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R-20 III-I IT
Computer Networks
Unit-1 Introduction
1. Computer Network is a collection of autonomous computers interconnected by a
single technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to
exchange information.

2. The connection need can be through wire, fibre optics, microwaves, infrared, and
satellites.

3. NOTE: Internet is a well-known example of a network of networks.

4. Computer Network vs Distributed Systems: In a distributed system, a collection

of independent computers appears as a single system. Ex: WWW

In a computer network, this model and software are absent. Users are exposed
to the actual machines. If the machines have different hardware and different
operating systems, it is fully visible to the users. If a user wants to run a program
on a remote machine, he has to log onto that machine and run it there.

5. Uses of CNs:
(a) Business Applications (Products, resource sharing)

Client-Server Model
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(b) Emails
(c) E-Commerce
(d) Home applications
(e) Government
(f) Science
(g) Sports
(h) Travel etc.

6. Peer-to-Peer Communication:

In this form, individuals who form a group can communicate with others in the
group, as shown above. Every person can communicate with one or more; there
is no fixed division into clients and servers.

Ex: social media, Whatsapp, sharing etc.

7.Mobile Users: Mobile computers, such as laptop and mobile phones, have overtaken
desktops. Connectivity to the Internet enables many of these mobile uses. Others
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are smartphones, GPS, m-commerce, RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), and

wearable computers (smart watches).

8.Network Types: There are two types of transmission technology that are in
widespread use: broadcast links and point-to-point links.

Point-to-point links connect individual pairs of machines. To go from the source to

the destination, packets may have to visit intermediate machines.

Point-to-point transmission with exactly one sender and one receiver is called
unicasting.

9.In a broadcast network, the communication channel is shared by all the machines
on the network. Packets sent by any machine are received by all the others.

Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If the packet is
intended for the receiver, it processes the packet; else, it is just ignored. Ex:
Wireless network.
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10. Personal Area Networks (PANs): PANs let devices communicate over the range
of a person. Ex: A wireless network that connects a computer with its peripherals;
Bluetooth etc.
A PAN (Personal Area Network) is a network designed for interconnecting devices
within a short range, typically within a few meters. It is primarily used for
communication among personal devices such as smartphones, tablets, laptops,
and other peripherals like printers and wearable devices. Here are key points about
PAN:

1. **Range and Connectivity**: PANs generally cover a small area, usually up to 10

meters. They connect devices using wired connections like USB or wireless
technologies such as Bluetooth, ZigBee, or Infrared.

2. **Purpose and Use**: PANs are intended for personal use, providing a seamless
communication network for an individual's devices. Common uses include syncing
data between a smartphone and a computer, connecting wireless headsets to a
phone, or linking fitness trackers to health apps.

3. **Types**:
- **Wireless PAN (WPAN)**: Utilizes wireless technologies like Bluetooth and
ZigBee. Bluetooth is widely used for its ease of connectivity and low power
consumption, making it ideal for mobile and portable devices.
- **Wired PAN**: Less common now, but still used in some scenarios with
technologies like USB for direct device-to-device connections.

4. **Advantages**:
- Convenience in connecting multiple personal devices.
- Low power consumption, especially with Bluetooth.
- Easy setup and configuration.

5. **Challenges**:
- Limited range restricts the distance between connected devices.
- Potential for interference from other wireless devices operating in the same
frequency range.

Overall, PANs are an essential part of modern personal technology, enabling

efficient and convenient communication among an individual’s various electronic
devices.

For further reading, you can check sources like TechTarget and IEEE for detailed
explanations of PANs and their technologies.

11. LANs: A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within a single building
like a home or an office. LANs are used to connect personal computers and
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consumer electronics to let them share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange
information. When LANs are used by companies, they are called enterprise
networks.

A LAN (Local Area Network) is a network that connects computers and other
devices within a limited geographical area, such as a home, office, or campus. It
enables devices to communicate and share resources like files, printers, and
internet connections efficiently. Here are some key points about LANs:

1. **Range and Infrastructure**:

- Typically covers a small area, such as a single building or a group of buildings.
- Utilizes network devices like switches, routers, and hubs to connect devices.
- Can be wired (using Ethernet cables) or wireless (using Wi-Fi).

2. **Purpose and Use**:

- Facilitates resource sharing, allowing multiple devices to access printers,
storage, and applications.
- Enhances communication within an organization through email, messaging, and
collaboration tools.
- Provides internet access to all connected devices through a central gateway.

3. **Types of LANs**:
- **Wired LAN**: Uses Ethernet cables (Cat5, Cat6) to connect devices, offering
high speed and reliability.
- **Wireless LAN (WLAN)**: Uses Wi-Fi technology to connect devices wirelessly,
providing flexibility and mobility.

4. **Advantages**:
- High speed and low latency for data transfer and communication.
- Improved security and control over network resources.
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- Cost-effective for small to medium-sized networks.

5. **Challenges**:
- Limited coverage area compared to wider networks like WANs.
- Requires proper security measures to protect against unauthorized access and
cyber threats.

6. **Technologies Used**:
- **Ethernet**: Standard for wired LANs, offering speeds from 10 Mbps to 100
Gbps.
- **Wi-Fi**: Standard for WLANs, with various versions (802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax)
providing different speeds and coverage.

7. **Topology**:
- **Star Topology**: Devices are connected to a central switch or hub.
- **Bus Topology**: Devices are connected along a single cable.
- **Ring Topology**: Devices are connected in a circular sequence.

8. **Security**:
- Implementation of firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and regular updates to
protect against security threats.
- Use of encryption protocols like WPA3 for wireless networks.

LANs are fundamental in both residential and business environments, providing the
backbone for internal network communication and resource sharing.

For more detailed information, you can refer to resources like Cisco's networking
guides and the IEEE's networking standards documentation.

12. Both wireless and wired broadcast networks are divided into static and dynamic
designs, depending on how the channel is allocated.

Static allocation divides time into discrete intervals and use a round-robin
algorithm,
allowing each machine to broadcast only when its time slot comes up.

Static allocation wastes channel capacity when a machine has nothing to say
during
its allocated slot, so most systems attempt to allocate the channel dynamically (on
demand).

Dynamic allocation methods are either centralized or decentralized.

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(a) In the centralized channel allocation method, there is a single entity, like a base
station in cellular networks, which determines who goes next. It might do this by
accepting multiple packets and prioritizing them according to some internal
algorithm.

(b) In the decentralized channel allocation method, there is no central entity; each
machine must decide for itself whether to transmit.

13. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): A MAN covers a city. The best-known
examples
of MANs are the cable television networks available in many cities.

A MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is a network that connects multiple LANs

(Local Area Networks) within a specific geographic area, such as a city or a large
campus. MANs are designed to extend over larger areas than LANs but are not as
extensive as WANs (Wide Area Networks). Here are some key points about MANs:

1. **Range and Scope**:

- Typically spans a city or a large campus.
- Connects multiple LANs to form a larger network, facilitating communication and
resource sharing across the connected sites.

2. **Infrastructure**:
- Utilizes high-speed fiber optic cables or wireless connections to link different
LANs.
- May use devices like routers, switches, and repeaters to manage data traffic
and maintain network performance.
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3. **Purpose and Use**:

- Facilitates high-speed data transfer and communication across multiple
locations within a metropolitan area.
- Commonly used by organizations with multiple office locations within a city,
universities with multiple campuses, and municipal governments.
- Supports applications like video conferencing, data sharing, and internet access
for the connected LANs.

4. **Advantages**:
- High-speed connectivity over large areas, enabling efficient data transfer and
communication.
- Cost-effective solution for organizations needing to connect multiple sites within
a city.
- Provides redundancy and load balancing, improving network reliability and
performance.

5. **Challenges**:
- Higher installation and maintenance costs compared to LANs.
- Requires careful planning and management to ensure optimal performance and
security.
- Potential for network congestion and latency issues if not properly managed.

6. **Technologies Used**:
- **Fiber Optic Cabling**: Provides high-speed, high-capacity connections
between different LANs.
- **Microwave and Wireless Links**: Used where laying fiber optic cables is
impractical, offering flexibility and ease of installation.
- **Ethernet**: Often used within MANs to interconnect LANs using high-speed
Ethernet protocols.

7. **Examples**:
- City-wide networks connecting municipal buildings, public libraries, and schools.
- University networks linking different campuses and research facilities.
- Corporate networks connecting multiple office buildings within a metropolitan
area.

8. **Security**:
- Implementation of robust security measures, such as firewalls, encryption, and
VPNs, to protect data and ensure secure communication across the network.
- Regular monitoring and maintenance to detect and address potential security
threats.
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Overall, MANs play a crucial role in enabling high-speed, reliable connectivity

across metropolitan areas, supporting the needs of businesses, educational
institutions, and government organizations.

For more detailed information, you can refer to resources like Cisco's networking
documentation and the IEEE's standards for MANs.

14. A WAN (Wide Area Network) spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent. In most WANs, the subnet consists of two distinct components:
transmission lines and switching elements.

Transmission lines move bits between machines. Switching elements, or switches,

are specialized computers that connect two or more transmission lines (ex:
routers).

A WAN (Wide Area Network) is a telecommunications network that extends over a

large geographical area, often encompassing cities, countries, or even continents.
WANs are designed to facilitate communication, data transfer, and resource sharing
across vast distances, connecting multiple smaller networks such as LANs (Local
Area Networks) and MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks). Here are some key
points about WANs:

1. **Range and Scope**:

- WANs cover large geographic areas, much larger than LANs and MANs.
- They can span cities, countries, or even global distances, linking different
regional or international networks.

2. **Infrastructure**:
- Utilizes a variety of transmission media, including fiber optic cables, satellite
links, leased lines, and public internet connections.
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- Employs networking devices such as routers, switches, and modems to manage

data traffic and connectivity.

3. **Purpose and Use**:

- Connects multiple LANs and MANs, facilitating communication and resource
sharing between geographically dispersed locations.
- Commonly used by large organizations, multinational corporations,
governments, and internet service providers (ISPs) to connect offices, data centers,
and branch locations.

4. **Advantages**:
- Enables efficient communication and data exchange over long distances.
- Supports business operations by providing connectivity between offices and
remote sites.
- Allows centralized data management and resource sharing across different
locations.

5. **Challenges**:
- Higher costs due to the need for extensive infrastructure and leased lines.
- Complexity in management and maintenance, requiring skilled personnel and
robust network management tools.
- Potential latency and bandwidth limitations, especially over very long distances
or congested network segments.

6. **Technologies Used**:
- **Leased Lines**: Dedicated, high-capacity connections provided by telecom
companies for reliable and secure data transfer.
- **Public Internet**: Used for cost-effective connectivity, often secured with VPNs
(Virtual Private Networks) to ensure data privacy.
- **MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching)**: A technique for efficient data routing
and management across WANs.
- **Satellite Communications**: Used in remote or hard-to-reach areas where
terrestrial infrastructure is impractical.

7. **Security**:
- Implementation of strong security measures, including encryption, firewalls, and
intrusion detection systems, to protect data transmitted over WANs.
- Use of VPNs to create secure, encrypted connections over public internet links.

8. **Examples**:
- Corporate WANs connecting regional offices, headquarters, and data centers
across different countries.
- Government networks linking various departments and agencies nationwide.
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- Global financial networks facilitating secure transactions and communication

between international branches.

WANs are essential for modern businesses and organizations, enabling seamless
connectivity and communication across vast distances. They support a wide range
of applications, from enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems and customer
relationship management (CRM) tools to video conferencing and cloud services.

For more detailed information, you can refer to resources such as Cisco's
networking documentation and the IEEE's standards for WANs.

15. Varieties of WANs:

 Instead of using dedicated transmission lines, a company might connect all its
offices to the Internet. This allows connections to be made between the offices
as virtual links that use the capacity of the Internet. This is known as Virtual
Private Network (VPN).
 The second variation is that the subnet may be run by a different company. The
subnet operator is known as a network service provider and the customers are
connected to it (ACT, JIO, Airtel etc.). Such a subnet operator is called an ISP
(Internet Service Provider) and the subnet is an ISP network.

16. Wireless Networks: Wireless networks can be divided into three main categories:
 System Inter-Connection: Almost every computer has a monitor, keyboard,
mouse, and printer connected to the main unit by cables. A short-range
wireless network called Bluetooth was designed to connect these
components without wires. Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets,
scanners, and other devices to connect to a computer if they are within
range.
 Wireless LANs: These are systems in which every computer has a radio
modem and antenna with which it can communicate with other systems.
 Wireless WANs: The radio network used for cellular telephones is an
example of a low-bandwidth wireless system.

17. Internetworks: Many networks exist in the world, with different hardware and
software. People connected to one network may want to communicate with people
attached to a different one. Hence, different incompatible networks are to be
connected.

A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or internet.

NOTE:
Subnet – refers to the collection of routers and communication lines owned by the
network operator.
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Network – is formed by the combination of a subnet and its hosts.

Internetwork – a collection of computers interconnected by a single technology.

18. Network Topologies (Interrelations):

 Protocol Hierarchies: Most networks are organized as a stack of layers or

levels to reduce their complexities. The number of layers, their names,
contents, and functions differ from network to network.

The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers while
shielding those layers from the details of how the offered services are actually
implemented. (Information Hiding or abstraction)

Each layer is a kind of virtual machine, offering certain services to the layer
above it.

When layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another

machine, the rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively
known as the layer n protocol.
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Figure: Layers, protocols, and interfaces.

In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer
n on another machine. Instead, each layer passes data and control information
to the layer immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached. Below layer
1 is the physical medium through which actual communication occurs. In the
figure above, virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical
communication by solid lines.
 A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture.
 A list of the protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is
called a protocol stack.

19. OSI Reference Model:

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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is called so since it deals with

connecting open systems (systems that are open for communication with other
systems). It has seven layers that can be summarized as below:

1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.

2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be depending on standard protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
5. The number of layers depends on the necessity and architecture.

20. The Physical Layer: The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over
a communication channel. The design issues have to do with making sure that when
one side sends a 1 bit it is received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
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These design issues largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces,
as well as the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.

21. The Data Link Layer: The task of the DLL is to transform a raw transmission into a
line that is free of transmission errors. This is done by masking the real errors so that
the network layer does not see them.

The sender breaks up the input data into data frames (few hundred or thousand
bytes) and transmits the frames sequentially. If the service is reliable, the receiver
confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back an acknowledgement frame.

22. The Network Layer: The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key
design issue is to determine how packets are routed from source to destination.

Routes can be based on static tables that are existing in the network and can be
updated automatically to avoid failed components.

If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in one
another’s way, forming bottlenecks. Handling congestion and quality of service are
also the responsibilities of the network layer, in concurrence with higher layers.

23. The Transport Layer: The function of the transport layer is to accept data from
above it, split it up into smaller units, pass these to the network layer, and ensure
that they arrive correctly at the other end. If any changes take place, the upper layers
should be unaffected.

The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session
layer, and, to the users of the network. The most popular transport connection is an
error-free point-to-point channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in
which they were sent.

The transport layer is an end-to-end layer; it carries data from the source to the
destination. A program on the source carries on a conversation with a similar
program on the destination, using the message headers and control messages.

24. The Session Layer: The session layer allows users on different machines to
establish sessions between them. Sessions offer various services like:

(a) Dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit)

(b) Token management (preventing two parties from attempting the same critical
operation simultaneously), and
(c) Synchronization (checkpointing long transmissions to allow them to pick up
from where they left off in the event of a crash and subsequent recovery).
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25. The Presentation Layer: It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted. Computers with different configurations will be used during
communication; to make this happen, data should be defined in an abstract way
(encrypted).

26. The Application Layer: It contains different protocols that are generally needed by
the users. Ex: HTTP, HTTPS (Hyper-text Transfer Protocol Secure). Other
application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.

27. The TCP/IP Reference Model: From the beginning, the ability to connect multiple
networks in a seamless way was one of the major design goals. This architecture
later became known as the TCP/IP Reference Model. Another major goal was that
the network be able to survive loss of subnet hardware, without existing
conversations being broken off.

That is, connections should remain intact as long as the source and destination
machines are functioning, even if the transmission lines in between are out of
operation.

28. The Link Layer: All the above said requirements led to the choice of a packet-
switching network based on a connectionless layer that runs across different
networks.

The lowest layer in the model is the link layer that describes what links (such as
serial lines and classic Ethernet) must do to meet the needs. It is not really a layer,
but rather an interface between hosts and transmission links.

29. The Internet Layer: The internet layer holds the whole architecture together. Its job
is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel
independently to the destination (potentially on a different network).

They may even arrive in a different order than they were sent, in which case it is the
job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired.
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The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet
Protocol), plus a companion protocol called ICMP (Internet Control Message
Protocol) that helps it function.

The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets to their destination. Packet
routing is clearly a major issue here, as is congestion.

NOTE: Congestion: Network congestion refers to a reduction in quality of service

(QOS) that causes packet loss, queueing delay, or the blocking of new connections.

30. The Transport Layer: The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is called
the transport layer. It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination
hosts to carry on a conversation. Two end-to-end transport protocols are used.

 Transmission Control Protocol: It is a connection-oriented protocol that allows

a byte stream originating on one machine to be delivered without error to any
other machine in the internet.

It segments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and passes each
one on to the internet layer. At the destination, the receiving TCP process
reassembles the received messages into the output stream.

TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot flood a slow
receiver with messages more than its capacity.

 User Datagram Protocol: It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol for

applications that do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control. They wish to
provide their own. It is used for single client-server-type request-reply queries
and applications where prompt delivery is important than accurate delivery.
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31. The Application Layer: It contains all the higher-level protocols. The early ones
included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP).

Some others are Domain Name System (DNS), for mapping host names onto their
network addresses, HTTP, the protocol for fetching pages on the World Wide Web,
and RTP, the protocol for delivering real-time media such as voice or movies.

32. Hybrid Model:

33. Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Models: Despite fundamental similarities, the two
models have many differences.
 Three concepts are central to the OSI model: Services, interfaces, protocols.
 Each layer performs some services for the layer above it. The service definition
tells what the layer does, not how it is accessed.
 A layer’s interface tells the processes above it how to access it. It specifies what
the parameters are and what results to expect.
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 The protocols used in a layer are decided and changed y the layer itself,
depending on whether the job is done or not.

34. Lack of OSI models success: Neither the OSI model nor the TCP/IP model is
perfect. The reasons are summarized below:

 Bad Timing: Whenever a new concept is discovered, there is a burst of research

activity, expanded algorithms and projects based on it. After some time, when all
this subsides, the concept becomes normal. When the standards are set on this,
investments increases again and after some more time, activity becomes less.

 Bad Technology: The second reason that OSI never caught on is that both the
model and the protocols are imperfect. The choice of seven layers was not
technical, and two of the layers (session and presentation) are nearly empty,
whereas two other ones (data link and network) are overfull. It can be stated that
the model is complex and difficult to understand and implement.

 Bad Implementations: Since the model and the protocols possessed high
complexity, it is no surprise that the initial implementations were huge,
cumbersome, and slow. In contrast, the first implementations of TCP/IP were good
and people began using it quickly.

 Bad Politics: TCP/IP was thought as an American model and OSI was understood
as a European model.
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35. A Critique of TCP/IP Reference Model: The TCP/IP model and protocols have
problems like:

 It does not distinguish the concepts of services, interfaces, and protocols.

 The TCP/IP model is not suited to describe any other protocol stack. (Ex:
Bluetooth)
 The link layer is not exactly a layer – it is only an interface (between the network
and data link layers).
 The TCP/IP model does not distinguish between the physical and data link layers.

Physical Layer

36. Guided Transmission Media: The purpose of the physical layer is to transport bits
from one machine to another. Various physical media can be used for the
transmission. Each one has its own role in terms of bandwidth, delay, cost,
installation and maintenance.

37. Media are grouped into

 guided media, such as copper wire and fiber optics, and
 unguided media, such as terrestrial wireless, satellite, and lasers through the
air.

38. Twisted Pair Cable: One of the oldest and still most common transmission media
is twisted pair. A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, about 1 mm
thick. The wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a DNA molecule.

39. Twisting is done because two parallel wires constitute a fine antenna. When the
wires are twisted, the waves from different twists cancel out, so the wire radiates
less effectively. A signal is carried as the difference in voltage between the two
wires in the pair. This provides better immunity to external noise. Ex: Telephones

40. Twisted pairs can run several kms without amplification, but for longer distances the
signal becomes weak and repeaters are needed. Due to their adequate performance
and low cost, twisted pairs are widely used.
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41. Links that can be used in both directions at the same time, like a two-lane road, are
called full-duplex links.

In contrast, links that can be used in either direction, but only one way at a time, like
a single-track railway line, are called half-duplex links.

A third category consists of links that allow traffic in only one direction, like a one-way
street. They are called simplex links.

42. Coaxial Cable: Another transmission medium is the coaxial cable. It has better
shielding and greater bandwidth than twisted pairs, so it can span longer distances
at higher speeds. Two kinds of coaxial cable are widely used:
 50-ohm cable, is used for digital transmission
 75-ohm cable is used for analog transmission and cable television network

A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an

insulating material. The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a
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closely woven braided mesh. The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic
sheath.

43. Fiber Optics: Fiber optics, or optical fiber, refers to the technology that transmits
information as light pulses along a glass or plastic fiber.

44. A fiber optic cable can contain a varying number of these glass fibers -- from a few
up to a couple hundred. Another glass layer, called cladding, surrounds the glass
fiber core. The buffer tube layer protects the cladding, and a jacket layer acts as the
final protective layer for the individual strand.

45. Fiber optic cables are commonly used because of their advantages over copper
cables. Some of those benefits include higher bandwidth and transmit speeds.
46. Fiber optics is used for long-distance and high-performance data networking. It is
also commonly used in telecommunication services, such as internet, television and
telephones.

47. How fiber optics works: Fiber optics transmit data in the form of light particles --
or photons -- that pulse through a fiber optic cable. The glass fiber core and the cladding
each have a different refractive index that bends incoming light at a certain angle.

48. When light signals are sent through the fiber optic cable, they reflect off the core and
cladding in a series of zig-zag bounces, following a process called total internal
reflection.

49. The light signals do not travel at the speed of light because of the denser glass
layers, instead traveling about 30% slower than the speed of light.

50. To renew or boost the signal, fiber optics transmission requires repeaters at distant
intervals. The repeaters regenerate the optical signal by converting it to an electrical
signal, processing that electrical signal and retransmitting the optical signal.
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51. Fiber optic cables are now able to support up to 10 Gbps signals. Typically, as the
bandwidth capacity increases, it becomes more expensive.

52. Fiber Cables: Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the braid. Figure
below shows a single fiber viewed from the side.

53. At the centre is the glass core through which the light propagates. In multimode
fibers, the core is typically 50 microns in diameter, about the thickness of a human
hair. In single-mode fibers, the core is 8 to 10 microns.

54. The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index of refraction than the
core, to keep all the light in the core. Next comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the
cladding. Fibers are typically grouped in bundles, protected by an outer sheath.

55. Two kinds of light sources are typically used to do the signalling. These are LEDs
(Light Emitting Diodes) and semiconductor lasers.
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56. Comparison of Fiber Optics and Copper Wire: