PH212, APCS 2021-2022 4/12/2022

Chapter
Chapter34
33
Electromagnetic
ElectromagneticWaves
Waves

Lake Tekapo, New Zealand

Electromagnetic Waves

Mechanical waves require the presence of a medium.

Electromagnetic waves can propagate through empty space.
Maxwell’s equations form the theoretical basis of all electromagnetic waves
that propagate through space at the speed of light.
Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s prediction when he generated and detected
electromagnetic waves in 1887.
Electromagnetic waves are generated by oscillating electric charges.
 The waves radiated from the oscillating charges can be detected at great
distances.
Electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum.
Electromagnetic waves cover many frequencies.

Introduction

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James Clerk Maxwell

1831 – 1879
Scottish theoretical physicist
Developed the electromagnetic theory
of light
His successful interpretation of the
electromagnetic field resulted in the
field equations that bear his name.
Also developed and explained
 Kinetic theory of gases
 Nature of Saturn’s rings
 Color vision

Section 34.1

Four E&M Equations

From Prof Morii’s lecture

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Difference between E & M

From Prof Morii’s lecture

Maxwell’s Equations

  q  
 E  dA  ε o
 B  dA  0
  d   d
  ds   dt B
E   ds  μo I  μoεo dt E
B

Section 34.2 From Prof Morii’s lecture

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Lorentz Force Law

Once the electric and magnetic fields are known at some point in space, the
force acting on a particle of charge q can be found.
   
F  qE  qv  B
Maxwell’s equations with the Lorentz Force Law completely describe all
classical electromagnetic interactions.

Maxwell’s reasoning
 Ampere’s law

𝜎 𝑞
Φ = 𝐸𝐴 = 𝐴=
𝜖 𝜖
𝑑𝑞
𝐼 = =𝐼
𝑑𝑡

Section 34.2

Electromagnetic Waves in Free Space

In empty space, q = 0 and I = 0

𝛻∙𝐄=0 𝛻∙𝐁= 0
𝜕𝐁 𝜕𝐄
𝛻×𝐄=− 𝛻×𝐁=𝜇 𝜀
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Section 34.2

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Plane Electromagnetic Waves

Assume an electromagnetic wave that

travels in the x direction
 (direction
 of
propagation.) with E and B as
shown.
The electric field is assumed to be in
the y direction and the magnetic field
in the z direction  linearly polarized
waves
Assume that at any point in space, the
magnitudes E and B of the fields
depend upon x and t only.

Section 34.3

Derivation of Speed – Some Details

From Maxwell’s equations applied to empty space, the following partial
derivatives can be found:
 2E  2E  2B  2B
 μ ε
o o and  μ ε
o o
x 2 t 2 x 2 t 2
These are in the form of a general wave equation, with
1
v c 
μoεo
Substituting the values for μo and εo gives c = 2.99792 x 108 m/s
 Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light
 Electromagnetic waves obey the superposition principle

Section 34.3

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E to B Ratio – Some Details

The simplest solution to the partial differential equations is a sinusoidal wave:

 E = Emax cos (kx – ωt)
 B = Bmax cos (kx – ωt)
They are in phase
The angular wave number is k = 2π/λ
ω 2π ƒ
 λ is the wavelength   λƒ  c
k 2π λ
The angular frequency is ω = 2πƒ
 ƒ is the wave frequency
Emax ω E 𝜆
  c = 𝑣 → 𝜆𝑓 = 𝑣
𝑇
Bmax k B

Section 34.3

Properties of EM Waves

The components of the electric and

magnetic fields of plane
electromagnetic waves are
perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
 This can be summarized by saying
that electromagnetic waves are
transverse waves.
The figure represents a sinusoidal em
wave moving in the x direction with a
speed c.

Section 34.3

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Heinrich Rudolf Hertz

1857 – 1894
German physicist
First to generate and detect
electromagnetic waves in a laboratory
setting
The most important discoveries were in
1887.
He also showed other wave aspects
of light.

Section 34.2

Hertz’s Experiment

An induction coil is connected to a

transmitter.
The transmitter consists of two
spherical electrodes separated by a
narrow gap.
The coil provides short voltage
surges to the electrodes.
As the air in the gap is ionized, it
becomes a better conductor.
The discharge between the electrodes
exhibits an oscillatory behavior at a
very high frequency.
From a circuit viewpoint, this is
equivalent to an LC circuit.

Section 34.2

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Hertz’s Experiment, cont.

Sparks were induced across the gap of the receiving electrodes when the
frequency of the receiver was adjusted to match that of the transmitter.
In a series of other experiments, Hertz also showed that the radiation
generated by this equipment exhibited wave properties.
 Interference, diffraction, reflection, refraction and polarization
He also measured the speed of the radiation.
 It was close to the known value of the speed of light.

Section 34.2

Rays

A ray is a line along which the wave travels.

All the rays for the type of linearly polarized waves that have been discussed
are parallel.
The collection of waves is called a plane wave.
A surface connecting points of equal phase on all waves, called the wave front,
is a geometric plane.

A surface connecting points of radiation sends waves out radially in all

directions.
 A surface connecting points of equal phase for this situation is a sphere.
 This wave is called a spherical wave.

Section 34.3

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Poynting Vector

Electromagnetic waves carry energy.

The rate of transfer of energy by an em wave
is described by a vector,S , Poynting vector.
 1  
S  E B
μo

Its direction is the direction of propagation.

 Its magnitude represents the power per
unit area perpendicular to the direction of
propagation
 SI unit: J/(s.m2) = W/m2

Section 34.4

Intensity

The wave intensity, I, is the time average of S (the Poynting vector) over one or
more cycles.
 This defines intensity in the same way as earlier.
 The optics industry calls power per unit area the irradiance.
 Radiant intensity is defined as the power in watts per solid angle.
When the average is taken, the time average of cos2(kx - ωt) = ½ is involved.

2 2
Emax Bmax Emax c Bmax
I  Savg   
2 μo 2 μo c 2 μo

Section 34.4

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Energy Density

The energy density, u, is the energy per unit volume.

 For the electric field, 𝑢 = 𝜖 𝐸 /2
 For the magnetic field, 𝑢 = 𝐵 /2𝜇
Since B = E/c and c 1 μoεo
1 B2
uB  u E  εo E 2 
2 2 μo
 Equal energies in E and B
Total energy density is u =uE + uB = εoE2 = B2 / μo
Averaged energy density uavg = ½ εoE2max = B2max / 2μo
The intensity of an em wave : I = Savg = cuavg

Section 34.4

Momentum

Electromagnetic waves transport momentum as well as energy.

As this momentum is absorbed by some surface, pressure is exerted on the
surface.
Assuming the wave transports a total energy TER to the surface in a time interval
Δt, the total momentum transported to the surface

𝑇
𝑝=
𝑐
 for complete absorption.

𝐸 =𝑚 𝑐 +𝑝 𝑐

𝑚𝑐 ≪ 1
𝐸= 𝑚𝑐 + 𝑚𝑣
𝑣 2
1−
𝑐
Section 34.5

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Pressure and Momentum

Pressure, P, is defined as the force per unit area

F 1 dp 1  dTER dt 
P  
A A dt c A
But the magnitude of the Poynting vector is (dTER/dt)/A and so 𝑃 =
 For a perfectly absorbing surface
For a perfectly reflecting surface, p = 2TER /c and P = 2S/c
For a surface with a reflectivity somewhere between a perfect reflector and a
perfect absorber, the pressure delivered to the surface will be somewhere in
between S/c and 2S/c.
For direct sunlight, the radiation pressure is about 5 x 10-6 N/m2 .

Section 34.5

Production of em Waves by an Antenna

Neither stationary charges nor steady currents can produce

electromagnetic waves.
The fundamental mechanism responsible for this radiation is the acceleration
of a charged particle.
Whenever a charged particle accelerates, it radiates energy.

Section 34.6

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Production of em Waves by an Antenna, 2

This is a half-wave antenna.

Two conducting rods are connected
to a source of alternating voltage.
The length of each rod is one-quarter
of the wavelength of the radiation to
be emitted.

Section 34.6

Production of em Waves by an Antenna, final

The oscillator forces the charges to accelerate between the two rods.
The antenna can be approximated by an oscillating electric dipole.
The magnetic field lines form concentric circles around the antenna and are
perpendicular to the electric field lines at all points.
The electric and magnetic fields are 90o out of phase at all times.
This dipole energy dies out quickly as you move away from the antenna.
The source of the radiation found far from the antenna is the continuous
induction of an electric field by the time-varying magnetic field and the
induction of a magnetic field by a time-varying electric field.
The electric and magnetic field produced in this manner are in phase with each
other and vary as 1/r.
The result is the outward flow of energy at all times.

Section 34.6

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Angular Dependence of Intensity

This shows the angular dependence
of the radiation intensity produced by
a dipole antenna.
The intensity and power radiated are
a maximum in a plane that is
perpendicular to the antenna and
passing through its midpoint.
The intensity varies as (sin2 θ / r2

Section 34.6

The EM Spectrum

There is no sharp division

between one kind of em wave and
the next.
All forms of the various types of
radiation are produced by the
same phenomenon – accelerating
charges
Visible light is a small portion of
the spectrum.
Types are distinguished by
frequency or wavelength

Section 34.7

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Notes on the EM Spectrum

Radio Waves
 Wavelengths of more than 104 m to about 0.1 m
 Used in radio and television communication systems

Microwaves
 Wavelengths from about 0.3 m to 10-4 m
 Well suited for radar systems
 Microwave ovens are an application

Section 34.7

Notes on the EM Spectrum, 2

Infrared waves
 Wavelengths of about 10-3 m to 7 x 10-7 m
 Incorrectly called “heat waves”
 Produced by hot objects and molecules
 Readily absorbed by most materials

Visible light
 Part of the spectrum detected by the human eye
 Most sensitive at about 5.5 x 10-7 m (yellow-green)
 Different wavelengths correspond to different colors,
from red (λ ~ 7 x 10-7 m) to violet (λ ~4 x 10-7 m).

Section 34.7

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Notes on the EM Spectrum, 3

Ultraviolet light
 Covers about 4 x 10-7 m to 6 x 10-10 m
 Sun is an important source of uv light
 Most uv light from the sun is absorbed in the stratosphere by ozone

X-rays
 Wavelengths of about 10-8 m to 10-12 m
 Most common source is acceleration of high-energy electrons striking a
metal target
 Used as a diagnostic tool in medicine

Section 34.7

Notes on the EM Spectrum, final

Gamma rays
 Wavelengths of about 10-10 m to 10-14 m
 Emitted by radioactive nuclei
 Highly penetrating and cause serious damage when absorbed by living
tissue

Section 34.7

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Wavelengths and Information

These are images of the Crab Nebula.

They are (clockwise from upper left)
taken with:
 x-rays
 visible light
 radio waves
 infrared waves

Looking at objects in different portions

of the spectrum can produce different
information.

Section 34.7

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