty Dozen (12 Factors).......................................................................................15
Heinreich Theory...................................................................................................18
9.8.2 – Types of Error in Maintenance Tasks .................................... .............19 ..

The Most Common Maintenance Mistakes…………………….............................21

9.8.3 – Implications of Errors............................................................................22
Heinrich’s Theory ………………………………..…………………………………....24
9.8.4 – Avoiding and Managing Errors.......................................................... ....26 ..

MEDA – Maintenance Error Decision Aid.............................................................30

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Module 9.8 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-66)
Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:

Licence Category
Part 66
Objective Module 9
Reference
A B1 B2 B3

Human Error 9.8 1 2 2 2

Error models and theories; 9.8

Types of error in maintenance tasks; 9.8

Implications of errors (i.e. accidents); 9.8

Avoiding and managing errors. 9.8

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Module 9. 8 Human Error Turkish Technic Inc.

9.8.1 – Error Models and Theories

Error is a normal and natural part of everyday life, it is generally accepted that we will
make errors daily. In fact, research suggests that we make between three to six errors
every waking hour, regardless of the task being performed.

While this may appear to be a large number of errors, the good news is that the vast
majority have no serious consequences, because they are automatically self-
corrected: somebody or something reminds us what we should be doing, or the errors
we make do not involve a potential safety hazard.

Imagine that you drive the wrong way to the local shops. As you leave home, you turn
down the wrong street and realising this, you alter your course (self-correction), or the
passenger in your car says something (passenger reminds us where we were going),
or you continue on the wrong route (wasting time). Similarly, a pilot forgetting to
perform a checklist can be picked up by another crew member, or a warning system
on the aircraft. The term ‘near-misses’ describes errors that occur, but are corrected
before any damage is caused.

Some people refer to the terms human factors and human error as if they are the
same. Human factors is a field of scientific knowledge drawing from established
disciplines such as ergonomics, physiology, psychology and engineering.

Human error is the outcome or consequence of our human performance limitations.

Therefore human error involves all those situations where what you planned to do did
not happen. For example, forgetting to set the parking brake in your car, or hitting the
brakes in wet and slippery road conditions.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.8 Human Error

Human error can be divided into either intentional or unintentional actions.

Intentional actions
Those actions that involve conscious choices. These actions are largely due to
judgement or motivational processes.

Unintentional actions
Those in which the right intention or plan is incorrectly carried out, or where there is a
failure to carry out an action. These actions typically occur due to attention or memory
failures.

The figure below illustrates the difference between unintentional and intentional
actions:

Slips are errors made when you don’t pay attention, or your plan is incorrectly carried
out (e.g. you intend to drive to the shops, but turn the way you usually do to go work).

Lapses occur as a result of you failing to carry out an intended action, usually due to
a memory failure (you forget to buy something at the shop). For example, you forget to
check that the undercarriage locking pins are in place.
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Mistakes occur when you plan to do something, and carry out your plan accordingly,
but it does not produce the outcome you wanted (the shop does not sell the item you
are looking for). This is often because your knowledge was inadequate, or the rules
you applied in deciding what to do were inappropriate.

J.Reason describes two types of mistakes, rule-based and knowledge-based.

Rule-based mistakes occur in familiar situations where an engineer has a pre-existing

‘rule’ or guideline they use to guide their actions. This need not necessarily be a
formal rule; it could be a procedure or work habit that they usually follow in that
situation. The mistake happens when the rule no longer fits the situation, or the
engineer mis-identifies the situation.
Knowledge-based mistakes reflect a lack of necessary knowledge, or a lack of
awareness of where to find the necessary information. This is most likely to occur
when a person is performing an unfamiliar task, or is dealing with a non-routine
situation. Typically, a person who has made a knowledge-based error will say they did
not know about a procedure, or were confused by the task.
Violations involve deliberately (and consciously) departing from known and
established rules or procedures (you speed on the way to the shops to get there more
quickly).

Routine violations result when a violation becomes what is normally done (the norm)
within your workplace, or for you as an individual. Routine violations are often short
cuts taken to help you get the job done more quickly, more easily, or perhaps more
efficiently. Unless you monitor and control this behaviour, it can lead to a culture that
tolerates violations.
Situational violations occur when there is a gap between what the rules or procedures
require and what you think is available or possible. When there is a lack of local
resources, or a failure to understand real working conditions, this may increase
pressure on you to ignore procedures or break the rules to get the job done and
achieve targets.
Optimising violations (personal or organisational) involve you doing something for
personal goals, or simply for the associated thrills (for ‘kicks’). However, where there
are incentives, such as a bonus for meeting production targets, this may encourage
organizational optimising violations. Identifying organisational optimising violations can
assist in improving both productivity and safety goals within your organisation, if
brought out into the open, communicated and discussed.
Exceptional violations these are one-off actions you might take to deal with an unusual
situation, such as speeding to hospital rather than waiting for an ambulance, or
jumping into a runaway vehicle to stop it hitting someone.
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Person Approach and System Approach

It would be beneficial to correctly separate the human error from the system
failure at the beginning. There are two approaches to error; “individualistic approach”
and “the whole system approach”.
In the individualistic approach, i.e. the traditional approach, the interpretation made
after the incident or the accident suggests that, “Everything was in order, and so
the error is made by the last person that touched the aircraft (which happens to be
the technician in most cases)”. The important thing here is to investigate the issue
throughout the whole system, and to uncover the organizational factors that
contributed to the error.
It is important to understand the underlying causes of errors and violations. We
need to investigate whether the error is individualistic or more systematic, that is to
say, whether it is a repeatable problem or whether it is related to a single
person or the system as a whole.
Human Factor trainings help to recognize these factors one by one, and to prevent
conditions and behaviors that stimulate errors. However, unless the entire system (in
this case, the aircraft maintenance system) is designed to resist errors, the effect will
be limited. (Such as well-written procedures, good planning, mechanisms to detect
errors when they occur etc.)

Module 9. 8 Human Error Turkish Technic Inc.

We call the serious consequences of human errors "failures." Some human errors have
serious consequences, but most do not. In a typical conversation with another person,
we might misspeak several times. The only real consequence of these errors is to
cause us to repeat or clarify our speech. A small percentage of human errors can
cause or contribute to safety lapses or, in severe cases, accidents that destroy
property or injure people.

We typically distinguish between "active" and "latent" failures. The difference here
concerns the length of time that passes before human errors have an adverse impact
upon the safety of the aviation system. An active failure is the specific individual activity
that is an obvious event. In the case of active failures, the negative outcome is almost
immediate. But, for latent failures, the consequences of human actions or decisions
can take a long time to reveal themselves, sometimes many years. A latent failure is
the company issues that lead up to the event.

For example, an AMT climbs up a ladder to do a repair knowing that the ladder is
broken. In this example, the active error was falling from the ladder. The latent error
was the broken ladder that someone should have replaced.

The distinction between active and latent failures can be summarized as follows:

o Active failures are the result of unsafe acts (errors and violations) committed by
those at the "sharp end" of the system (pilots, air traffic controllers, AMTs, etc.).
They are the people at the human-system interface whose actions can, and
sometime do, have immediate adverse consequences.
o Latent failures are created as the result of decisions, taken at the higher echelons
of the organization. Their damaging consequences may lie dormant for a long time,
only becoming evident when they combine with local triggering factors (e.g., errors,
violations and local conditions) to breach the system's defenses.

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J. Reason Swiss Cheese Model
The Swiss Cheese model views the occurrence of accidents as the result of failures
within each layer of the system “lining up”. In Reason‘s model, the layers consist of
active failures, preconditions for unsafe acts, unsafe supervision, and organizational
influences. The latter three categories are considered to be latent. Active failures are
those actions and events that are causally related to the loss and occur during
operations.
A maintenance organization has many barriers against error. Errors may occur at any
stage in the maintenance process. However, most of the time, they are identified and
overcome before they cause an accident.
Preconditions for unsafe acts are conditions that exist during operations and lead to
the unsafe acts, such as operator fatigue or poor communication. This category also
covers design errors. For example, a design that places a power switch next to a
control switch in a safety-critical system in such a way that leads to mode confusion
may be described as a “precondition for an unsafe act”.
Reason‘s next level is unsafe supervision. Unsafe supervision implies that someone
is to blame and that he or she did not fulfill the role and responsibilities that were
assigned to him or her. In an example, Reason suggests that pairing two
inexperienced pilots together in the cockpit is an act of unsafe supervision. If two
pilots are both inexperienced, their communication could be poor (a precondition for
an unsafe act), which could lead to the failure of the pilot to command the first officer
to lower the landing gear (an active failure).
Finally, Reason considers organizational influences. Organizational influences affect
all decision-making. For example, productivity pressure can lead to high workload
conditions for operators, which in turn can cause to fatigue and lead to active failures.

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Dirty Dozen (The 12 Factors)
Due to a large number of maintenance-related aviation accidents and incidents that
occurred in the late 1980s and early 1990s, Transport Canada identified twelve
human factors that degrade people’s ability to perform effectively and safely, which
could lead to maintenance errors. These twelve factors, known as the “dirty dozen,”
were eventually adopted by the aviation industry as a straight forward means to
discuss human error in maintenance. It is important to know the dirty dozen, how to
recognize their symptoms, and most importantly, know how to avoid or contain
errors produced by the dirty dozen. Understanding the interaction between
organizational, work group, and individual factors that may lead to errors and
accidents, maintenance personnel can learn to prevent or manage them proactively
in the future.

1. Lack of Communication
Failure to transmit, receive or provide enough information to complete a task. Never
assume anything.
Only 30% of verbal communication is received and understood by either side in a
conversation. Others usually remember the first and last part of what you say.
Improve your communication
o Say the most important things in the beginning and repeat them at the end.
o Use checklists.

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2. Self-Confidence (Complacency)
Overconfidence from repeated experience performing a task.
Avoid the tendency to see what you expect to see
o Expect to find errors.
o Don’t sign it if you didn’t do it.
o Use checklists.
o Learn from the mistakes of others

3. Lack of Knowledge
Shortage of the training, information, and/or ability to successfully perform.
Don’t guess, know
o Use current manuals.
o Ask when you don’t know.
o Participate in training.

4. Distraction
Anything that draws your attention away from the task at hand.
Distractions are the #1 cause of forgetting things, including what has or has not
been done in a maintenance task.
Get back in the groove after a distraction
o Use checklists.
o Go back 3 steps when restarting the work.

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5. Lack of Teamwork
Failure to work together to complete a shared goal.
Build solid teamwork
o Discuss how a task should be done.
o Make sure everyone understands and agrees.
o Trust your teammates.

6. Fatigue
Physical or mental exhaustion threatening work performance.
Eliminate fatigue-related performance issues
o Watch for symptoms of fatigue in yourself and others.
o Have others check your work.

7. Lack of Resources
Not having enough people, equipment, documentation, time, parts, etc., to complete
a task.
Improve supply and support
o Order parts before they are required.
o Have a plan for pooling or loaning parts.

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8. Pressure
Real or perceived forces demanding high-level job performance.
Reduce the burden of physical or mental distress
o Communicate concerns.
o Ask for extra help.
o Put safety first.

9. Lack of Assertiveness
Failure to speak up or document concerns about instructions, orders, or the actions
of others.
Express your feelings, opinions, beliefs, and needs in a positive, productive manner
o Express concerns but offer positive solutions.
o Resolve one issue before addressing another

10. Stress
A physical, chemical, or emotional factor that causes physical or mental tension.
Manage stress before it affects your work
o Take a rational approach to problem solving.
o Take a short break when needed.
o Discuss the problem with someone who can help.

11. Lack of Awareness

Failure to recognize a situation, understand what it is, and predict the possible
results.
See the whole picture
o Make sure there are no conflicts with an existing repair or modifications.
o Fully understand the procedures needed to complete a task.

12. Norms
Expected, yet unwritten, rules of behavior.
Help maintain a positive environment with your good attitude and work habits
o Existing norms don’t make procedures right.
o Follow good safety procedures.
o Identify and eliminate negative norms.

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9.8.2 – Types of Error in Maintenance Tasks
Studies of error in safety-critical industries can estimate the overall probability of
errors, but we cannot predict when and where each individual error will occur. The
table below shows estimated error probabilities for maintenance tasks. These
estimates relate to 1960s technicians working on electronics and missile systems,
but they are still relevant for aircraft maintenance today. For example, the probability
that nuts and bolts will not be installed is estimated to be two per thousand, but the
chance that they will not be tightened is double this. Interestingly for error mitigation,
when someone is checking the work of another person, there is a 10 per cent
chance that they will miss a problem.
Estimated error probabilities on maintenance tasks
Task Errors/1000 tasks
Install nuts and bolts 2
Connect electrical cable 3
Install O-ring 3
Tighten nuts and bolts 4
Read pressure gauge 11
Install lock wire 32
Check for error in another person’s work 100
Given the high probability of human error, it is remarkable that relatively few serious
maintenance errors occur each year. Credit is due to the systems in place, and the
professionalism of maintenance personnel. Nevertheless, industries that rely on
accurate and consistent human performance must be designed to deal with the
inevitability of human error.
The threat human error poses can be viewed in the same light as other threats the
aviation industry must manage. Take lightning, for example. We know that lightning
will strike airport structures from time to time. We understand the long-term risk
factors (height of the structure, surrounding topography) and the immediate risk
factors (presence of a thunderstorm). We can also take appropriate precautions to
prevent lightning strikes, and limit their effect when they occur (grounding, surge
protection).
Human error can be seen as a natural threat that must be managed in much the
same way. An understanding of the risk factors for human error can help us to
reduce its frequency. We can also anticipate it, and take precautions to limit its
effects. The one difference is that unlike hazards in nature, human error is a
constantly evolving threat, as it stems from human beings’ infinite adaptability and
capabilities. The maintenance errors that occur this year, with current procedures
and equipment, may be different to those that will occur next year: the solutions that
work today may need to be revised and updated to continue work in 12 months’
time.

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Maintenance is a potential error process. It is also useful to examine the human
errors made during maintenance from this perspective, because there is a risk in
aviation that cannot be eliminated completely. Various classifications of the types
of error can be made.

There are four types of maintenance errors, depending on their causes:

1. Passive errors: Errors caused by excessive workload, misunderstanding, and
obliviousness.
2. Active errors: Errors caused by incompliance with the procedures and rules.
3. Wrong decisions and practices: Errors caused by lack of experience and
training.
4. Unawareness of the event: Errors caused by exceeded physical performance
limits.

Maintenance errors depending on the frequency of task repetition:

1. In regular/routine, repetitive tasks; errors occur because the person grows
overconfidence and/or does not make use of the documents.
2. In infrequent jobs; taking the wrong procedure as a reference or using a
defective part is a situation encountered occasionally.

The following errors are possible in aircrafts that are taken to maintenance:
1. The error is made during maintenance. (For example: changing a component
during aircraft maintenance and installing the new one wrongfully.)
2. An error exists when the aircraft is accepted for maintenance, and that error is
overlooked during maintenance. (For example: Not noticing the crack on an oil
pipe on the engine.)

Three illustrative errors:

1. The technician knows how to offset the pump, however, breaks the fitting
because he turns the key too hard. (An error made during the action)
2. After torqueing 3 out of 5 screws, the technician is called for another
duty. When he comes back, he forgets about the unclamped two screws
and moves on to the next step. (Memory problem)
3. “There is no need to do Trouble Shooting as I have experienced this
problem before. It will be sufficient to change this box.” (Error in planning out
the job).

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The Most Common Maintenance Mistakes
What are the maintenance errors made by an aircraft maintenance technician?
- Installation errors
- Service errors
- Repair errors
- Troubleshooting, inspection, errors made during testing
- Errors that cause FOD
- Errors that cause equipment damage
- Errors that cause staff injury

Factors that adversely affect aircraft maintenance and cause employee mistakes:

Night shift Agreements

Weather conditions Deferred maintenance work

Time pressure Lack of proper training

Employee morale
Poor communication
Family issues
Shift change
Equipment and procedures
Lack of manpower
Obliviousness
Pauses
Periods of collective agreement
Workload Long holidays
Bureaucracy / stationery Political instabilities
Cooperation / teamwork Airport safety

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.8 Human Error

There are varying estimates of the proportion of aircraft accidents related to maintenance
errors. Three studies found between 12 and 20 per cent of accidents involve maintenance.
According to some authorities, maintenance errors may be playing an increasing role in
causing accidents.

Percentage of accidents Source of data

12% Worldwide study of 93 major accidents between 1959 and 1983

15% IATA figures from 2008
20% Boeing statistics on 232 commercial jet aircraft accidents

Even when accidents are averted, maintenance errors can be costly. Airline data show that
between 20 and 30 % of in-flight engine shutdowns occur after maintenance problems, and
around 50 % of engine-related flight delays and cancellations are due to maintenance
errors.

There is some evidence to suggest there has been an increase in maintenance-related

aviation accidents. Boeing indicates maintenance errors as the primary cause in 6 % of all
accidents over the last ten years, while this figure was 3.4 % over the last forty years.
Similarly, the number of maintenance errors reported to the UK Civil Aviation Authority
(CAA) has increased significantly over the past couple of years.

We could debate the accuracy of these figures. For example, some may argue that the
increase is due to a better awareness today of human factors and what causes accidents.
In other words, engineers may now be reporting a human error today they might not have
reported twenty years ago, because of our more mature safety systems approach.

Whatever the statistics, one thing is clear; we still need to continue to look at why these
errors occur to further improve aviation safety and efficiency.

Ironically, there are no statistics for the positive contribution of human factors. We should
remember that in countless cases, human action has prevented or corrected dangerous
situations. For example, Boeing research indicates that most fatigue cracks in aircraft are
discovered by maintenance engineers who were actually performing an unrelated task
when they noticed the crack.

Module 9. 8 Human Error Turkish Technic Inc.

Three studies give an idea of the kind of maintenance problems that feature in accidents
and incidents.

In 1992 the UK CAA listed the most common maintenance errors found in occurrence
reports:
1. Incorrect installation of the component
2. Use of wrong fittings
3. Use of wrong parts in the electrical equipment (wiring discrepancies)
4. Loose objects (e.g. tools) left around the aircraft
5. Inadequate lubrication
6. Cowling, access panels and fairings not secured
7. Oil/fuel caps, and refuel panels not secured
8. Landing gear ground lock pins not removed before departure

In 2003, a Boeing study found that the three most common errors were:
1. Equipment or part not installed
2. Incomplete installation
3. Cross connections

In 2008, a NASA study analysed 1062 maintenance incidents reported to NASA. The most
common errors were:
1. Required service not performed (e.g. worn tyres not replaced)
2. Documentation problems (e.g. incorrect sign-off)
3. Wrong part fitted (e.g. -250 tyre fitted to -100 aircraft)
4. Unapproved or improper repair (e.g. noncompliance with maintenance manual)
5. Part not installed (e.g. spacers and washers left off)
6. Incomplete installation (e.g. nuts left ‘finger tight’)

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.8 Human Error

Herbert W. Heinrich put forward the following concept that became known as Heinrich's Law:

In a workplace, for every accident that causes a major injury, there are 29 accidents that cause
minor injuries and 300 near misses that cause no injuries. This is commonly depicted as a
pyramid or an iceberg.

Heinrich's law is based on probability and assumes that the number of accidents is inversely
proportional to the severity of those accidents. It leads to the conclusion that minimising the
number of minor incidents will lead to a reduction in major accidents, which is not necessarily
the case.

In this model, we can consider the base of the triangle as the part of the iceberg that is under
the water and hence is invisible. The ones presented here (3000 unsafe acts in our example)
are the events that are overlooked, though sometimes resolved, and yet is never reported;
and their causes are mostly not investigated. The causing factors behind the incidents that
are at the very top of the triangle (e.g. a plane crash) as well as the incidents that are at
the base of the triangle (e.g. filling out a form impartially) are, most of the time, the same. If
we could identify and eliminate these negativities during seemingly unimportant events, it
would be possible to prevent major incidents/accidents.

Module 9. 8 Human Error Turkish Technic Inc.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.8 Human Error

The main task of an air carrier is to carry its passengers and cargo from point “A”
to point “B” in the most comfortable and economically viable way. This can
only be possible by eliminating the causes of human-related errors in this
process. It would not be possible to completely eliminate all the risks inherent
in a system. Crises can only be controlled and prevented through risk
management. In the operations directed towards preventing risks, crises or
accidents, managers make decisions around the following three potential topics:

1. Sweeping away or eliminating the danger completely

2. Acknowledging the danger, and according to the existing danger,
designing and controlling the system in a way to tolerate errors and reduce the
likelihood of accidents
3. If danger cannot be eliminated and controlled, learning to live with the danger

Analyzing the “Plane that fell during take-off due to the glaciation” incident as a
solid example to this topic, we can conclude that one of the following
practices should have been preferred to prevent this accident:

1. In order to eliminate the danger, no aircrafts could have been allowed to

take off.
2. The danger could have been acknowledged, and in order to control the
danger, take offs could have been avoided in tracks that had not been de-iced.
Moreover, de-icing systems of the aircrafts should have been checked.
3. If living with danger was the option at hand, changes should have been
made in supervision and staff selection, and the system should have been
changed in a way to prevent the error.

Module 9. 8 Human Error Turkish Technic Inc.

8.26
Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
It is not possible to eliminate maintenance errors completely. However, it is
always possible to catch an error made somewhere within the maintenance
process. Aircraft maintenance practices in this direction are presented below:

o Functional check / leak check

If done properly, it helps identify unattached, unsecured, unadjusted items or
things that do not meet the criteria mentioned in the maintenance manual.
(For instance, an improperly attached fuel tube leaking fuel during the test).

o Duplicate inspection
The first control is done by the person is charge. However, a second qualified
employee controls the same job once more. There is no definitive list of tasks
requiring duplicate inspection. The following aspects should be taken into account
in preparing such a list:
 Criticality of the task (the result of the malfunction)
 The task being vulnerable to human error (previous events, risk
assessment)
 Presence/absence of other controls
 Control done by the pilot before the flight (Pre-flight check)

Making One’s Presence Felt (Trust)

A i r c r a f t technician is the authorized personnel with the responsibility and the
necessary competence. Staff, who is conscious about the job and aware of its
consequences, makes sure that the job is done appropriately and in accordance
with the rules and the procedures. A technician with adequate training and
experience is self-confident; and he would not put his signature under any
improper practice encountered during the maintenance or the controls, and he
would not allow such a problematic aircraft be signed up for a flight.

If there are requests, such as ignoring an unsuitable, out of limit or defective

system limit, he would not use his authority to compromise the safety of the flight,
and he would report and such instances.

Disciplined Management
No matter how large the organization is, it is the management that is responsible
for the functioning of the organization. It must ensure that the rules and procedures
are function properly. The management should never compromise on any topic
related to the maintenance and the flight safety. It is of great importance that the
changes and the regulations are implemented in the specified way and specified
times. In a sector where errors are irreparable or too costly, regulation of the
personnel and the working conditions, proper functioning of the procedures within
the system, and materialization of the required precautions are only possible with a
disciplined management.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.8 Human Error

© Copyright 2016 8.27
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Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016
Reporting Errors
Key Element is a system of the human factors program. Problems or potential problems
can be reported and analysed with this system. Many organizations already possess and
use technical publications for system reporting or these types of forms for
discrepancies. However, they should be extended, or the additional systems should allow
for human errors, ambiguities, and the reporting of the differences between procedures
and practices. In this section, we talk about the mechanisms of reporting, recording,
investigating and examining, analysing and taking precautions for all the safety related
issues that are available or unavailable in the company.

The requirements of Part-145 cover issues such as the reporting and comparing,
evaluating and evaluating of the incidents in order to identify the shortcomings of the
organization that are related to safety and to diagnose those unfavourable conditions. Key
behaviours are specific maintenance behaviours that aim to minimize the frequency and
effects of maintenance errors that would affect the safety and the security of the flight.

Key behaviours play a determining role in organizational development through MEDA

reviews and employee-focused groups.
Key elements;
o Purpose and the objectives should be clarified
o In reporting the incidents, company decisions as well as the responsibilities should
be established and identified
o The company should report writing and employee participation
o The company should identify and publish disciplinary rules and limitations
o Incident inspection methods should be determined
o Investigations on the reasons of repeatable errors should be identified and
published
o Investigators should be selected and trained
o Personnel should be given the Management Scheme training related to the
incidents
o Studies based on the appropriate actions must be found
o Feedback should be given on the results of the workforce
o Common data contributing to the factors that are frequent and leaning should be
analysed

Module 9. 8 Human Error Turkish Technic Inc.

o We need to review existing maintenance instructions when performing

system maintenance.
o We need to document additional detachments that are not specified in the
task instruction.
o We need to document the work status at the end of the shift or when switching
to a new task.
o We need to put warning sign/tag on all detached and scattered parts so as
to ensure that somebody notices the situation.
o After installing an LRU, we need to verify that it is in unity with its adjacent
connections.
o We need to complete all the necessary controls and tests.
o When closing a panel, we need to take a last look at the work done in terms of
safety-related errors.

Examination-Investigation of Errors
The purpose of analysing and investigating errors is to reduce errors arising during
maintenance processes or maintenance support processes, and improve flight
security. Errors have root causes and factors affecting those. Top priority is to
identify human error types and to determine the methods for minimizing these errors.
The personnel that investigates, analyses, and prepares reports needs to have
sufficient experience and must be trained on this issue.
When investigating the incidents, all related personnel should be interviewed and
detailed information should be gathered; and while doing that, it should be recalled
that the main purpose is not to punish the personnel, but to prevent future errors.

Addressing Specific Problems

When we investigate the results obtained from the investigations conducted after the
incidents, we first need to establish whether the error is a system error or and
individual one. In order to prevent the repetition of the error, a series of regulations
and recommendations are determined. If necessary, changes are made on the
procedures, and warnings and warning letters are written. Event or events that
caused the error is/are detected and regulatory precautions are taken.

Feedback
The personnel should be notified and aware of the results of the investigations and
the research. In this way, repetition of the incident is prevented. Publishing reports
and informing the personnel are some of the duties of the organization. In human
factor trainings, these reports or the causes of the incidents are discussed, and the
employee awareness is raised. The reports are analyzed annually, and the inhibitive
effect of the changes and regulations are checked.
Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.8 Human Error
© Copyright 2016 8.29
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Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016
MEDA (Maintenance Error Decision Aid)

MEDA is a method developed by Boeing and put to use by many airliners, and it is
a method used for investigating the causes of maintenance errors.

MEDA's approach to the issue is as follows:

o A person does not make a mistake intentionally.

o Maintenance errors are made due to a series of related factors.
o Many of these factors are part of the processes of the maintenance
organization and are under the control of the management. Therefore, it is
always possible to correct and improve these factors in a way to avoid errors in
future.
o We should regard the maintenance program as a system, and the technician
as a part of this system.

The goal of MEDA is to uncover the factors that adversely affect human performance
and give rise to error. We can easily observe in which areas and issues these
factors that give rise to a maintenance error intensify:

Mechanic Immediate Work Supervision Organization

Knowledge Environment Planning Philosophy
Expertise Building, Facility Organization Organization
Skills Weather Priority Politics
Design/configuration Delegation Procedures
of the aircraft Feedback Managem ent
Component design Perform ance Selection
Equipment/Tools/Parts Management Training
Maintenance manuals Team building Continuous
Tasks
improvement
Time pressure
of quality
Team work
Applied training

Module 9. 8 Human Error Turkish Technic Inc.

8.30
Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
o Inadequate lighting o Incomplete o Flight Cancellation
o Jumping work steps installation
o Use of wrong parts o In-flight shut down
o Poor reporting o Emergency landing
o Faulty reparation
o Lack of Skills o Delays
o Overlooking
o Access difficulties o Material damage
o Not establishing
o Lack of resources the malfunctioning o Injury
correctly
o Lack of supervision

For example, maybe a maintenance technician did not install a spacer on a nose
landing gear wheel (incomplete installation error) while re-installing the wheel,
which leads to an event. During the investigation, we find that he did not use the
maintenance manual to do the task because it was “not available;” he was working
in a poorly lighted room and did not see the spacer on the wheel that was being
replaced; and he was doing the task on overtime on the night shift and was
fatigued.

Turkish Technic Inc. Module 9.8 Human Error

Module 9. 8 Human Error Turkish Technic Inc.

Module 9

Licence Category A, B1 and B2

Human Factors

9.9 Hazards in the Workplace

Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace 9.1

9.2 Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace Turkish Technic Inc.

Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels
indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the
category B1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.

The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common
words and examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate,
typical examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed
procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and
comprehensive manner.
Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other
subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical
fundamentals and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using
manufacturer's instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and
apply corrective action where appropriate. Intentionally Blank

Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace 9.3

9.4 Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace Turkish Technic Inc.

Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only

.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

9.9 – HAZARD AT WORKPLACE

9.9.1 – Recognising and Avoiding Hazards......................................................9
Technician’s Individual Responsibilities …………….……………………………....12
9.9.2 – Dealing with Emergencies ………………………………………………...13

Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace 9.5

9.6 Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace Turkish Technic Inc.

Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only

Module 9.9 Enabling Objectives and Certification
Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EC) No.2042/2003 Annex III (Part-
66) Appendix I, as amended by Regulation (EC) No.1149/2011, and the associated Knowledge Levels
as specified below:

Licence Category
Part 66
Objective Module 9
Reference
A B1 B2 B3

Hazards in the Workplace 9.9 1 2 2 2

Recognising and avoiding hazards; 9.9

Dealing with emergencies. 9.9

Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace 9.7

9.8 Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace Turkish Technic Inc.

Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only

9.9 – HAZARDS IN THE WORKPLACE

9.9.1 – Recognising and Avoiding Hazards

Hazards at workplace generate health and safety issues, and the employees
must be protected from these dangers. There are many potential factors in aircraft
maintenance. Work accident is a negative situation leading to both financial and
emotional damages. Due to the natural characteristics of the work performed at
the workplace and the working conditions, many physical and chemical risks will
arise at the workplace environment. In fighting against the work accidents, as
the first stage, a comprehensive and thorough Risk Analysis needs to be done.

There are many potential hazards in the aircraft maintenance industry and it is
impossible to list them all here. However, a thorough health and safety appraisal
will reveal the hazards. Physical hazards may include:

o very bright lights (e.g. from welding)

o very loud sounds (sudden or continuous)
o confined or enclosed areas
o working at significant heights
o noxious substances (liquids, fumes, etc.)
o excessive temperature (i.e. too cold or too hot)
o moving equipment, moving vehicles and vibration
NOTE: Many of these have been addressed earlier in Part 5 “Physical Environment”

Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace 9.9

Turkish Technic Inc.
© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016
Occupational Health and Safety Law No. 6331/Article 4 places responsibility on
employers to produce a written statement of general policy with respect to the
Health and Safety at Work of its employees. The employer is also obliged to
bring to the notice of all its employees this policy together with the organisation
and arrangements in force for carrying out that policy. Thus, in an aircraft
maintenance organisation, the health and safety policy might include statements
applicable to the organisation such as the need to:

o Carry out assessments of work including inspections to determine Health and

Safety risks;
o Provide safe working practices and procedures for plant, machinery, work
equipment, materials and substances;
o Inform employees and other persons including temporary workers of any risk;
o Provide suitable training and/or instruction to meet any Health and Safety
risks;
o Develop and introduce practices and procedures to reduce risks to Health
and Safety including the provision of special protective devices and personal
protective equipment;
o Provide for the welfare of employees;
o Discuss with and consult employee representatives on Health and Safety
matters.

Maintenance organisations should appoint someone with health and safety

responsibilities.

If hazards cannot be removed from the workplace, employees should be made

aware that they exist and how to avoid them. This can be effected through
training and warning signs. To be effective, warnings signs must:

o clearly identify the hazard(s);

o describe the danger (i.e. electric shock, radiation, etc.);
o inform employees what to do or not to do.

The sign must attract a technician’s attention, it must be visible and it must be
understandable to the people it is aimed at. Additionally, in the maintenance
industry, it must be durable enough to remain effective, often for years, in areas
where dust and the elements can be present.

9.10 Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace Turkish Technic Inc.

Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only

Positive recommendations are more effective than negative ones. For example,
the statement "Stay behind yellow line on floor" is better than "Do not come near
this equipment". Warning signs should contain a single word indicating the
degree of risk associated with the hazard: DANGER denotes that the hazard is
immediate and could cause grave, irreversible damage or injury. CAUTION
indicates a hazard of lesser magnitude. The sign should also detail how to avoid
or manage the risk. CAUTION signs are generally yellow and black. DANGER
signs use red, black and white All the hazards and risks in the workplace
environment need to be identified, and accordingly, how the necessary
precautions can be taken should be investigated:

CAUTION SIGNS

Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace 9.11

The legislation notes that every individual in a workplace also has health and
safety responsibilities.

“Every aircraft maintenance technician should be aware

that he can influence the safety of
with whom he works.”

Thus, in an aircraft maintenance organisation, the health and safety policy might
include statements applicable to technicians such as the need to:

o Take reasonable care of the health and safety of themselves and others who
may be affected by their acts or omissions at work;
o Co-operate with the maintenance organisation to ensure that statutory
requirements concerning health and safety at work are met;
o Work in accordance with any safety instruction and/or training received;
o Inform their supervisor or management of work situations that represent an
immediate or potential danger to health and safety at work and any
shortcomings in protection arrangements;
o Not interfere intentionally or recklessly with, nor misuse, anything provided in
the interests of health and safety.

The attitude of an individual technician, team or maintenance organisation (i.e.

organisational culture) can have a significant impact on health and safety.
Individuals who display an anti-authority attitude, are impulsive, or reckless are a
danger in aircraft maintenance.

Technicians should ensure that they keep the working environment safe. Clutter,
rubbish, etc. is not only a nuisance to others, but can constitute a danger (e.g. a
trip hazard, fire hazard, etc.). In addition, technicians should be careful when
working on the line not to leave objects when a job has been completed. Foreign
Object Damage (FOD) is a risk to aircraft operating at an airfield.

Before operating or working on aircraft system, a technician should carry out

clearance checks around moveable surfaces (e.g. flying controls, landing gear,
flaps, etc.). Deactivation procedures should be followed (e.g. pull circuit breakers,
isolate valves, disconnect power, etc.). Notification of deactivation through the
provision of adequate placard in key locations is essential to inform others of
system status.

9.12 Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace Turkish Technic Inc.

Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only

9.9.2 – Dealing with Emergencies

Careful handling of health and safety in the maintenance environment should

serve to minimise risks. However, should health and safety problems occur, all
personnel should know as far as reasonably practical how to deal with emergency
situations.

Emergencies may include:

o An injury to oneself or to a colleague;

o A situation that is inherently dangerous, which has the potential to cause
injury (such as the escape of a noxious substance, or a fire)

Appropriate guidance and training should be provided by the maintenance

organisation. The organisation should also provide procedures and facilities for
dealing with emergency situations and these must be adequately communicated
to all personnel. Maintenance organisations should appoint and train one or more
first aiders.

The basic actions in an emergency are to:

1. Stay calm and assess the situation

2. Make the area safe
3. Assess all casualties to the best of ones abilities (especially if one is a
qualified first aider)
4. Call for help
5. Provide assistance as far as one feels competent to.

Emergency drills are of great value in potentially dangerous environments.

Aircraft maintenance technicians should take part in these wherever possible.
Knowledge of what to do in an emergency can save lives.

Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace 9.13

9.14 Module 9.9 Hazards in the Workplace Turkish Technic Inc.

Rev.02 – 01 Dec 2016 Training Purpose Only

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