Article

Thermal Analysis of Automobile Drive Axles by the Thermal

Network Method
Xinfei Ning 1,2,3 , Mingzhang Chen 1,2,3, * , Zijian Zhou 1,2,3 , Yuwen Shu 1,2,3 , Wei Xiong 1,2,3 , Yang Cao 1,2,3 ,
Xuebing Shang 1,2,3 and Zixi Wang 1,2,3

1 School of Automotive Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China;

[email protected] (X.N.); [email protected] (Z.Z.); [email protected] (Y.S.);
[email protected] (W.X.); [email protected] (Y.C.); [email protected] (X.S.);
[email protected] (Z.W.)
2 Hubei Key Laboratory of Advanced Technology for Automobile Components,
Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan 430070, China
3 Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Automotive Components Technology,
Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, 430070, China
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-18627851919

Abstract: Excessive temperature is detrimental to the operation stability of the automobile drive axle.
It is necessary to judge whether the highest temperature exceeds the limited dangerous temperature
and study the effects of key factors on reducing the temperature. In this study, the temperature field
distribution (TFD) of the automobile drive axle is revealed using the thermal network method (TNM).
Compared with the experimentation and finite element analysis (FEA), the TNM is more convenient
for obtaining the temperature. Subsequently, the highest temperature of the automobile drive
axle is clear and applied to judge whether the highest temperature exceeds the limited dangerous
temperature. On the basis of the TNM, the structure and parameter effects of the automobile drive
axle on reducing the temperature are studied, which improves the operation stability and working life.
Citation: Ning, X.; Chen, M.; Zhou,
Several conclusions can be drawn. The highest temperatures of two-axle and planetary automobile
Z.; Shu, Y.; Xiong, W.; Cao, Y.; Shang,
drive axles are both located in the motor. Compared with the two-axle drive axle, the highest
X.; Wang, Z. Thermal Analysis of
temperature of the planetary drive axle is obviously lower. Therefore, in terms of the planetary drive
Automobile Drive Axles by the
Thermal Network Method. World
axle, the possibility of exceeding the limited dangerous temperature is lower. In addition, on the
Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75. https:// premise of ensuring the normal operation, the motor output power, the friction coefficient among
doi.org/10.3390/wevj13050075 teeth, the helical angle of the gear, and the thermal transfer coefficient of the lubricating oil can be
optimized to be lower for reducing the temperature of the automobile drive axle.
Academic Editors: Joeri Van Mierlo
and Zonghai Chen
Keywords: automobile drive axle; thermal analysis; thermal network method; optimization; working life
Received: 7 March 2022
Accepted: 26 April 2022
Published: 27 April 2022

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral

1. Introduction
with regard to jurisdictional claims in The automobile drive axle is the pivotal component of the automobile power system
published maps and institutional affil- and, therefore, requires a strictly controlled temperature. If the temperatures of some parts
iations. in the automobile drive axle exceed the limited dangerous temperature, the operation
stability and working life of the drive axle will be influenced. Therefore, it is necessary to
obtain the TFD of the automobile drive axle, and the highest temperature can be applied for
judging whether the temperature exceeds the limited dangerous temperature. Furthermore,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
there are many high temperature parts in the automobile drive axle owing to the continuous
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
heat production from the thermal source. It is necessary to study the effects of key factors
This article is an open access article
on reducing the temperature, which is beneficial to improving the operation stability and
distributed under the terms and
working life.
conditions of the Creative Commons
The reducer, the motor, and differential are three key components in the automobile
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
drive axle. Recently, some researchers conducted a thermal analysis study of the parts in
4.0/).
these components using experimentation [1]. Ref. [2] put forward a novel idea to obtain

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj13050075 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75 2 of 13

the TFD of the high-speed motor shaft. Ref. [3] conducted an experiment study on the
thermal characteristics of a motor using longitudinal transducers. Ref. [4] carried out some
thermal imaging experiments of a vehicle motor for temperature performances within low
visibility at night. Ref. [5] proposed an experimental method for the TFD of the bearing.
Ref. [6] studied the development of the temperature in a bearing using the experiment
and analysis. Ref. [7] studied the TFD of the motor, and the results were verified by an
experiment. Ref. [8] revealed a way combining the experiment and analysis to research the
effects of different parameters on the temperature of the gearbox. Ref. [9] conducted some
experiments for the thermal characterization of a low-backlash planetary gearbox.
Some other scholars adopted the FEA for the thermal analysis of parts in the automo-
bile drive axle. Ref. [10] analyzed the thermal performances of an integrated motor using
the FEA software. Ref. [11] applied three-dimension FEA to obtain the rotational core loss
of a high-speed motor. Ref. [12] proposed an efficient thermal computation model of a per-
manent magnet synchronous motor using FEA. Ref. [13] obtained the TFD of the gearbox
using the FEA simulation method. Ref. [14] described the two-dimensional FEA to obtain
the TFD of gears. Ref. [15] conducted FEA-based simulations of the gearbox to investigate
the methods for reducing the temperature. Ref. [16] performed an FEA-based steady state
thermal analysis of a gearbox system and demonstrated that the thermal property of the oil
directly influenced the condition of the gearbox.
The TNM is another method which is used for the thermal analysis of the mechanical
components. Compared with experimentation and FEA, the TNM costs less computational
time and needs less investment in the experimental equipment for obtaining the TFD of
the mechanical component. Ref. [17] conducted a thermal analysis of a reducer for the
electric vehicle using the TNM and studied the influences of the lubricant supply on the
temperature of the reducer. Ref. [18] used the TNM to predict the whole temperature
of a two-speed automatic transmission. Ref. [19] calculated component temperatures
in gearboxes within transient operation conditions by the TNM. Ref. [20] established
a thermal network model, which made it possible to predict the thermal loss in a six-
speed manual gearbox. Ref. [21] set up a hybrid thermal model which was applied to
calculate the temperature distribution in a permanent magnet motor. Ref. [22] also applied
the TNM to analyze the TFD of permanent magnet machines. Ref. [23] developed a
novel TNM for the transient thermal analysis of the spindle-bearing system. Ref. [24]
presented an inverse TNM to study the real-time thermal–mechanical–frictional coupling
performances of bearings. As illustrated in the above literature, the existing studies are
mainly on using the TNM to separately conduct the thermal analysis of some components
in the automobile drive axle but not the whole automobile drive axle. However, in actual
conditions, temperatures of these components in the automobile drive axle affect each other,
and temperatures are, therefore, not precise. So, it is necessary to regard the automobile
drive axle as an entirety and consider the thermal flow among components. After that,
the TFD of the whole automobile drive axle can be obtained, and the temperatures of the
components are more precise.
In this study, the automobile drive axle is regarded as an entirety, and the TFD of
the whole automobile drive axle is revealed using the TNM. Subsequently, the highest
temperature of the automobile drive axle is clear and applied to judge whether the highest
temperature exceeds the limited dangerous temperature. Based on the TNM, the structure
and parameter effects of the automobile drive axle on reducing the temperature are studied,
which improves the operation stability and working life.

2. Thermal Analysis of a Two-Axle Automobile Drive Axle

2.1. Thermal Network Model of a Two-Axle Automobile Drive Axle
2.1.1. Thermal Network Diagram of a Two-Axle Automobile Drive Axle
Based on the structure of a two-axle automobile drive axle, shown in Figure 1, the
key parts of the drive axle are set as fifty-five nodes. In the thermal network, the thermal
resistances among the fifty-five nodes are regarded as the resistances among these nodes.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75 World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15 3 of 13

2. Thermal Analysis of a Two-Axle Automobile Drive Axle

The thermal flow2.1. Thermal the
among Network Model of anodes
fifty-five Two-Axleis Automobile
regarded Driveas Axle
the current among these nodes.
2.1.1. Thermal Network Diagram of a Two-Axle Automobile Drive Axle
The temperature differences among the fifty-five nodes are regarded as the voltage differ-
Based on the structure of a two-axle automobile drive axle, shown in Figure 1, the
ences among thesekey nodes.
parts of theSubsequently,
drive axle are set asthe thermal
fifty-five nodes.network ofnetwork,
In the thermal the two-axle
the thermalautomobile
drive axle is regarded asamong
resistances the electric network.
the fifty-five In addition,
nodes are regarded there are
as the resistances some
among hypotheses on
these nodes.
The thermal flow among the fifty-five nodes is regarded as the current among these nodes.
the thermal network model: the thermal radiation effect is not considered in the thermal
The temperature differences among the fifty-five nodes are regarded as the voltage differ-
network model; any parts
ences among thesein the two-axle
nodes. automobile
Subsequently, the thermal drive
networkaxle
of the are regarded
two-axle automobile as the same
material property, and the thermal conductivity will not be different owing to the different
drive axle is regarded as the electric network. In addition, there are some hypotheses on
the thermal network model: the thermal radiation effect is not considered in the thermal
material property; and the two-axle automobile drive axle is regarded as the steady state,
network model; any parts in the two-axle automobile drive axle are regarded as the same
and the material material
properties of any
property, and theparts in conductivity
thermal the two-axle automobile
will not drive
be different owing axle
to the are regarded
differ-
ent material property; and the two-axle automobile drive axle is regarded as the steady
as constant. Ultimately, the thermal network diagram of the drive axle is expressed in the
state, and the material properties of any parts in the two-axle automobile drive axle are
form of the electric network
regarded diagram,
as constant. illustrated
Ultimately, the thermalin Figure
network 2. of the drive axle is ex-
diagram
pressed in the form of the electric network diagram, illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 1. The structure of the two-axle automobile drive axle.

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 15
Figure 1. The structure of the two-axle automobile drive axle.

Figure 2. The thermal network diagram of the two-axle automobile drive axle.
Figure 2. The thermal network diagram of the two-axle automobile drive axle.
The fifty-five nodes in Figure 1 and Figure 2 are represented, respectively, in Table 1.
The fifty-five nodes in Figures 1 and 2 are represented, respectively, in Table 1.
Table 1. Fifty-five nodes in the thermal network diagram.

Node Name Node Name Node Name

1 high-speed axle driving gear 2 high-speed axle driven gear 3 oil–gas mixture in reducer
4 intermediate axle 5 cylindrical bearing 6 gasket
7 fixed sleeve 8 bearing clasp 9 cover
10 box cover 11 cover 12 lubricating oil in reducer
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75 4 of 13

Table 1. Fifty-five nodes in the thermal network diagram.

Node Name Node Name Node Name

1 high-speed axle driving gear 2 high-speed axle driven gear 3 oil–gas mixture in reducer
4 intermediate axle 5 cylindrical bearing 6 gasket
7 fixed sleeve 8 bearing clasp 9 cover
10 box cover 11 cover 12 lubricating oil in reducer
13 high-speed axle 14 intermediate axle driving gear 15 air
16 driven gear 17 oil–gas mixture in shell 18 side gear
19 cylindrical bearing on half axle 20 differential box 21 planetary gear
22 left half axle 23 right half axle 24 planet pin
25 adjuster cover 26 drive axle shell 27 adjuster gasket
28 joint of motor and reducer 29 oil–gas mixture in differential 30 joint of bearing
31 motor spindle 32 oil–gas mixture in motor 33 air
34 front-end of motor 35 after end of motor 36 air
37 stator yoke 38 base layer of motor cabinet 39 air-cooled air duct
40 upper layer of motor cabinet 41 stator winding 42 stator tooth
43 air gap 44 superstratum of rotor 45 rotor guide rod
46 substratum of rotor 47 axle of motor 48 axle contact rear-end cover
49 bearing near rear-end cover 50 axle contact front-end cover 51 bearing near front-end cover
52 axle of motor 53 rear-end cover 54 front-end cover
55 air

2.1.2. Thermal Balance Equations of a Two-Axle Automobile Drive Axle

Based on the Kirchhoff theory, the thermal flow rule, and heat conservation principle,
the thermal balance equation of the two-axle automobile drive axle is obtained:

Ti − Tm Tn − Ti ∆T
∑m Rim
− ∑n
Rni
+ mi ci i = Qi
∆τ
(1)

where Rim is the thermal resistance between node i and node m (◦ C/W), Rni is the thermal
resistance between node n and node i (◦ C/W), mi is the quality of node i (kg), ci is the
specific heat of node i (J/(kg·K)), ∆τ is the time (s), Ti is the temperature of node i (◦ C),
Tm is the temperature of node m (◦ C), Tn is the temperature of node n (◦ C), and Qi is the
thermal production generated by node i (if node i is not the thermal source, Qi will be
zero) (W). Based on the hypothesis in Section 2.1.1, the two-axle automobile drive axle is
regarded as the steady state. The temperature stays constant, and ∆Ti /∆τ is zero.

2.2. Thermal Analysis Results of a Two-Axle Automobile Drive Axle

Parameters of the motor, the reducer, and differential are presented in Tables 2–4.
Based on our former study [1] and parameters of the two-axle automobile drive axle,
the thermal sources and thermal resistances in the two-axle automobile drive axle are
obtained. Subsequently, bringing the thermal sources and thermal resistances into forty-
five thermal balance equations similar to Equation (1) and solving these equations, the
temperatures of forty-five nodes are obtained. Based on the temperatures of forty-five
nodes, the TFD of the two-axle automobile drive axle is drawn in Figure 3.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75 5 of 13

Table 2. Parameters of the motor.

Parameters Value
Motor output power [kW] 22
Phase voltage [V] 380
Load current [A] 19
Speed [rpm] 1300
Number of poles 4
Stator slot number 48
Rotor slot number 38
Number of the stator winding in parallel 1
Number of the lead wound 1
Stator outer diameter [cm] 38.9
Stator inner diameter [cm] 24.99
Rotor outer diameter [cm] 24.82
Rotor inner diameter [cm] 8.72
Core length [cm] 17.45
Airgap length [cm] 0.0834
Insulation layer thickness [cm] 0.03

Table 3. Parameters of the reducer.

Parameters Value
Sun gear teeth number 19
Planetary gear teeth number 66
Inner ring gear teeth number 152
Gear modulus 1.25
Teeth profile angle [◦ ] 20
Spiral angle [◦ ] 0
Tooth width of sun gear [cm] 4.6
Tooth width of planetary gear [cm] 4.6
Tooth width of inner ring gear [cm] 7
Root radius of sun gear [cm] 1.096
Addendum radius of sun gear [cm] 1.377
Base radius of sun gear [cm] 1.115
Pitch radius of sun gear [cm] 1.201
Root radius of planetary gear [cm] 3.968
Addendum radius of planetary gear [cm] 4.25
Base radius of planetary gear [cm] 3.876
Pitch radius of planetary gear [cm] 4.173
Root radius of inner ring gear [cm] 9.656
Addendum radius of inner ring gear [cm] 9.375
Base radius of inner ring gear [cm] 8.927
Pitch radius of inner ring gear [cm] 9.5
Coefficient of friction among teeth 0.06
Kinematic viscosity of lubricating oil [m2 /s] 0.000006
Thermal conductivity coefficient of lubricating
0.1414
oil [W/m×k]
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75 6 of 13

Table 4. Parameters of the differential.

Parameters Value
Modulus of bevel gear [cm] 0.5
Main bevel gear teeth number 10
Side gear teeth number 16
Radius of main bevel gear [cm] 2.5
Bevel gear tooth width coefficient 0.33
Tooth width of bevel gear [cm] 0.825
Diameter of main bevel gear [cm] 5
Diameter of side gear [cm] 8.3
Transmission ratio of main bevel gears 1.6
Length of gear meshing line [cm] 0.1
Pressure angle of bevel gear [◦ ] 20
Contact ratio 1
Gear oil film thickness [cm] 0.1
Average diameter of bevel gear indexing circle
4.175
[cm]
Friction coefficient of bevel gear 0.05
Tangential pressure angle of bevel gear [◦ ] 23.96
Inner diameter of differential inner cylindrical
6
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW bearing [cm] 7 of 15
Friction coefficient of bearing 0.002

Figure
Figure 3.
3. The
The TFD
TFD of
of the
the two-axle
two-axle automobile
automobile drive
drive axle
axle (p
(p == 22
22 kW).
kW).

Based
Based on
on the TFD of the two-axle automobile drive axle, it can be found that:
Thehighest
(1) The highesttemperatures
temperaturesininthe the reducer,
reducer, thethe motor,
motor, andand differential
differential are are
the the tem-
temper-
peratures
atures of nodes
of nodes 1, 50,1,and
50, and 14. Notably,
14. Notably, the temperature
the temperature °C) of◦ C)
(73.7 (73.7 theofspindle
the spindle
con-
contacting
tacting front-end
front-end covercover
(node(node
50) is50)
theishighest
the highest temperature
temperature of theof the two-axle
two-axle automo- au-
tomobile
bile drive drive axle.reason
axle. The The reason
is thatisthis
thatpart
this is
part
theisuppermost
the uppermost thermal
thermal sourcesource of
of the
the two-axle
two-axle automobile
automobile drive
drive axle,axle,
andand thermal
thermal dissipation
dissipation is ismore
moredifficult
difficultthan
than in
in
otherparts.
other parts.
Theaverage
(2) The averagetemperature
temperature of ofthe
themotor
motorisishigher
higherthan
thanthe
thedifferential
differential andand reducer.
reducer. The
The
average temperature of the reducer is fiercer than the differential.
average temperature of the reducer is fiercer than the differential.
(3) The temperature of nodes 1, 5, 14, 18, 19, 38, 42, 43, 46, 50, and 52 are high. These
nodes are distributed near the thermal sources of the two-axle automobile drive axle,
so these temperatures are higher than others.
(4) The temperature differences among some adjacent nodes are not distinct. However,
the temperature differences among different nodes on the shell are apparent.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75 7 of 13

(3) The temperature of nodes 1, 5, 14, 18, 19, 38, 42, 43, 46, 50, and 52 are high. These
nodes are distributed near the thermal sources of the two-axle automobile drive axle,
so these temperatures are higher than others.
(4) The temperature differences among some adjacent nodes are not distinct. However,
the temperature differences among different nodes on the shell are apparent.

2.3. Validation of Thermal Network Method

In our last study [1], we obtained the TFD of the triple-phase asynchronous motor-
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
reducer coupling system using the TNM. The validation of the TNM was conducted8using
of 15
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the temperature test. 8 of 15
The temperature test is illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4. The temperature test experiment.

Figure4.
Figure 4. The
The temperature
temperaturetest
testexperiment.
experiment.
The temperature test result was obtained by a thermal imager, illustrated in Figure
5. The
The temperature
temperaturetest
testresult
resultwas
wasobtained
obtainedby
bya athermal
thermalimager, illustrated
imager, in in
illustrated Figure 5.
Figure
5.

Figure 5. The temperature test result.

Figure 5. The temperature test result.
Comparison of the temperatures of some points in the TNM with the experimenta-
tion isComparison
presented inofTable
the temperatures
5. of some points in the TNM with the experimenta-
tion is presented in Table 5.
Table 5. Temperatures of some points in the TNM and experimentation.
Table 5. Temperatures of some points in the TNM and experimentation.
Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 Point 4 Point 5
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75 8 of 13

Comparison of the temperatures of some points in the TNM with the experimentation
is presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Temperatures of some points in the TNM and experimentation.

Point 1 Point 2 Point 3 Point 4 Point 5

Temperature in TNM (◦ C) 45.9 39.5 38.0 45.7 52.4
Temperature in experimentation (◦ C) 46.6 34.9 35.7 51.2 51.7

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Obviously, differences among results of the TNM and experimentation were within
World Electr. Veh.the error
J. 2022, 13, range. TheREVIEW
x FOR PEER effectiveness of the TNM is verified, and the TNM can be further used 9 of
to study the effects of key factors on reducing the temperature, set out in the next section.
3. Effects of Key Factors on Reducing the Temperature
3. Effects of Key3.Factors
Effects onKeyReducing the Temperature
3.1. Structural Effect of an of Factors
Automobile on Axle
Drive Reducing the Temperature
3.1. Structural Effect of an Automobile Drive Axle
The structure 3.1.of
Structural Effect of an
the automobile Automobile
drive Drive Axle from the two-axle drive axle
axle is redesigned
The structure of the automobile drive axle is redesigned from the two-axle drive axle
to the planetary drive The structure
axle of the automobile
for reducing drive axle
the temperature, and is redesigned
the structure from
of thethe two-axle drive a
planetary
to the planetary to drive planetary
axle for reducing the temperature, and the structure of the planetary
automobile drive the axle is showndrive axle for
in Figure reducingtothe
6. Similar thetemperature, and the structure
two-axle automobile of the planet
drive axle,
automobile drive axle is shown
automobile drivein Figure
axle is 6. Similar
shown in to the
Figure 6. two-axle
Similar to automobile
the two-axle drive axle, drive ax
automobile
the thermal network diagram of the planetary automobile drive axle is expressed in the
the thermal network diagram of thediagram
the thermal planetary automobile drive axle is expressed isinexpressed
the
form of the electric networknetwork
diagram, shownofinthe planetary
Figure 7. Theautomobile
key parts drive
of theaxle
drive axle in
form of the electric formnetwork
of the diagram,
electric shown
network in Figure
diagram, 7.
shownThe key
in parts
Figure of
7. the
The drive
key axle
parts ofare
the drive a
areas
set setsixty-eight
as sixty-eight nodes.
nodes.
are set as sixty-eight nodes.

Figure 6. The
Figure 6. The structure
Figureof
structure 6.the
of Theplanetary
the automobile
structure of
planetary drive
the planetary
automobile axle.
automobile
drive axle. drive axle.

Figure 7. The thermal network diagram of the planetary automobile drive axle.
Figure 7. The thermal network diagram
Figure 7. The thermal network diagram of
of the
the planetary
planetary automobile
automobile drive
driveaxle.
axle.
Temperatures of the sixty-eight nodes in the planetary automobile drive axle are
tained using
Temperatures of the the TNM,nodes
sixty-eight and the
inTFD is drawn inautomobile
the planetary Figure 8. drive axle are ob-
tained using the TNM, and the TFD is drawn in Figure 8.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75 9 of 13

Temperatures
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW of the sixty-eight nodes in the planetary automobile drive axle
10 ofare
15
obtained using the TNM, and the TFD is drawn in Figure 8.

Figure 8. The TFD of the planetary automobile drive axle (p = 22 kW).

The highest
highest temperature
temperature(62.2 ◦ C) of the planetary automobile drive axle is also
(62.2°C)
The of the planetary automobile drive axle is also lo-
located
cated in in
thethe motor
motor (node
(node 52). 52). Compared
Compared with
with the the two-axle
two-axle drive
drive axle, theaxle, the temper-
highest highest
temperature of the planetary drive axle is obviously lower. Therefore, as for the
ature of the planetary drive axle is obviously lower. Therefore, as for the planetary drive planetary
drivethe
axle, axle, the possibility
possibility of exceeding
of exceeding the limited
the limited dangerous
dangerous temperature
temperature is lower.
is lower. The
The rede-
redesigned structure of the automobile drive axle is effective and beneficial to
signed structure of the automobile drive axle is effective and beneficial to improving the improving
the working
working life.life.
3.2. Parameter Effects of an Automobile Drive Axle
3.2. Parameter Effects of an Automobile Drive Axle
Based on the calculation formulas of the thermal sources and thermal resistances in
Based on the calculation formulas of the thermal sources and thermal resistances in
our former study [1], the motor output power, the friction coefficient among teeth, and
our former study [1], the motor output power, the friction coefficient among teeth, and
helical angle of the gear have an influence on the thermal sources. Similarly, the lubricating
helical angle of the gear have an influence on the thermal sources. Similarly, the lubricat-
oil parameter affects the thermal resistances. These parameters have an impact on the
ing oil parameter affects the thermal resistances. These parameters have an impact on the
temperature field of the automobile drive axle. The effects of these parameters on reducing
temperature field of the automobile drive axle. The effects of these parameters on reduc-
the temperature are researched in this section.
ing the temperature are researched in this section.
3.2.1. Effect of Motor Output Power
3.2.1. Effect of Motor Output Power
As shown in Figure 9, the TFD of the planetary automobile drive axle with the different
motor Asoutput
shown in Figure
powers 9, the TFD
is obtained usingof the
theTNM.
planetary automobile drive
The corresponding axle temperatures
highest with the dif-
ferent motor output powers is obtained using the TNM.
with the motor power of 14 kW, 22 kW, and 30 kW are 60 C, 62.2 C, and The ◦
corresponding◦ highest ◦ C.
64.74tem-
peratures
The with theofmotor
temperature power ofautomobile
the planetary 14 kW, 22 kW, driveand
axle30 rises
kW are 60 °C,
as the 62.2output
motor °C, andpower
64.74
°C. The temperature
increases. Particularly,ofthethe planetary automobile
temperature of the parts indrive axle rises
the motor as themost
increases motor output
obviously,
power
and theincreases.
temperature Particularly,
of the partsthe in
temperature of theincreases
the differential parts in relatively
the motorslightly.
increasesOnmost
the
obviously,
premise of and the temperature
ensuring of the parts
normal operation, the in the differential
motor output power increases
can berelatively
optimized slightly.
to be
On
lowerthefor
premise
reducingof ensuring normal of
the temperature operation, the motor
the automobile driveoutput
axle. power can be optimized
to be lower for reducing the temperature of the automobile drive axle.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75 10 of 13
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

Figure
Figure9. 9.
TheThe
TFDTFD
with the
withdifferent motor output
the different powers.
motor output powers.
3.2.2. Effect of Friction Coefficient among Teeth
3.2.2. Effect of Friction Coefficient among Teeth
As shown in Figure 10, the TFD of the planetary automobile drive axle with the dif-
ferent As shown
friction in Figure
coefficients among10,teeth
the is
TFD of theusing
obtained planetary
the TNM. automobile drive axle with the differ-
The corresponding
ent friction
highest coefficients
temperatures with theamong teeth is obtained
friction coefficient using
of 0.02, 0.04, theare
and 0.06 TNM. The60.86
59.74 °C, corresponding highest
°C, and 62.2 °C. The
temperatures withtemperature of thecoefficient
the friction planetary automobile drive axle
of 0.02, 0.04, andrises
0.06asare 59.74 ◦ C, 60.86 ◦ C, and
the fric-
tion coefficient increases. Particularly, the temperature of the gear (the thermal source) in
62.2 ◦ C. The temperature of the planetary automobile drive axle rises as the friction coeffi-
the reducer and differential increases most obviously, and the temperature of the parts in
cient
the increases.
motor increasesParticularly, the The
relatively slightly. temperature
reason is thatofthe
thefriction
gear (the thermal
coefficient source) in the reducer
mainly
and differential
affects increases
the thermal production most
of the gear.obviously, andofthe
The temperature temperature
the gear of the parts in the motor
therefore increases
significantly with increasing
increases relatively the friction
slightly. Thecoefficient.
reason is Onthat
the premise of ensuring
the friction normal mainly affects the
coefficient
operation, the friction coefficient can be optimized to be smaller for reducing the temper-
thermal production of the gear. The temperature of the gear therefore increases significantly
ature of the automobile drive axle by:
with increasing the friction coefficient. On the premise of ensuring normal operation, the
(1) During the process of gears, applying more fashioning or developing the process
friction coefficient
technology canthebe
to improve optimized
machining to be smaller for reducing the temperature of the
precision.
automobile
(2) drive axle
Further polishing gears by:
after manufacturing.
(3) Replacing gears regularly with new ones
(1)
(4)
During the process of gears, applying more fashioning or developing
Adopting the lubricating material with good lubrication properties to act as an inter-
the process
technology
mediate mediumto improve
between gears,the
andmachining precision.
replenishing the lubricating material regularly.
(2) Further polishing gears after manufacturing.
(3) Replacing gears regularly with new ones
(4) REVIEW
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER Adopting the lubricating material with good lubrication properties
12 of 15 to act as an inter-
mediate medium between gears, and replenishing the lubricating material regularly.

Figure 10. The TFD with the different friction coefficients among teeth.
Figure 10. The TFD with the different friction coefficients among teeth.
3.2.3. Effect of Helical Angle of Gears
As shown in Figure 11, the TFD of the planetary automobile drive axle with the dif-
ferent helical angles of the gear is obtained using the TNM. The corresponding highest
temperatures with the helical angle of 0°, 10°, and 20° are 62.2 °C, 64.47 °C, and 65.43 °C.
The temperature of the planetary automobile drive axle rises as the helical angle increases.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75 11 of 13

3.2.3. Effect of Helical Angle of Gears

As shown in Figure 11, the TFD of the planetary automobile drive axle with the
different helical angles of the gear is obtained using the TNM. The corresponding highest
temperatures with the helical angle of 0◦ , 10◦ , and 20◦ are 62.2 ◦ C, 64.47 ◦ C, and 65.43 ◦ C.
The temperature of the planetary automobile drive axle rises as the helical angle increases.
In particular, the temperature of the gear (the thermal source) in the reducer increases most
obviously, and the temperature of the parts in the differential and motor increases relatively
slightly. The reason is that the helical angle mainly affects the heat production of the gear
in the reducer. The temperature of the gear in the reducer, therefore, increases significantly
with increasing the helical angle. On the premise of ensuring normal operation, the helical
angle can be optimized to be smaller for reducing the temperature
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15
of the automobile
drive axle.

World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15

Figure 11. The TFD with the different helical angles of the gear.
Figure 11. The TFD with the different helical angles of the gear.
3.2.4. Effect of Lubricating Oil Parameter
3.2.4. Effect of Lubricating Oil Parameter
FigureAs
11.shown inwith
The TFD Figure
the 12, the TFD
different of angles
helical the planetary automobile drive axle with the dif-
of the gear.
ferent As shown
thermal transferincoefficients
Figure 12, of thethe TFD of
lubricating oil the planetary
is obtained automobile
by the TNM. The cor- drive axle with the
responding
different
3.2.4. highest
thermal
Effect of temperatures
Lubricating transfer with the thermalof
coefficients
Oil Parameter transfer coefficient of 0.1414,
the lubricating oil is0.2, and
obtained by the TNM. The
0.3 are
As 62.2
shown°C, in
63.79 °C, 12,
Figure andthe65.21
TFD°C.ofThe
thetemperature
planetary of the planetary
automobile automobile
drivetransfer
axle with the drive
dif-
corresponding
axle rises as the
highest
thermal
temperatures
transfer coefficient
with
increases.
the thermal coefficient of 0.1414, 0.2, and
ferent thermal transfer
◦ coefficients
◦ of the lubricating
◦ oilOn the premise
is obtained by of
theensuring
TNM. The normal
cor-
0.3 are 62.2
operation,
responding the C, temperatures
thermal
highest
63.79
transferC,coefficient
and 65.21
with the can beC.
thermal
The
optimized temperature
to be smaller
transfer coefficient
ofreducing
of for
the0.2,
0.1414,
planetary
the
and
automobile drive
axle
0.3 arerises
temperature as
62.2 °C, theautomobile
of63.79
the thermal
°C, and 65.21 transfer
drive
°C. axle. coefficient
The temperature increases.
of the On the premise
planetary automobile drive of ensuring normal
operation,
axle rises as thethe thermal
thermal transfer
transfer coefficient
coefficient increases. Oncan be optimized
the premise tonormal
of ensuring be smaller for reducing the
operation, the thermal transfer coefficient can be optimized to be smaller for reducing the
temperature of the automobile drive axle.
temperature of the automobile drive axle.

Figure 12. The TFD with the different thermal transfer coefficients of the lubricating oil.

Figure 12. The TFD with the different thermal transfer coefficients of the lubricating oil.
Figure 12. The TFD with the different thermal transfer coefficients of the lubricating oil.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2022, 13, 75 12 of 13

4. Conclusions
In this study, the temperature field distribution (TFD) of the automobile drive axle is
revealed using the thermal network method (TNM). Based on the TNM, the structure and
parameter effects of the automobile drive axle on reducing the temperature are studied,
which improves the operation stability and working life. Several conclusions can be drawn:
(1) The highest temperature (73.7 ◦ C) of the two-axle automobile drive axle is located
in the motor. In addition, the average temperature of the motor is higher than the
differential and reducer, and the average temperature of the reducer is higher than
the differential.
(2) The highest temperature (62.2 ◦ C) of the planetary automobile drive axle is also
located in the motor. Compared with the two-axle drive axle, the highest temperature
of the planetary drive axle is obviously lower. Therefore, as for the planetary drive
axle, the possibility of exceeding the limited dangerous temperature is lower.
(3) The corresponding highest temperatures of the planetary automobile drive axle with
the motor power of 14 kW, 22 kW, and 30 kW are 60 ◦ C, 62.2 ◦ C, and 64.74 ◦ C. The
corresponding highest temperatures with the friction coefficient of 0.02, 0.04, and 0.06
are 59.74 ◦ C, 60.86 ◦ C, and 62.2 ◦ C. The corresponding highest temperatures with the
helical angle of 0◦ , 10◦ , and 20◦ are 62.2 ◦ C, 64.47 ◦ C, and 65.43 ◦ C. The corresponding
highest temperatures with the thermal transfer coefficient of 0.1414, 0.2, and 0.3 are
62.2 ◦ C, 63.79 ◦ C, and 65.21 ◦ C. On the premise of ensuring normal operation, the
motor output power, the friction coefficient among teeth, the helical angle of the gear,
and thermal transfer coefficient of the lubricating oil can be optimized to be lower for
reducing the temperature of the automobile drive axle.

Author Contributions: X.N.: investigation, methodology, writing—original draft preparation; M.C.:

supervision, writing—review and editing; Z.Z.: resources, writing—review and editing; Y.S.: data
curation, investigation; W.X.: methodology, validation; Y.C.: data curation, investigation; X.S.: data
curation, investigation; Z.W.: methodology, validation. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.
51575416), 111 Project (B17034), Innovative Research Team Development Program of Ministry of
Education of China (No. IRT_17R83).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data sharing not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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