November 2023

Quantifying vented by-product hydrogen:

FC Heading Heading
a case study in China FC Heading
FC Subheading Subheading
FC Subheadin

Abstract
The International Energy Agency estimated that by-product hydrogen constituted 16 per cent of global
hydrogen production in 2022, primarily through naphtha reforming during oil refining.
1 However, this definition of by-product hydrogen is quite narrow since it can also be generated through
many other industrial and chemical processes like chlorine, coke, propylene or ethylene production.
While some industries use a portion of this by-product hydrogen produced in the waste streams within
their operations, a significant proportion has been vented into the atmosphere for decades, a practice
that has been largely unnoticed by the public.
However, the venting of hydrogen can have adverse climate consequences. Recent studies analyzing
hydrogen leakage have demonstrated that hydrogen’s global warming potential over 20 years could be
as high as 40 times that of carbon dioxide.2 Consequently, estimating vented by-product hydrogen and
investigating ways to mitigate this problem are important for the burgeoning hydrogen economy and to
prevent any unintended climate repercussions.
By-product hydrogen is particularly significant in China, due to the strong presence of and high industrial
and chemical output from the industries mentioned above. This report estimates China's annual by-
product hydrogen production from nine major industrial and chemical processes and uses a range of
venting ratios to calculate the amount of hydrogen directly discharged into the atmosphere. Our analysis
suggests that around 13-16 million tons (Mt) of by-product hydrogen are being produced annually in
China through various industrial processes; meanwhile 1.6 to 8.1 Mt of that hydrogen is estimated to
be vented into the atmosphere. The uncertain but potentially significant scale of venting hydrogen would
make it a comparable or even larger source than hydrogen leakage from the whole hydrogen supply
chain (estimated to amount to 2.4 Mt/y in 2020 in the world).3
However, these estimates are subject to significant uncertainty due to data gaps and divergent
estimates across different industrial processes. Assessing, addressing hydrogen’s fugitive emissions
and promoting sustainable hydrogen consumption requires regulating by-product hydrogen’s
production and prioritizing its capture and utilization. This includes assessing the feasibility and costs
of by-product hydrogen usage.

Insight: 140 Yushan Lou, Anne-Sophie Corbeau, Zhiyuan Fan,

Centre on Global Energy Policy, Columbia
Introduction
China is currently the largest hydrogen producer and consumer, well ahead of the United States (10 Mt)
with production estimates for 2020 ranging between 26 to 33 Mt.4 The range stems from the varying
estimates of by-product hydrogen in statistics. Derived as an unintended or secondary product of
industrial processes and often mixed with other gases, by-product hydrogen is not always fully
accounted for in hydrogen reviews and statistics. The International Energy Agency (IEA) attributes a
substantial proportion of Chinese hydrogen production to coal gasification (21 Mt) and natural gas (5
Mt), with a notable portion (7 Mt) classified as by-product hydrogen.5
Hydrogen leakage has been attracting attention over the past year with various estimates given on its
current and future significance. But most studies on this topic focus on hydrogen leakage from traditional
production methods such as coal gasification, steam methane reforming and electrolysis, which
produce pure hydrogen, as well as from storage, transportation and use of hydrogen, overlooking by-
product hydrogen.6 Meanwhile, the direct venting of by-product hydrogen is a long-standing practice
documented across various countries including the United States, Europe, China, and Jordan, driven
by economic constraints and the absence of regulatory classification as to whether it is an air pollutant
or indirect greenhouse gas (GHG), despite available extraction and purification technologies. 7 8 9 10 11
While many countries’ hydrogen strategies overlook by-product hydrogen, China's approach recognizes
it as a source of supply but does not adequately address venting or the associated climate
implications.12 This research aims to estimate the annual amount of by-product hydrogen released into
the air in China from nine key industrial processes, as the scale of vented by-product hydrogen from
industrial activities has never been fully assessed. It will employ a combination of desk research and
data analysis to estimate the amount and sources of by-product hydrogen, and the amount that is
currently being vented. By doing so, this study seeks to shed light on the scale and potential climate
impact of vented by-product hydrogen from industrial activities, and highlight the importance of
capturing and utilizing this valuable resource to promote a sustainable low-carbon hydrogen economy.
The findings of this study may have relevance to other regions grappling with similar challenges, as the
issue of hydrogen venting is not limited to China alone.

By-product hydrogen and its climate implications

By-product hydrogen, generated as an unintended product within the waste gas mixture of several
industrial processes, is typically recycled, combusted on-site, within the facility’s operation.13 Yet, as
mentioned before, a significant proportion has been discharged into the air without any treatment as a
standard practice. Indeed, a lack of market opportunities and transport infrastructure for this industrial
by-product hydrogen have rendered it economically unattractive. 14 This has resulted in limited
government involvement and industry awareness of its actual availability. This lack of awareness is
further compounded by the fact that by-product hydrogen is usually manufactured, handled, and
disposed of within the same facility, and not available to neighbouring facilities in the absence of
infrastructure.15
However, it is time for a reevaluation of this practice. The venting of hydrogen into the atmosphere can
have negative climate consequences. When released into the atmosphere, hydrogen acts as an indirect
greenhouse gas. 16 Its interaction with other atmospheric components can lead to increased
concentrations of methane, ozone, and water vapour, all of which have significant global warming
potential.
Research in the early 2000s demonstrated that the development of a future hydrogen economy (largely
based on fuel cells at that time) would have a greenhouse impact. 17 18 19 This is because hydrogen is
the smallest molecule and has a tendency to leak into the atmosphere during production, storage,
transport, and usage. Once in the atmosphere, around 20–30 per cent is oxidized by reacting with the
hydroxyl radical (OH).20 This leads to an increase in the amounts of the following GHGs: methane, and
ozone and water vapour.

2
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.
 • Methane concentrations in the troposphere increase as less OH is available to react with
methane, leading to a longer lifetime for methane.
• When hydrogen is oxidized, the reaction produces atomic hydrogen which leads to the creation
of ozone through a series of reactions.
• Finally, the oxidation of hydrogen also increases the amount of water vapour in the stratosphere.
While the global warming potential (GWP) of hydrogen has been primarily characterized using the
GWP-100 metric, the results have been inconsistent. Moreover, the warming effects of hydrogen are
transient, comparable to methane, and do not accumulate over time (unlike carbon dioxide). The
maximum GWP occurs around seven years after the initial pulse of emissions, making the reporting of
hydrogen’s potency in GWP-100 less valuable in conveying the much larger relative climate impacts
over shorter time horizons.21 Recent studies have therefore included GWP-20 (Table 1).
Derwent et al found in 2020 that hydrogen has a global warming potential (GWP) of 5±1 over a hundred-
year time horizon.22 Meanwhile, Hauglustaine et al found a higher 100-year GWP of 12.8 and a 20-year
GWP of 40.1 with an uncertainty range of 24.23 Finally, Warwick et al in 2022 found that hydrogen has
a GWP of 11 on a 100-year timescale and 33 on a 20-year timescale.24 The disparity between the
studies is likely due to the fact that the most recent analyses included previously ignored changes in
water vapour in the stratosphere and ozone in the troposphere in the GWP calculations. 25 Despite
these differences, they all concur on the potential of hydrogen to extend the lifespan of methane, a
potent yet short-lived greenhouse gas that has been the focal point of climate mitigation efforts in recent
years. 26 Considering the scale of projected hydrogen consumption in the future, leakage has the
potential to significantly undermine the climate benefits of a hydrogen-based economy. 27
Table 1: Estimates of hydrogen global warming potential
GWP-20 GWP-100
Derwent et al 2006 - 5.8
Derwent et al 2020 - 5±1
Field and Derwent 2021 - 3.3 ± 1.4
Hauglustaine et al. 2022 40.1 ± 24.1 12.8 ± 5.2
Warwick et al. 2022 33 +11/-13 11 ± 5
Sand et al. 2023 - 11.6 ± 2.8
Source: Derwent el al(a). 28, Derwent el al(b). 29, Field, A.& Derwent, R.G. 30, Hauglustaine et al. 31, Warwick et al.
32, Sand et al33.

Addressing hydrogen leakage is crucial, especially as the hydrogen industry is on the brink of scaling
up. However, none of the past studies looking at hydrogen leakage have considered by-product
hydrogen, but only focused on the more traditional parts of the hydrogen economy, such as the
production, storage, transport, and final consumption of pure hydrogen. The impact of by-product
hydrogen released into the atmosphere from industrial activities in the past has not been evaluated,
and estimates of vented by-product hydrogen have not been incorporated in existing literature on
hydrogen’s climate impact. These gaps highlight the need for further research on the impact of hydrogen
leakage and the importance of including vented by-product hydrogen in future assessments.

The Chinese context: production, consumption, and venting

China, being the largest global producer of steel and chemicals, generates significant amounts of
hydrogen as a by-product from various industrial processes, such as chemical, petrochemical, and
metallurgical.34 35 This by-product hydrogen emerges from various processes, including:

3
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.
 • Coke: during the coking process, coal is heated in the absence of air to produce coke. This
process releases various gases, including hydrogen. The gas mixture is often referred to as
coke oven gas (COG), and it contains about 55 per cent of hydrogen.
• Sodium chlorate (NaClO₃): produced by the electrolysis of sodium chloride (salt) solution.
While the primary products are sodium chlorate and chlorine, hydrogen gas is released as a
by-product at the cathode.
• Chlor-alkali process: involves the electrolysis of salt (sodium chloride) to produce chlorine
and sodium hydroxide. Hydrogen is produced as a by-product at the cathode during this
electrolysis.
• Methanol: typically produced from natural gas through steam methane reforming (SMR).
During this process, methane reacts with steam to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
While hydrogen is used in the synthesis of methanol, excess hydrogen can be a by-product.
The production of methanol is one of the current applications for hydrogen and existing use-
case for by-product hydrogen.
• Ammonia: produced using the Haber-Bosch process, where nitrogen from the air reacts with
hydrogen, typically derived from natural gas via SMR. The primary goal is to produce ammonia,
but excess hydrogen can sometimes be generated. The production of ammonia is one of the
current applications for hydrogen.
• Semicoke: produced by the pyrolysis of coal or oil residues. The pyrolysis process releases
various gases, including hydrogen, as by-products.
• Propylene: can be produced through various methods, including steam cracking of
hydrocarbons. During steam cracking, hydrocarbons are broken down into smaller molecules,
producing ethylene, propylene, and other by-products, including hydrogen. In the process of
propane dehydrogenation to propylene, while the product propylene is produced, the same
molar amount of hydrogen is by-produced.
• Refined oil: during oil refining, various processes like hydrocracking and desulfurization require
hydrogen. These processes can produce excess hydrogen as a by-product.
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): PVC is produced by polymerizing vinyl chloride monomer (VCM).
VCM is produced from ethylene and chlorine. While hydrogen is not a direct by-product of PVC
production, the production of chlorine (used in making VCM) through the chlor-alkali process
generates hydrogen as a by-product.

The absence of a well-developed hydrogen market primarily contributes to by-product hydrogen’s

waste.36 In China, like in the rest of the world, hydrogen generation and consumption typically occurs
within the same facility, leading to a weak linkage between by-product hydrogen producer and potential
consumer(s). 37 Limited economic incentives exist for companies to separate and sell by-product
hydrogen as the associated purification costs can be substantial. 38 Additionally, the available
infrastructure for hydrogen storage and transport remains underdeveloped.39

Estimation of by-product hydrogen production and venting in China

Estimation of annual volume of by-product hydrogen produced in China

In order to estimate the total amount of by-product hydrogen, we have used the total production volumes
of these various industrial and chemical products mentioned above, and a waste gas production ratio,
allowing us to calculate the volumes of waste gas. While some of these processes generate a high
purity stream of hydrogen as a by-product, others produce hydrogen mixed with impurities and other
gases. For example, the electrolysis of brine produces hydrogen up to 99.9 volume/per cent in purity

4
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.
 during the production of sodium chloride production (chlor-alkali process), while coke production
generates coke oven gas with up to 59 per cent hydrogen content but containing impurities such as tar
and sulphur compounds.40 The presence of impurities can impede the purification process, making it
more challenging to extract by-product hydrogen. Based on typical percentages of hydrogen in waste
gas (against impurities), we can estimate volumes of by-product hydrogen produced for each process
(Table 2).
Table 2: Estimated by-product hydrogen production in China annually (2020)
Primary Primary product Waste gas H2vol% in Total by-product H2 (t) Other
product production production waste gas components in
volume (t/yr) ratio (m3/t) the waste gas (in
vol%)

Coke 471,000,000 430 54~59 9,829,834～10,740,004 CH4: ~ 25, CO:

6.5; CnHm: 2.5;
CO2: 2, N2: 4,
Sulfur

Methanol 49,840,000 480 60~75 1,290,130~1,612,663 CH4: 5 ~ 11,

CO: 5 ~ 7;
CO2: 2~13, N2:
0.5~20

Chlor-alkali 41 36,730,000 270 98.5~99 877,979~882,435 N2: ~ 0.5

O2: ~1
Other

Semicoke 40,850,000 715 26~30 682,550 ~787,558 CO: 5~7; CH4:

7~8.5,
CO2: 6~9,
N2: 35~39

Propylene 7,370,000 500 80~92 264,966 ~304,711 C2H6: 1~2;

C3H8: 0.5~1;
N2: 1~2

Refined oil 674,000,000 *5% of total 14~90 239,590 ~ 1,540,224 CH4: 3~25, C2+
refined oil at :15~30
density of NH3
0.565 H2S
kg/m3

Ammonia 49,540,000 200~300 20~30 178,106~400,739 CH4:7~18,

Ar: 3~8;
N2: 7~25

Polyvinyl 20,740,000 62 50~70 57,787~80,902 C2H2: 5~15;

chloride (PVC) C2H3Cl: 8~25;
N2: 10~15

Sodium 850,000 620~660 92~95 44,998~47,902 O2: ~2.5

chlorate Other

Total 13,465,942 ~ 16,397,138

Source: Chen et al 42, China EV10043, Li, Y. & Huang, S. A44, Liu et al 45, Tu et al 46, Wang et al 47

5
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.
The total production of by-product hydrogen in China was estimated to be between 13.5 to 16.4 Mt in
2020. This represents 40 to 50 per cent of China’s reported hydrogen consumption (33 Mt) and 15 to
18 per cent of global hydrogen consumption (90 to 94 Mt).48 This is also significantly higher than the 7
Mt previously reported as by-product hydrogen, which corresponds to the quantities collected and used
and points to potentially significant quantities wasted – between 6.5 and 9.4 Mt of hydrogen.49 It is
noteworthy that around 65-70 per cent of total by-product hydrogen comes from coke oven gas, with
methanol purge gas and chlor-alkali industry (for sodium chloride production) being the second and
third sources (see Figure 1). Meanwhile, the six other processes represent a maximum of 11 to 19 per
cent of total by-product hydrogen produced in China.
Figure 1: Estimated annual by-product hydrogen production in China (2020)

Note: The percentage of each product is calculated based on the average of the range of the estimated by-product
hydrogen produced using data from Table 2.
Source: author calculations, based on Table 2.

Estimation of annual volume of by-product hydrogen vented in China

Accurate data on the venting of by-product hydrogen is scarce. Some reports, such as Inner Mongolia's
5-year hydrogen development plan, mentioned that approximately 160,000 tons of by-product hydrogen
were vented in 2020. The region’s chlor-alkali and coking industries produced over 1.3 Mt of by-product
hydrogen in total in 2020, implying a 12.3 per cent venting rate for the chlor-alkali and coking industries
combined.50
Some industry-specific venting ratios are also available for coke oven gas and chlor-alkali processes in
China due to their large-scale production. However, these venting ratios vary significantly; for coke oven
gas, the ratios range from 20 per cent to 50 per cent, whereas for the chlor-alkali industry, they range

6
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.
between 30 and 40 per cent.51 52 53 54 In the U.S., up to 50 per cent of by-product hydrogen from chlor-
alkali plants may be flared or vented, while in Europe, this figure has been much lower, around 10 to
15 per cent (Figure 2).55 56 57 58 Further investigation is required as there is currently no available data
on the venting ratio of by-product hydrogen for production processes other than the chlor-alkali industry
in the United States and Europe. Even for the part of that hydrogen that is recycled and used, some
applications are rather ‘low-grade’ uses for the valuable hydrogen gas, such as steam generation and
low-temperature heating, which can be easily substituted by other energy sources, while hydrogen use
should be reserved for the hard to abate sectors where its use makes more sense. However, the costs
of recovering, treating and transporting hydrogen to these sectors should be assessed versus these
low grade uses.
Given the variability in venting ratios among industries and facilities and the limited data available,
estimating the exact amount of by-product hydrogen vented in China is challenging. Despite these
challenges, it is important to recognize the significance of the issue and to make reasonable estimates
of the potential amount of by-product hydrogen vented. While the estimated ratio of by-product
hydrogen vented in most remaining processes (ranging between 2.7 to 4.7 Mt) is unavailable, we have
used venting ratios ranging from 12.3 per cent - based on data provided in the Inner Mongolia’s 5-year
plan, to 50 per cent - the top range ratio for coke oven gas, to estimate the total amount vented in China.
Based on the 2020 estimated value for total by-product hydrogen produced in China, the total amount
of by-product hydrogen vented could range between 1.6 to 8.1 Mt per year. The comparison between
our estimates of total by-product hydrogen (13.5 to 16.4 Mt) compared to the IEA’s estimate for by-
product hydrogen used (7 Mt) was leaning towards the higher values for unaccounted (vented) by-
product hydrogen (6.5 Mt to 9.4 Mt). These estimates are, of course, subject to significant uncertainties
due to the variability in venting ratios across industries and facilities, and the limited availability of
reliable data.
Figure 2: European chlor-alkali industry’s hydrogen applications in 2021 listed by Euro Chlor

Source: Euro Chlor 59

Utilization of vented hydrogen in China: potential solutions and mitigation

strategies
By-product hydrogen is seen as a hydrogen source for the near future to quickly expand the hydrogen
applications in China. The national plan for the hydrogen sector, unveiled in March 2022, prioritizes the
utilization of by-product hydrogen in the near term. 60 This is particularly evident in areas with high
production levels, especially in provinces known for their extensive metallurgical and chemical outputs.
Provinces such as Shandong, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Inner Mongolia, and Hebei consider by-product

7
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.
hydrogen as an economical means to strengthen the hydrogen industry.61 62 63 64 65 Some regions have
even established production goals for by-product hydrogen by 2025. 66
Efforts have been made to improve by-product hydrogen utilization and reduce vented hydrogen. This
is more common within the chlor-alkali industry due to the high purity level of by-product hydrogen
produced. For instance, Yan et al.(2018) recorded how a chlor-alkali manufacturer modified its system
to transport originally vented hydrogen through pipelines to Tangshan Ossia Chemical Co., Ltd., a silica
manufacturer. 67 In their 2016 paper, Zhao et al cite a sodium chlorate manufacturer based in Inner
Mongolia reported a series of modifications and upgrades to its hydrogen recycling device in order to
collect hydrogen in its waste stream.68 Wang and Yao (2014) reported that the Henan Shenma Chlor-
Alkali Manufacturing firm constructed 370 meters of pipelines to send its by-product hydrogen to a nylon
manufacturing plant across river.69 Conversely, documentations of case studies on the collection of
vented by-product hydrogen from other industrial processes remain scarce. These processes often
result in a higher concentration of impurities, which in turns leads to increased costs and technical
challenges associated with the purification and extraction of by-product hydrogen (see Table 2).
However, comprehensive data regarding the availability and management of by-product hydrogen,
including the total amount produced, the fractions vented, combusted, and collected, remains limited. 70
The acquisition of more robust data is crucial to facilitate well-informed decision-making by
policymakers and industry leaders regarding resource optimization and systematic reduction of
hydrogen’s climate impact.

Conclusion
The increasing interest in hydrogen as a potential decarbonization solution has renewed scientific
inquiries into its possible climate impact. Our study highlights the need to better understand the venting
of by-product hydrogen as an issue and obstacle to achieve a sustainable low-carbon hydrogen
development. The lack of attention and comprehensive data on the venting of by-product hydrogen is
a concern, given the potential climate impact of hydrogen leakage, as demonstrated by research
conducted since the early 2000s. Therefore, it is essential to improve data collection on the production
and venting of by-product hydrogen to better comprehend how much hydrogen can be prevented from
being released into the atmosphere; the hydrogen recovered could be used in existing and new
applications.
It is important to also recognize the indirect climate impact of hydrogen and take action to reduce vented
hydrogen in the air, since the venting of by-product hydrogen has significant climate impact, with the
estimated amount of hydrogen released resulting in significant CO2-equivalent emissions per year.
Moreover, the economic impact of this loss must be considered against the question of how much of
this hydrogen could be economically recovered in the long run. The rate of decarbonization in the steel
and chemical industries is expected to lead to a drop in by-product hydrogen availability in the future.
However, in the short term, measures must be taken to control venting.
Encouraging the flaring of hydrogen within facilities that generate by-product hydrogen could result in
lower greenhouse warming effects, but this process must avoid co-combustion of other impurities in the
waste stream. The reduction of vented hydrogen would not only have immediate positive climate
impacts, but would also benefit the long-term, as hydrogen leakage is a plausible concern in the
emerging hydrogen economy. It is worth noting, however that by-product hydrogen produced in many
of the nine processes covered is very often fossil-based. Some processes such as chlor-alkali may be
in a position to produce low carbon hydrogen if they use clean sources for electricity.

8
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.
Sources

1International Energy Agency (IEA). Global Hydrogen Review 2023.

https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/8d434960-a85c-4c02-ad96-
77794aaa175d/GlobalHydrogenReview2023.pdf
2Hauglustaine, D., Paulot, F., Collins, W., Derwent, R., Sand, M., & Boucher, O. (2022). “Climate
Benefit of A Future Hydrogen Economy.” Communications Earth & Environment, 3(1), Article 1.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00626-z
Warwick, N., Griffiths, P., Keeble J., Archibald A., & Pyle J. (2022). “Atmospheric Implications of
Increased Hydrogen Use.” Department for Energy Security and Net Zero & Department for Business
Energy & Industrial Strategy.
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/624eca7fe90e0729f4400b99/atmospheric-implications-
of-increased-hydrogen-use.pdf
Sand, M., Skeie, R. B., Sandstad, M., Krishnan, S., Myhre, G., Bryant, H., Derwent, R., Hauglustaine,
D., Paulot, F., Prather, M., & Stevenson, D. (2023). A multi-model assessment of the Global Warming
Potential of hydrogen. Communications Earth & Environment, 4(1), Article 1.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00857-8
3Fan, Z. et al. (2022). Hydrogen Leakage: A Potential Risk for the Hydrogen Economy. Center on
Global Energy Policy. https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2022/07/HydrogenLeakageRegulations_CGEP_Commentary_063022.pdf.
4International Energy Agency (IEA). (2023). Opportunities for Hydrogen Production with CCUS in
China. International Energy Agency. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/9c01430d-9e8f-4707-
862c-35453b9e7d89/OpportunitiesforHydrogenProductionwithCCUSinChina.pdf.
5 Ibid
6Fan, Z. et al. (2022). Hydrogen Leakage: A Potential Risk for the Hydrogen Economy. Center on
Global Energy Policy. https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2022/07/HydrogenLeakageRegulations_CGEP_Commentary_063022.pdf
7Lee, D. Y. et al. (2018). Life cycle greenhouse gas emissions of hydrogen fuel production from chlor-
alkali processes in the United States. Applied Energy. 217:467-479.
DOI:10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.02.132
8Euro Chlor. (2022). Chlor-alkali industry review 2021-2022.
https://www.chlorineindustryreview.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Industry-Review-2021-2022.pdf
9Xiang, D. et al. (2018). A novel coke-oven gas-to-natural gas and hydrogen process by integrating
chemical looping hydrogen with methanation. Energy.165: 1024-1033. (2018)
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.10.050.
10 Khasawneh, H. et al. (2019). Utilization of hydrogen as clean energy resource in chlor-alkali
process. Energy Exploration & Exploitation. 37: 1053-1072.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0144598719839767
11Zhou, J. et al. New Process of Separation and Purification Byproduct Hydrogen in Chlor-Alkali
Plants. (2010). IEEE. 4097-4100. DOI: 10.1109/MACE.2010.5535424.
12National Energy Administration (国家能源局). (2022). “Medium and Long-Term Strategy for the
Development of the Hydrogen Energy Industry (2021-2035)” (氢能产业发展中长期规划[2021-2035
年]), March 24. http://zfxxgk.nea.gov.cn/1310525630_16479984022991n.pdf.

9
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.
13 Tu, K. J. et al. (2022). Prospects of Renewable Hydrogen in China and its Role in Industrial
Decarbonization. Agora Energiewnede.
https://www.energypartnership.cn/fileadmin/user_upload/china/media_elements/publications/2022/Ag
ora/Prospects_of_Renewable_Hydrogen.pdf
14 Ibid
15 Ibid
16Fan, Z. et al. (2022). Hydrogen Leakage: A Potential Risk for the Hydrogen Economy. Center on
Global Energy Policy. https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2022/07/HydrogenLeakageRegulations_CGEP_Commentary_063022.pdf.
17Tromp, T. K. et al. (2003). Potential Environmental Impact of a Hydrogen Economy on the
Stratosphere. Science. 300:1740-1742. DOI: 10.1126/science.1085169.
18 Prescott, G. R., & Shannon, B. (2001). Process equipment problems caused by interaction with
hydrogen—An overview. Process Safety Progress, 20(1), 63–72.
https://doi.org/10.1002/prs.680200113
19Rahn, T. et al. (2003). Extreme deuterium enrichment in stratospheric hydrogen and the global
atmospheric budget of H2. Nature. 424: 918-921. DOI: 10.1038/nature01917
20 Hauglustaine, D., Paulot, F., Collins, W., Derwent, R., Sand, M., & Boucher, O. (2022). “Climate
Benefit of A Future Hydrogen Economy.” Communications Earth & Environment, 3(1), Article 1.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00626-z
21Ocko, I., & Hamburg, S.P. (2022). Climate consequences of hydrogen emissions. Atmospheric
Chemistry and Physics. 22: 9349-9368. DOI: 10.5194/acp-22-9349-2022
22 Derwent, R.G et al. (2020). Global Modelling Studies of Hydrogen and Its Isotopomers Using
STOCHEM-CRI: Likely Radiative Forcing Consequences of a Future Hydrogen Economy.
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 45, 9211–21 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.01.125
23Hauglustaine, D. et al. (2022). Climate Benefit of a Future Hydrogen Economy. Communications
Earth & Environment 3, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00626-z
24 Warwick, et al. Atmospheric Implications of Increased Hydrogen Use. Government of the UK
(2022).
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/10
67144/atmospheric-implications-of-increased-hydrogen-use.pdf.
25
Warwick, N. et al. (2022). Atmospheric Implications of Increased Hydrogen Use. Government of the
UK
26Mar, K. A. et al. (2022). Beyond CO2 equivalence: The impacts of methane on climate, ecosystem,
and health. Environmental Science & Policy.134:127-136. DOI:10.1016/j.envsci.2022.03.027
27 Fan, Z. et al. (2022). Hydrogen Leakage: A Potential Risk for the Hydrogen Economy. Center on
Global Energy Policy, Columbia University
https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/publications/hydrogen-leakage-potential-risk-hydrogen-
economy/
28 Derwent, R. G, et al.(2006). “Global Environmental Impacts of the Hydrogen Economy.”
International Journal of Nuclear Hydrogen Production and Applications 1 (1): 57.
https://doi.org/10.1504/IJNHPA.2006.009869
29 Derwent, R. G, et al (2020). “Global Modelling Studies of Hydrogen and Its Isotopomers Using
STOCHEM-CRI: Likely Radiative Forcing Consequences of a Future Hydrogen Economy.”
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 45 (15): 9211–21.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2020.01.125

3
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.
30Field, R. A., and R. G. Derwent. (2021). “Global Warming Consequences of Replacing Natural Gas
with Hydrogen in the Domestic Energy Sectors of Future Low-Carbon Economies in the United
Kingdom and the United States of America.” International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 46 (58):
30190–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2021.06.120
31Hauglustaine, D. et al. (2022). “Climate Benefit of A Future Hydrogen Economy.” Communications
Earth & Environment, 3(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00626-z
32 Warwick, N. et al. (2022). “Atmospheric Implications of Increased Hydrogen Use.” Department for
Energy Security and Net Zero & Department for Business Energy & Industrial Strategy.
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/624eca7fe90e0729f4400b99/atmospheric-implications-
of-increased-hydrogen-use.pdf
33Sand, M. et al. (2023). A multi-model assessment of the Global Warming Potential of hydrogen.
Communications Earth & Environment, 4(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00857-8
34 Chemical. (n.d.). IEA. (2023). https://www.iea.org/energy-system/industry/chemicals
35 Iron & steel. (n.d.). IEA. (2023). https://www.iea.org/energy-system/industry/steel
36 Tu, K. J. et al. (2022). Prospects of Renewable Hydrogen in China and its Role in Industrial
Decarbonization. Agora Energiewnede.
https://www.energypartnership.cn/fileadmin/user_upload/china/media_elements/publications/2022/Ag
ora/Prospects_of_Renewable_Hydrogen.pdf.
37Yan, X. et al. 2018. Utilization of hydrogen recovered in caustic soda system and vented hydrogen
(烧碱系统回收氢气与放空氢气的利用). Chlor-Alkali Industry (氯碱工业).54:18-21 (2018).
DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1008-133X.2018.02.005
38Razzaq, R. et al. (2013). Coke Oven Gas: Availability, Properties, Purification, and Utilization in
China. Fuel. 113 : 287–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2013.05.070
39 Hydrogen Supply. (n.d.). IEA. Retrieve from https://www.iea.org/reports/hydrogen-supply
40 Tu, K. J. et al. (2022). Prospects of Renewable Hydrogen in China and its Role in Industrial
Decarbonization. Agora Energiewnede.
https://www.energypartnership.cn/fileadmin/user_upload/china/media_elements/publications/2022/Ag
ora/Prospects_of_Renewable_Hydrogen.pdf
41This number reflects the conventional chlor-alkali process. In conventional chlor-alkali processes,
ion-exchange membranes produce chlorine (Cl2) and hydrogen (H2) at the anode and sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) at the cathode in the electrolyte (Hou et al. 2018). Recently, more chlor-alkali
producers are switching to use oxygen depolarized cathodes (ODCs), which uses O2 reduction at the
cathode of the cells, and does not produce any H2 (Jung, Postels, and Bardow 2014). It is uncertain
how many Chinese manufacturers already use ODCs, but just a few firms have announced plans to
adopt it in recent years. The chlor-alkali industry will generate less hydrogen as a by-product if more
enterprises employ ODCs
42Chen et al. Research and Application of Hydrogen Production Technology from Industrial By-
Product Gas under the Background of Carbon Neutrality (碳中和背景下工业副产气制氢技术研究与应
用). Chemical Industry and Engineering Progress (化工进展). 41:1479-1468. (2022).DOI:
10.16085/j.issn.1000-6613.2021-2240
43China EV100. China's Hydrogen Energy Development Route 1.0: How to Realize a Green, Efficient
and Economical Hydrogen Energy Supply System (中国氢能发展路线 1.0：如何实现绿色高效经济的
氢能供应体系).(2020).Retrieve from
pdf.”https://www.ev100plus.com/Upload/File/202001/40102142_%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E6%B
0%A2%E8%83%BD%E5%8F%91%E5%B1%95%E8%B7%AF%E7%BA%BF.pdf.

4
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.
44Liu, H. (2022). Study on Efficient Multi-production Utilization Technology of Coke Oven Gas (焦炉煤
气高效多联产利用技术研究). Modern Chemcial Research (当代化工研究) 147-148 .DOI:
10.3969/j.issn.1672-8114.2022.03.049
45Zhong, W. (2021). Application of Membrane Separation Technology in Gas Recycle in Refinery(膜
分离技术在炼厂气回收中的应用). Petrochemical Industry Technology. 45: 61-63. (2008). DOI:
10.3969/j.issn.1006-0235.2008.02.018
46 Tu et al. Prospects of Renewable Hydrogen in China and its Role in Industrial Decarbonization.
Agora Energiewnede. (2022) Retrieved from
https://www.energypartnership.cn/fileadmin/user_upload/china/media_elements/publications/2022/Ag
ora/Prospects_of_Renewable_Hydrogen.pdf.
47
Wang et al. Technical Evaluation on the Process of Methanol Syngas Production based on Coke
Oven Gas (焦炉煤气制取甲醇合成原料气技术评述). Coal Chemical Industry (煤化工). 5:51 (2006).
DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1005-9598.2006.05.012
48Using 33 Mt as the total hydrogen consumption per year in China; global hydrogen demand was
estimated to be 90 Mt in 2020 and 94 Mt in 2021 (IEA 2021 Global Hydrogen review and 2022 Global
Hydrogen Review)
49International Energy Agency (IEA). (2023). Opportunities for Hydrogen Production with CCUS in
China. International Energy Agency. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/9c01430d-9e8f-4707-
862c-35453b9e7d89/OpportunitiesforHydrogenProductionwithCCUSinChina.pdf.
50Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Energy Bureau (内蒙古自治区能源局). (2022).Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region "14th Five-Year" Hydrogen Energy Development Plan (内蒙古自治区‘十四五’氢
能发展规划). http://nyj.nmg.gov.cn/zwgk/zfxxgkzl/fdzdgknr/tzgg_16482/
tz_16483/202202/t20220228_2010712.html.
51Liu, H. (2022). Study on Efficient Multi-production Utilization Technology of Coke Oven Gas (焦炉煤
气高效多联产利用技术研究). Modern Chemcial Research (当代化工研究) 147-148 .DOI:
10.3969/j.issn.1672-8114.2022.03.049
52 Ren, K. et al. (2022). Environmental and Economical Assessment of High-Value Utilization Routes
for Coke Oven Gas in China. Journal of Cleaner Production 353: 131668.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131668
53Yinet al. Purification and Extraction of Hydrogen from Coke Oven gas for Hydrogen Fuel Cell (焦炉
煤气净化提取氢燃料电池用氢气). Natural Gas Chemical Industry—C1 Chemistry and Chemical
Industry (天然气化工—C1 化学与化工) 44: 87.(2019). DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1001-9219.2019.01.017
54Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Energy Bureau (内蒙古自治区能源局). (2022).Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region "14th Five-Year" Hydrogen Energy Development Plan (内蒙古自治区‘十四五’氢
能发展规划). http://nyj.nmg.gov.cn/zwgk/zfxxgkzl/fdzdgknr/tzgg_16482/
tz_16483/202202/t20220228_2010712.html.
55Lee, D-Y. et al. (2018). By-product hydrogen from steam cracking of natural gas liquids (NGLs):
Potential for large-scale hydrogen fuel production, life-cycle air emissions reductions, and economic
benefit. Argonne National Laboratory. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.09.039
56 Energy Information Administration. (2008). The Impact of Increased Use of Hydrogen on Petroleum
Consumption and Carbon Dioxide Emissions.
https://www.eia.gov/analysis/requests/2008/sroiaf%282008%2904.pdf
57 Euro Chlor. (2022). Chlor-alkali industry review 2021-2022.
https://www.chlorineindustryreview.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Industry-Review-2021-2022.pdf
58China EV100(中国电动汽车百人会). China Hydrogen Energy Industry Development Report 2020
(中国氢能产业发展报告 2020). (2020). http://www.ev100plus.com/#/report/detail/58
5
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.
59 Euro Chlor. (2022). Chlor-alkali industry review 2021-2022.
https://www.chlorineindustryreview.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Industry-Review-2021-2022.pdf
60 National Energy Administration (国家能源局). (2022). “Medium and Long-Term Strategy for the
Development of the Hydrogen Energy Industry (2021-2035)” (氢能产业发展中长期规划[2021-2035
年]), March 24. http://zfxxgk.nea.gov.cn/1310525630_16479984022991n.pdf.
61
Shandong Provincial Energy Bureau (山东省能源局). (2021).Shandong Province Hydrogen Industry
Medium and Long-Term Development Plan (2020–2030) (山东省氢能产业中长期发展规划[2020–2030
年]). http://www.shandong.gov.cn/art/2021/12/6/art_307620_10330565.html.
62Shanxi Development and Reform Commission (山西省发展和改革委员会).(2022). Shanxi Province
Hydrogen Industry Medium and Long-Term Development Plan (2022–2035) (山西省氢能 产业发展中
长期规划[2022–2035 年]). http://fgw.shanxi.gov.cn/tzgg/202208/ t20220823_6989633.shtml.
63Shaanxi Provincial Development and Reform Commission (陕西省发展和改革委员会). (2022) The
Notice For Shaanxi Province’s 14th Five-Year Plan Hydrogen Energy Industry Development Plan,
Shaanxi Province’s Three-Year Action Plan for Hydrogen Energy Industry Development (2022–2024),
and Shaanxi Province’s Several Measures to Promote the Development of Hydrogen Energy Industry
Notice on Policies and Measures” (陕西省发展和改革委员会关于印发《陕西省“十四五”氢能产业发展
规 划》《陕西省氢能产业发展三年行动方案[2022–2024 年]》《陕西省促进氢能产业发展的若干政策措
施》的 通知). https://sndrc.shaanxi.gov.cn/fgwj/2022nwj/jY32Qz.htm.
64Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region Energy Bureau (内蒙古自治区能源局). (2022).Inner Mongolia
Autonomous Region "14th Five-Year" Hydrogen Energy Development Plan (内蒙古自治区‘十四五’氢
能发展规划). http://nyj.nmg.gov.cn/zwgk/zfxxgkzl/fdzdgknr/tzgg_16482/
tz_16483/202202/t20220228_2010712.html.
65Hebei Development and Reform Commission (河北省发展和改革委员会).(2021) Hebei Province
Hydrogen Industry Development 14th Five-Year Plan (河北省氢能产业发展“十四五”规
划).http://hbdrc.hebei.gov.cn/common/ueditor/jsp/upload/20210720/48981626768731487.
pdf?eqid=a6729d0c000437b50000000464817a54.
66Lou, Y. and Corbeau, A. (2023). China’s Hydrogen Strategy: National vs. Regional Plans. Center
on Global Energy Policy, Columbia University. https://www.energypolicy.columbia.edu/wp-
content/uploads/2023/10/ChinaHydrogenDevelopment-Commentary_CGEP_102023-4.pdf
67Yan, X. et al. (2018). Utilization of hydrogen recovered in caustic soda system and vented hydrogen
(烧碱系统回收氢气与放空氢气的利用). Chlor-Alkali Industry (氯碱工业).54:18-21
DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1008-133X.2018.02.005
68Zhao et al. (2016). Discussion on Recycling Technology of Byproduct Hydrogen of Sodium Chlorate
(氯酸钠副产氢气回收利用工艺探讨). China Chlor-Alkali. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1009-1785.2016.03.014
69Wang, G. and Yao, Y. (2014). Summary of Vented Hydrogen Recovery and Utilization (放空氢气回
收利用总结). China Chemical Trade (中国化工贸易).6 24:163. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1674-
5167.2014.24.146
70China Hydrogen Alliance(中国氢能联盟). Hydrogen Energy and Fuel Cell Industry in China White
Paper (中国氢能源及燃料电池产业白皮书). (2020). https://www.pvmeng.com/2021/05/06/18680/

6
The contents of this paper are the authors’ sole responsibility. They do not necessarily represent the views
of the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies or any of its Members.