JOURNAL OF THE RUBBER RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF SRI LANKA

Vol. 100 2020

EDITORS

V H L RODRIGO, MSc, PhD G P W P P SENEVIRATNE, PhD

Additional Director, RRISL Deputy Director - Research (Biology)
Sri Lanka RRISL, Sri Lanka

S SIRIWARDENA, MSc, PhD

Deputy Director - Research (Technology)
RRISL, Sri Lanka

REVIEWERS

P A J YAPA, PhD R C W M R A NUGAWELA, MSc, PhD

Emeritus Professor in Botany Professor, Lalan Rubbers (Pvt.) Ltd.
University of Sri Jayewardenepura Colombo, Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka

L M K TILLEKERATNE, PhD D P S T G ATTANAYAKE, PhD

Former Director, RRISL Professor, Faculty of Agriculture &
Sri Lanka Plantation Management
Wayamba University, Sri Lanka

A M W K SENEVIRATHNA, MSc, PhD D M D COSTA, PhD

Professor, Uva Wellassa University, Professor of Plant Protection
Sri Lanka University of Peardeniya
Peradeniya

SHANTHA M EGODAGE, MSc, MPhil, PhD A MANGALA DE ZOYSA, MSc, PhD

Professor, University of Moratuwa, Professor in Agric Economics &
Moratuwa. Extension, University of Ruhuna
Sri Lanka

I M S K IDIRISINGHE KASUN MEEGAHAKUMBURA,

Senior Agricultural Economist Senior Plant Breeder & Molecular
Coconut Research Institute Biologist, Coconut Research Institute
Lunuwila, Sri Lanka Lunuwila, Sri Lanka
 JOURNAL OF THE RUBBER RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF SRI LANKA

Vol. 100 2020

CONTENTS
Effect of tapping rest during wintering months on latex yield and tapping
panel dryness in three rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) clones
P Seneviratne, N M C Nayanakantha, R K Samarasekara and 1
W K S W Watawala

Capital assets impact on rubber farming in Moneragala in Sri Lanka:

Rubber smallholders’ perception
P K K S Gunarathne, T M S P K Tennakoon and Jagath C Edirisinghe 22

Silica/white rice husk ash hybrid filler for rubber composites used in
manufacture of low speed wheel rubber treads
Daminda Iluppalla, S Ranatunga and S Siriwardena 38

The present status and role of the Thurusaviya Rubber Societies in the
smallholder rubber sector in Moneragala District: Extension Officers’
perception
P K K S Gunarathne, T M S P K Tennakoon, Jagath C Edirisinghe and 55
K G J P Mahindapala

SHORT COMMUNICATION
An attempt to validate molecular and field level screening results for the
Corynospora leaf fall disease in rubber (Hevea brasiliensis)
W A D R Tharanaga, S P Withanage and K L Wasantha Kumara 69

Published in 2021
 Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (2020) 100, 1-21

Effect of tapping rest during wintering months on latex yield

and tapping panel dryness in three rubber (Hevea brasiliensis)
clones
P Seneviratne*, N M C Nayanakantha*, R K Samarasekara* and
W K S W Watawala*

* Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Dartonfield, Agalawatta, Sri Lanka

Abstract
Hevea brasiliensis (Muell Arg.) undergoes annual leaf shedding commonly known as
wintering. The wintering period in the traditional rubber growing areas in the Wet
Zone of Sri Lanka is from December to February followed by flowering and flushing
in March. Tapping rest during wintering is recommended in certain countries while in
some other countries year round tapping is practiced. In Sri Lanka, until early1970s
winter resting was practiced, but this is not being practiced at present. Incidence of
tapping panel dryness appears to be high with currently recommended clones and
hence the objective of the present study was to investigate on the effect of winter resting
on the annual yield and tapping panel dryness in rubber clones. Experimental trials
were conducted for two consecutive years (2018 and 2019) with three clones viz., RRIC
100, RRIC 121 and RRISL 203 at the Substation of RRISL at Kuruwita in Ratnapura
district. Treatments tested were continued tapping with no winter rest (T1), resting
during the wintering period (T2) and once in six days tapping during the wintering
period (T3). Trees were tapped at S/2d3(once in three days) intensity. Data were
collected on latex volume, bark consumption and TPD incidences. Results for two years
showed higher g/t/t/ in all three clones when rested during the wintering period in both
years as compared to those with no winter rest. Significantly higher annual total crop
(kg) was recorded for T1 when compared to T2 in all three clones for both years.
Though total number of partially and totally dry trees of winter rested trees of clones
RRIC 100 and RRIC 121 were low, the differences were not significant. In terms of
profits obtained as indicated by economic analysis, resting the trees during wintering
resulted in the highest profits, followed by d6 tapping during the same period. Winter
rest should be tested for a longer duration (4-5 years) for all the clones recommended
at present that are vulnerable to tapping panel dryness.

Key words: bark consumption, Hevea, rubber, tapping panel dryness, winter rest, yield

Introduction partially or fully leafless for a period of

Wintering is a term that is used to time. Unlike in trees in temperate
describe the annual shedding of countries where defoliation occurs
senescent leaves which renders the tree during the winter period of the year, in
1
Effect of winter resting on yield

rubber which grows in tropical countries, yield reduction in such areas. All the
wintering takes place during the drier leaves fall within a short period of time
months of the year. Rubber trees, followed by a rapid re-foliation under
generally of more than four to five years that situation. On the other extreme,
of age, undergo this phenomenon for where there is no pronounced dry season
about two to three months, from with infrequent low rainfall leaf fall
December to February in traditionally occurs gradually. Reduction of yield is
rubber grown areas (Nayanakantha and greater under this condition.
Seneviratne, 2008), wintering is In Sri Lanka research have been done to
followed by the terminal bud bursting study the pattern of wintering with the
and expansion of new leaves. Yield clones available by Pathologists to
reduction has been recorded during this understand about disease spread,
period due to reduction of sucrose severity and also to plan or to decide on
content in cells which is aggravated chemical spraying to control diseases. As
during re-foliation followed by reported by Liyanage (1976), wintering
flowering; all demands extra resources has been induced by drier weather and
Priyadarshan, (2011). much influenced by rainfall occurring
The physiology behind senescence and during the period as observed in clone
abscission of leaves is identified as an PB 86, in an experiment conducted in
imbalance between growth promoter almost all rubber growing areas in Sri
Indole Acetic Acid (IAA) and growth Lanka. Weather pattern has been
inhibitor Abscisic Acid (AA). According reported as the closest factor to influence
to Priyadarshan, (2011), defoliation of on the pattern and the time of wintering.
rubber is a circumvent process to Age of the trees seems to influence the
overcome moisture and low temperature pattern of wintering; the older trees seem
stress through minimizing transpiration to defoliate and re-foliate earlier than
and to ensure reproduction. The tree, younger trees. The pattern of wintering
acquiring new leaves without undue has been observed of clones RRIC 7,
damage by diseases such as Oidium and RRIC 45, RRIC 52 and PB 86 by
Colletotrichum, by this process, is Wimalaratne and Pathiratne (1974) and
considered to have an added advantage. indicated that resting was not necessary
Temperature and rainfall are two major until the bud break starts where the yield
factors that influence on yield and drop is not up to uneconomical level.
phenology of rubber. As reported by However, only two weeks rest has been
George et al., (1980) and Meenattoor et recommended for the local clones and
al. (1989) wintering depends on the even a shorter period for PB 86.
clone, age of the plants, location and agro Nayanakantha and Seneviratne (2008)
climatic conditions and the weather conducted studies on wintering and
prevailing. It has been evidenced that the flowering patterns of eighteen Hevea
duration of wintering tends to be short in clones in Wet and Intermediate Zones of
areas experiencing a dry period. Re- Sri Lanka. Significant early wintering
foliation is completed fast minimizing was observed in clones of RRISL 223,
2
 P Seneviratne et al.

RRIC 100, and RRISL 216 in during the last of the trial the yield had
Dartonfield while in Kuruwita, RRISL been around 37g/t/t on S2d2 tapping
217, RRIC 100, RRISL 201 and RRISL when the trees were 20 years of age with
202 clones showed early wintering. It average girth of about 70 cm.
was also found that there was no Over the past decades, the potential
significant difference in wintering and rubber yield has been significantly
flowering patterns of RRIC 100 between increased, due to the cultivation of high
Pitiyakande which located in yielding clones and adopting improved
Intermediate Zone and most of the sites agro-management practices. However,
in wet zone and the same pattern was latex production still faces serious
observed with RRIC 121 (Nayanakantha economic losses caused by high
and Seneviratne, 2008). percentage of tapping panel dryness
Tapping rest during wintering period is (TPD). Annual rubber production loss
recommended in some countries due to TPD accounted for 15-20% (Chen
(Martin, 1969 and Chantuma, et al., et al., 2002) and no effective treatments
2017) while in some other countries year has been developed for it so far (Li et al.,
round tapping is practiced Meenattoor 2010). In the current context, high
(1989). Earlier it was a common practice tapping panel dryness incidences are
to stop tapping during wintering (winter being reported, especially of the clones
rest) in Sri Lanka. Majority of the small recommended after 1990s. It is
holders practiced this while estate sector hypothesized that the tapping frequency
did not adopt it mainly due to high rubber of d2 or d3 with ethrel may be too harsh
prices during this period. Currently for the high yielding clones and also,
winter resting is not recommended by continuous tapping without a rest during
RRISL and not practiced in any of the wintering and flowering period could be
sectors. As per the records available, one of the major reasons for trees to
until 1970s winter resting was become stressed and occurrence of high
recommended in Sri Lanka, but after that TPD in rubber clones.
RRISL had recommended to tap during The current study, was thus, aimed at
the wintering period too, based on the investigating the effect of tapping rest
results of an experiment carried out for a during the wintering and flowering
nine year period, from 1964 to 1972, period on latex yield and tapping panel
with clones PB 86 and NAB 12 (Annual dryness incidence in three selected
Review, 1972). The main treatment had rubber clones.
been with and without winter rest, but
stimulations and different tapping Materials and Methods
frequencies had also been tested over the Location and duration
period. After nine years it had been Experimental trials were conducted at
concluded that no significant difference the Substation of RRISL at Kuruwita in
in the yield whether the trees were winter Ratnapura district belonging to WL2
rested or not. PB 86 then has been Agro-climatic Zone, for two consecutive
considered a high yielding clone and years, 2018 and 2019.
3
Effect of winter resting on yield

Plant materials, treatments and design 02.05.2018 and 27.01.2019 to

Three fields representing three clones 03.04.2019 respectively.
viz., RRIC 100, RRIC 121 and RRISL
203 were selected for the present study. Data collection and analysis
The year of planting of the three clones Total volume for ten trees per block i.e.
were 1993, 2005 and 2009 respectively. each treatment, was measured and
Ninety trees were selected from each recorded on every tapped day. Metrolac
experimental field avoiding runts and reading was taken for the treatment bulk.
tapping panel dried trees. There were Bark consumption was calculated using
three blocks for each experimental field the difference between the starting and
and each block had ten trees per the finishing panel height for each year.
treatment distributed randomly so that The percentage of incidence of tapping
each treatment was imposed for 30 trees panel dryness (%TPD) was calculated
(replicates). Treatments tested were as for each treatment using following
follows. formula. Three clones were tapped by
three tappers.
T1- continues tapping with no winter rest
T2- resting or no tapping during the %TPD = (TPD tress/Total trees) x 100
wintering period
T3- tapping at d6 frequency during the Bark consumption was measured using a
wintering period tape and the girth was measured at 60 cm
from the bud union using a tape. Partial
Trees were tapped at S/2d3 intensity, as and total tapping panel dryness condition
practiced on the estate. As the trees of was assessed when trees being tapped.
above mentioned clones should be Significance of the observed treatment
tapped at S/2d2 frequency as per the differences was tested by analysis of
recommendation of RRISL, trees were variance using proc ANOVA procedure
stimulated using 2.5% ethrel in order to of the SAS software package (version
tap at S/2d3 frequency. Although four 9.1) and significant means were
rounds of ethereal application was separated using the least significant
planned, only two rounds could be difference (LSD).
applied as panel application for all Financial analysis was conducted to
clones. In 2018, application dates were measure the economic viability of
21st August and 21st December and in implementing the treatments in the three
2019 they were 16th May and 1st August. clones. Hence cost and income per one
Tapping was stopped for the winter hectare of rubber land was calculated
resting treatment when the leaves started separately for the three treatments.
to fall and recommenced when majority Tapping cost was based on the current
of the leaves turned in to apple green daily wage of workers LKR 1000 and
color. Winter resting period for 2018 and Ethrel application cost. Selling price of
2019 were from 29.01.2018 to one kilogram of rubber was considered
as LKR 300. Stand per hectare is
4
 P Seneviratne et al.

considered as 500 trees and number of wintering period. But, the annual total
trees for a tapping block as 250 trees. crop is lower when the trees were winter
Wintering periods were three months rested, due to lower number of tapping
and two months for 2018 and 2019 days when rested during wintering
respectively. period.
The impact of the duration of wintering
Results period on the monthly crop is clear from
Monthly total crop of the ten trees for the the data for all three clones. The trees
two years and for three treatments, for under continuous tapping have resumed
continuous tapping (T1), winter rested the high crop, as per the general crop
(T2) and d6 tapping during the wintering pattern only in July for all three
period (T3) for the three clones are given treatments in 2018 where the wintering
in Tables 1a (for RRIC 100), 1b (for period was three months. But in 2019,
RRIC 121) and 1c (for RRISL 203). The wintering period was only for two
behavior of crop pattern is similar for all months and the high crop is resumed in
three clones. Total monthly crop is May-June, i.e., 1-2 months earlier than
higher, especially during cropping 2018.
months, when trees were rested during

Table 1a. The monthly total crop (kg) of ten trees for the three treatments, for continuous
tapping (T1), winter rested (T2) and d6 tapping during the wintering period (T3) of
the clone RRIC 100 for the two years

Total crop (kg)

2018
Treatment

Total crop (kg)

May
Mar

Aug

Nov
Apr

Jun
Feb

Dec
Jan

Oct
Sep
Jul

T1 5.9 1.1 3.1 2.7 2.4 2.7 10.4 9.9 10.1 10.1 7.7 12.9 79
T2 6.0 2.3 2.5 11.0 10.4 11.7 9.4 7.7 12.6 73
T3 5.9 0.4 0.7 0.9 2.3 2.6 10.2 9.9 10.4 9.5 7.5 12.7 73
2019
T1 15.9 7.1 5.9 1.9 6.8 14.2 12.8 2.5 3.2 2.3 3.3 2.9 79
T2 17.2 6.9 13.5 12.9 2.6 3.2 2.2 3.5 2.9 66
T3 16.5 3.7 3.8 1.8 6.3 13.3 12.3 2.6 3.0 2.2 3.3 2.9 72

5
Effect of winter resting on yield

Table 1b. The monthly total crop (kg) of ten trees for the three treatments, continuous tapping
(T1), winter rested (T2) and d6 tapping during the wintering period (T3) of the clone
RRIC 121 for the two years

2018

Total crop (kg)

Treatment

Total crop (kg)

May
Mar

Aug

Nov
Apr

Jun
Feb

Dec
Jan

Oct
Sep
Jul
T1 14.9 6.2 5.9 2.2 3.6 5.4 13.0 22.8 24.6 14.6 10.0 17.3 141
T2 17.0 3.5 5.4 13.2 21.3 22.8 13.8 10.2 17.4 125
T3 15.0 1.7 3.3 1.2 3.6 5.4 13.1 22.3 25.8 12.9 10.1 16.8 131
2019
T1 13.7 9.1 7.7 3.3 11.8 8.8 16.5 1.1 3.6 1.3 2.7 4.6 84
T2 14.2 11.0 8.7 19.0 1.0 3.4 1.3 2.8 4.6 69
T3 13.7 4.8 3.9 3.0 11.4 8.8 16.6 1.0 3.5 1.2 2.8 4.7 75

Table 1c. The monthly total crop (kg) of ten trees for the three treatments, continuous tapping
(T1), winter rested (T2) and d6 tapping during the wintering period (T3) of the clone
RRISL203 for the two years

2018
Total crop (kg)
Treatment

Total crop (kg)

May
Mar

Aug

Nov
Apr

Jun
Feb

Dec
Jan

Oct
Sep
Jul

T1 9.7 1.5 3.8 2.9 2.3 2.9 10.9 10.4 9.9 9.2 10.4 16.2 90
T2 9.6 2.3 2.9 10.1 10.5 10.5 9.9 10.3 15.9 82
T3 10.3 0.8 2.2 1.0 2.1 3.0 10.8 10.4 9.7 9.3 10.8 15.6 86
2019
T1 19.0 8.0 6.5 2.2 7.6 11.2 13.1 2.8 3.1 1.8 3.4 3.1 82
T2 19.3 8.8 14.0 13.6 1.8 3.2 2.0 3.4 3.3 71
T3 19.4 4.1 3.3 2.1 8.5 13.0 12.9 2.3 2.9 1.8 3.3 3.0 77

Monthly mean crop for three clones for crops were recorded for three treatments
three treatments and for two years are except for the months in which tappings
shown in Figures from 1a to 1f. No were not done or tapping was done at d6
significant differences in mean monthly frequency for the clone RRIC 100 for

6
 P Seneviratne et al.

2018 (Fig. 1a). More or less similar 1c). Nevertheless, the annual total crop
patterns were recorded in RRIC 121 and for T1 was in par with T3 for RRISL 203
RRISL 203 for 2018 (Figs. 1c and 1e). for 2018 (Fig. 1e). Interestingly, higher
However, a significantly higher annual g/t/t values were recorded for T2 as
total crop (kg) was recorded for T1 when compared to T1 and T3 in all three clones
compared with T2 and T3 in RRIC 100 for 2018.
and in RRIC 121for 2018 (Figs. 1a and

5.00 aaa
Monnthly mean total Crop

a
4.00 aaa aaa a a aaa
3.00 aaa
aaa
(kg)

2.00
a a aaa aaa
1.00 a b b b
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month T1 T2 T3

Fig. 1a. Mean monthly latex yield (kg), for the clone RRIC 100 for three treatments,
T1- continuous Tapping, T2- winter rested and T3- d6 tapping during the wintering
period for 2018.
Means followed by the same letter (s) are not significantly different at p≤0.05, according to
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). Standard error of the mean is shown on the column.

8.00
Monthly mean total

6.00 b aab
a bb
ab ab
crop (kg)

4.00
a a a ab
2.00 b b aaa aaa aaa aaa aaa
aba
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month T1 T2 T3

Fig. 1b. Mean monthly latex yield (kg), for the clone RRIC 100 for three treatments, T1-
continuous Tapping, T2- winter rested and T3- d6 tapping during the wintering period
for 2019.
Means followed by the same letter (s) are not significantly different at p≤0.05, according to
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). Standard error of the mean is shown on the column.

7
Effect of winter resting on yield

Monthly mean crop from August to the same period of 2018, owing to loss
December is very low with compared to of tapping days due to heavy rain.

10
a a
Monthly mean total crop

a a a
8 a
a aaa
6 b b aa
aaa a
aaa
(kg)

4
a a aaa
2 b a aaa
b b
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Monthy T1 T2 T3

Fig. 1c. Mean monthly latex yield (kg), for the clone RRIC 121 for three treatments,
T1- continuous Tapping, T2- winter rested and T3- d6 tapping during the wintering
period for 2018
Means followed by the same letter (s) are not significantly different at p≤0.05, according to
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). Standard error of the mean is shown on the column.

8
7 a
Monthly mean total crop

6 a a
5 aaa
aaa
4 a aaa
(kg)

3 a
2 b b a a aaa aaa
b aaa
1 aaa aaa
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
T1 T2 T3

Fig. 1d. Mean monthly latex yield (kg), for the clone RRIC 121 for three treatments,
T1- continuous Tapping, T2- winter rested and T3- d6 tapping during the wintering
period for 2019
Means followed by the same letter (s) are not significantly different at p≤0.05, according to
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). Standard error of the mean is shown on the column.

8
 P Seneviratne et al.

6.00 aaa
Monthly mean total crop (kg)

5.00

4.00 a a aaa a a
aaa a a a b aab a a
3.00

2.00
a
a aaa aaa
1.00 a b b
b
0.00
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month T1 T2 T3

Fig. 1e. Mean monthly latex yield (kg), for the clone RRISL 203 for three treatments,
T1- continuous Tapping, T2- winter rested and T3- d6 tapping during the wintering
period for 2018
Means followed by the same letter (s) are not significantly different at p≤0.05, according to
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). Standard error of the mean is shown on the column.

7 aaa
6
Monthly mean total crop

5 aa aaa
a
4
a aa
(kg)

3 a
a
2 b b
aba a a a a a a a a a aba b
1 a a b
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month T1 T2

Fig. 1f. Mean monthly latex yield (kg), for the clone RRISL 203 for three treatments,
T1- continuous Tapping, T2- winter rested and T3- d6 tapping during the wintering
period for 2019
Means followed by the same letter (s) are not significantly different at p≤0.05, according to
Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (DMRT). Standard error of the mean is shown on the column.

9
Effect of winter resting on yield

The number of trees per treatment, resting period. In 2018, only 74.7% of
number of tapping days, number of the tapping days have been tapped but
tapping days as a % of continuous 92.9% of the crop has been achieved.
tapping days, annual total crop for 30 Similarly, g/t/t or the crop per tapping
trees (TC), annual total crop as a % of day per 30 trees show 24.4% increase.
continuous tapping treatment, average But in year 2019, % number of tapping
crop per tree per tapping (g/t/t), g/t/t as a days is higher than that of 2018 (77%),
% of continuous tapping, crop per due to shorter wintering period and
tapping day for 30 trees, % crop increase therefore the % increase of g/t/t or the
with reference to continuous tapping, crop per tapping day per 30 trees is lower
for two consecutive years 2018 and 2019 than that of year 2018 (8%). The data for
for the clones RRIC 100, RRIC 121 and d6 tapping during the wintering period
RRISL 203 are given in Tables 2a,2b also behave in the same pattern for two
and 2c. As it is clear from Table 2a, the years. However, when the number of
number of tapping days as a % of that of tapping days per annum is lower, the
continuous tapping is different g/t/t is higher.
correlating to the length of the winter

Table 2a. The number of trees per treatment, number of tapping days, number of tapping days
as a % of continuous tapping days, annual total crop for 30 trees (TC), annual total
crop as a % of continuous tapping, average crop per tree per tapping (g/t/t), g/t/t as
a % of continuous tapping, crop per tapping day for 30 trees, % crop increase with
reference to continuous tapping, for two consecutive years 2018 and 2019 for the
clone RRIC 100

2018
No of tapping days as a % of

reference to continues tapping

Crop per tree per tapping day
continuous tapping treatment

Crop per tapping day per 30

Annual TC for 2018 per 30

g/t/t as a % of continues
Annual TC as a % of
Treatment

% crop increase with

continues tapping
No. Tapping days
No. of Trees

tapping
(g/t/t)
trees

trees

T1 30 91 100 79.0 100 28.94 100 0.868 100

T2 30 68 74.7 73.4 92.9 36.00 124.4 1.080 124.4
T3 30 76 83.5 72.9 92.2 31.96 110.5 0.959 110.5
2019
T1 30 83 100 78.8 100 31.65 100 0.95 100
T2 30 64 77.1 66.0 83.6 34.39 108.7 1.03 108.4
T3 30 74 89.2 71.6 90.9 32.27 102 0.97 102

10
 P Seneviratne et al.

As shown in Table 2b, the number of (76%), despite the shorter wintering
tapping days as a % of that of continuous period and the % increase of g/t/t or the
tapping is different correlating to the crop per tapping day per 30 trees is lower
length of the winter resting period for the than that of year 2018 (7.6%). The data
clone RRIC 121 too. In 2018, only for d6 tapping during the wintering
76.1% of the tapping days have been period also behave in the same pattern
tapped but 88.6% of the crop has been for two years. However, when the
achieved. Similarly, g/t/t or the crop per number of tapping days per annum is
tapping day per 30 trees show 16.4% lower, the g/t/t is higher for the clone
increase. In the year 2019, % number of RRIC 121 also.
tapping days is similar to that of 2018

Table 2b. The number of trees per treatment, number of tapping days, number of tapping days
as a % of continuous tapping days, annual total crop for 30 trees (TC), annual total
crop as a % of continuous tapping, average crop per tree per tapping (g/t/t), g/t/t as
a % of continuous tapping, crop per tapping day for 30 trees, % crop increase with
reference to continuous tapping, for two consecutive years 2018 and 2019 for the
clone RRIC 121

2018

% crop increase with reference

No of tapping days as a % of

Crop per tree per tapping day

continuous tapping treatment

Crop per tapping day per 30

Annual TC for 2018 per 30

g/t/t as a % of continues
Treatment

Annual TC as a % of

to continues tapping
continues tapping
No. Tapping days
No. of Trees

tapping
(g/t/t)
trees

trees

T1 30 88 100 140.7 100 53.28 100 1.60 100

T2 30 67 76.1 124.6 88.6 62.00 116.4 1.86 116.3
T3 30 77 87.5 131.1 93.2 56.76 106.5 1.70 106.3
2019
T1 30 75 100 84 100 37.33 100 1.12 100
T2 30 57 76 68.7 81.8 40.16 107.6 1.20 107.1
T3 30 66 88 75.4 89.8 38.07 101.2 1.14 101.8

11
Effect of winter resting on yield

Table 2c shows the data for clone RRISL of tapping days per annum resulted
203. The number of tapping days as a % higher g/t/t though the differences are
of that of continuous tapping in 2018 is there for two years with different lengths
only 74% of the continuous tapping but of wintering periods.
91% of the crop has been achieved. The total crop harvested from 30 trees
Similarly, g/t/t or the crop per tapping for three clones and for three treatments,
day per 30 trees show 23.8% increase. continuous tapping (T1), winter rested
In the year 2019, % number of tapping (T2) and d6 tapping during the wintering
days is similar to that of 2018 (78%), but period (T3) during the year 2018, are
due to shorter winter rest period the % shown in Figure 2a. Significantly higher
increase of g/t/t or the crop per tapping annual total crop have been harvested for
day per 30 trees is lower than that of year the clones RRIC 100 and RRIC 121 for
2018 (10.7%). The data for d6 tapping both years. For RRISL 203, total annual
during the wintering period also behave crop values are not significantly
in the same pattern for two years. For the different for the three treatments.
clone RRISL 203 too, the lower number

Table 2c. The number of trees per treatment, number of tapping days, number of tapping days
as a % of continues tapping days, annual total crop for 30 trees (TC), annual total
crop as a % of continues tapping, average crop per tree per tapping (g/t/t), g/t/t as
a % of continues tapping, crop per tapping day for 30 trees, % crop increase with
reference to continues taping, for two consecutive years 2018 and 2019 for the clone
RRISL 203

2018
reference to continues tapping
Crop per tree per tapping day
No of tapping days as a % of
continuous tapping treatment

Crop per tapping day per 30

Annual TC for 2018 per 30

g/t/t as a % of continues
Treatment

Annual TC as a % of

% crop increase with

continues tapping
No. Tapping days
No. of Trees

tapping
(g/t/t)
trees

trees

T1 30 87 100 90.1 100 34.51 100 1.04 100

T2 30 64 74 82.0 91 42.73 123.8 1.28 123.1
T3 30 75 86 86.0 95.4 38.21 110.7 1.15 110.6
2019
T1 30 82 100 81.8 100 33.25 100 1.00 100
T2 30 64 78 70.7 86.4 36.82 110.7 1.10 110
T3 30 73 89 76.7 93.8 35.00 105.3 1.05 105
12
 P Seneviratne et al.

50 a b
b
40
a b ab
30 a b b
Crop (kg)

20
10
0
RRIC 100 RRIC 121 RRISL 203

Clone 2018 T1 T2 T3

Fig. 2a. The total crop collected for three clones and for three treatments, for continuous tapping
(T1), winter rested (T2) and d6 tapping during the wintering period (T3) during the year
2018. (The yields represented by the columns with the same letter are not significantly
different).

The total crop collected for 30 trees for rest of the months but in the year 2019,
three clones and for three treatments, the tapping days of cropping months
continuous tapping (T1), winter resting were affected by heavy rain for all three
(T2) and d6 tapping during the wintering clones the monthly mean values were
period (T3) during the year 2019, are very low for the year 2019. However, for
shown in Figure 2b. The annual total the clone RRISL 203, differences were
crops for the three treatments are not significant between continuous
significantly different for the clones tapping and d6 tapping during wintering
RRIC 100 and RRIC 121. Winter rested (Fig. 2b).
trees gave higher g/t/t values during the

50
40
Total Crop (kg)

a a b a ab
30 c b c b
20 T1
10 T2
0
T3
RRIC 100 RRIC 121 RRISL 203
2019
Clone

Fig. 2b. The total crop collected for three clones and for three treatments, continuous tapping
(T1), winter resting (T2) and d6 tapping during the wintering period (T3) during the
year 2019 (The yields represented by the columns with the same letter are not
significantly different)

13
Effect of winter resting on yield

The girth increment for the three tested are given in Table 4. No
treatments and for the three clones for significant differences in the incidence
the trial period of two years are given in of tapping panel dryness (partially dry,
Table 3. No significant differences in totally dry or both together) were
girth increment (cm) values were recorded among treatments for the
recorded in all three treatments for all clones RRIC 100 and RRISL 203.
three clones. Nevertheless, significantly lower
The age of each selected clone for this percentage of partially dry trees was
trial is 25, 13 and 9 years for the clones recorded for winter rested trees (T2)
RRC 100, RRIC 121 and RRISL 203 when compared to continuous tapping
respectively. Therefore, comparison (T1) in RRIC 121.
among clones is not possible for girth Results of the economic analysis for the
increment. However, the differences treatments and three clones are given in
among treatments are not significant for Table 5. The profit per hectare is highest
all three clones. The clone RRIC 100 has in T2 in clones RRIC 100 and RRISL
long passed its growth phase. Though 203. For the clone RRIC 121, T1 shows
not significant a higher girth increment the highest profit. However, the benefit
is observed in winter rested trees of to cost ratio is highest in T2 for all three
RRISL 203. clones.
The percentage tapping panel dryness in
different treatments of the three clones

Table 3. Mean girth increment (cm) during the study period of trees in three treatments,
continuous tapping (T1), winter rested (T2) and d6 tapping during the wintering
period (T3) for the period. Values in each column followed by the same letter do not
differ statistically (LSD test; p<0.05)

Mean girth increment (cm)

Treatment RRIC RRIC RRISL
100 121 203
T1- continues tapping with no winter rest 1.56a 0.46a 0.76a
T2- resting or no tapping during the wintering period 0.36a 0.73a 1.00a
T3- tapping at d6 frequency during the wintering
period 0.86a 1.03a 0.76a

14
 P Seneviratne et al.

Table 4. Effect of different tapping systems during wintering period on the occurrence of
tapping panel dryness percentage. Values in each column followed by the same letter
do not differ statistically (LSD test; p<0.05)

RRIC 100 RRIC 121 RRISL 203

Total dry (TD)%

Total dry (TD)%

Total dry (TD)%

Partial dry (PD)

Both PD and

Both PD and

Both PD and
Partial dry

Partial dry
Treatment

(PD)%

(PD)%
TD%

TD%

TD%
%

T1 23.3a 36.7a 60.0a 20.0a 33.3a 53.3a 30a 20a 50a

T2 26.7a 20.0a 46.7a 13.3ab 33.3a 46.7a 20a 30a 50a
T3 26.7a 30.0a 56.7a 6.7b 46.7a 53.3a 30a 30a 60a

Table 5. Economic analysis for three treatments, T1-continuous tapping, T2-winter resting and
T3- d6 tapping during the wintering period for three clones (BCR: benefit to cost ratio)

Clone RRIC 100 RRIC 121 RRISL 203

Mean yield (kg/tree/year) T1 2.63 4.69 3
T2 2.45 4.15 2.73
T3 2.43 4.37 2.87
Tapping days T1 107 107 107
T2 80 80 80
T3 93 93 93
Tapping cost per ha year
(labor wage*Tapping days T1 214,000 214,000 214,000
per year)/250)*500 T2 160,000 160,000 160,000
T3 186,000 186,000 186,000
Labor wage (Rs.) for ethrel T3 1,700 1,700 1,700
application
Total cost T3 187,700 187,700 187,700
Benefit per ha T1 395,009 703,310 450,310
T2 367,245 623,050 410,230
T3 364,370 655,597 429,850
Assuming other costs are T1 181,009 489,310 236,310
constant Profit per ha T2 207,245 463,050 250,230
T3 176,670 467,897 242,150
Assuming other costs are T1 1.85 3.29 2.10
constant BCR T2 2.30 3.89 2.56
T3 1.94 3.49 2.29

15
Effect of winter resting on yield

Discussion in early time was that tapping rest could

Pattern of wintering seems to depend give some additional benefit to the
mainly on geo-climatological conditions, rubber tree, especially to minimize the
the clone, age and the weather. The effect of stress imposed on tapping
annual yield pattern of a rubber tree during the wintering period and thereby
basically indicates the yield that can be to minimize tapping panel dryness
harvested and in the present study the condition. In the present study, although
general pattern is shown in both years. tapping rest induced higher yield per tree
Though it correlates with the weather to per tapping (g/t/t) in all three clones over
a greater extent, re-foliation and the two year period, annual total crop
flowering seem to have a greater impact obtained from trees of all three clones
on the crop that is harvested during rested during the wintering period was
wintering months. Crop reduction starts significantly low as compared to crop
with defoliation and gets to the obtained from trees with no winter rest
maximum with re-foliation and for both 2018 and 2019. Nevertheless, no
flowering, indicating the tree’s priorities. significant difference was recorded for
The present study further confirms the total annual crop obtained from trees
findings of previous studies on the direct rested during the wintering period as
relationship of the crop and the weather compared to those tapped at d6
for re-foliation when the pattern of frequency in RRISL 203.
defoliation of 2018 and 2019 are For other two clones, RRIC 100 and
examined. Once the defoliation RRIC 121, even d6 tapping frequency
completes re-foliation commences did not contribute to increase the annual
irrespective of the weather as shown by total crop as compared to normal d3
the data of the present study. frequency with no winter rest.
The monthly crop of the present study The effect of winter rest on the yield had
indicates a clear reduction during the been studied by the scientists at RRISL
wintering period. In 2018, significantly using clones PB 86 and Nab 12 as far
low yields are observed for five months, back as in 1964, in a field which was
from February to June for all three clones replanted in 1952 and opened for tapping
and for all three treatments, due to longer in 1958, after six years (Annual Review,
wintering period. In 2019, when the 1972). Harvesting system had been
wintering period was shorter, i.e., S/2d2 with and without stimulation at six
February to March, significantly low month intervals during the initial years
yields were observed only from February but later only with or without winter rest
to April. This confirms the impact of had been looked at. Average girth and
wintering on the yield. yield recorded at the end of nine years
In Sri Lanka, although winter resting had are reported in Annual Review for 1972
been practiced by both small holders and and it had been concluded that the yield
plantation companies until 1970’s, the differences measured as g/t/t for both
practice has gradually disappeared under clones for winter rested and continuously
the present scenario. The common belief tapped trees were not significant. These
16
 P Seneviratne et al.

findings must have compelled the period of time, thus they do not show
RRISL to declare that winter resting has obvious signs of wintering where some
no effect on the total annual crop. clones become leafless for a period of
Chantuma, et al. (2017) have conducted time. Some of the clones fall in between
a trial with the clone RRBM 600 to see these two extremes. Behavior on the
the effect of winter resting on the yield. yield depression is also dependent on
As explained by them the winter period characters of the clone. Latex
seems very long in Thailand, especially metabolism is mainly regulated by the
in Chachoengsao, from January to May availability of sugars in the laticifers,
and resting 4-5 months seems too long to which depends on the carbohydrate
get a good income. Also, they report of loading to the laticiferous tissues which
poor adoption of correct d2 tapping is used at cell level (Tupy, 1998).
system. Accordingly, they have tested on Sucrose produced by photosynthesis in
the effectiveness of different winter leaves are subjected to catabolism
resting periods during this long process and release acetate molecules
wintering period, to recommend the most initiate isoprene chains and provide
effective period. They also have reported energy that required for the biosynthesis
that the winter resting has resulted in of latex within latex vessels. It has been
higher g/t/t/ during the rest of the year evident that there is a positive and highly
though the difference is not significant. significant correlation between sugar
They also have reported that resting concentration and production of latex
during the latter two months i.e. during which accounts for the variability in
the re-foliation period when the tree yield of latex (Jacob et al., 1985).
needs more storage food for its own Flowering and fruit formation utilize
internal functions, the beneficial effects large amounts of carbohydrate reserves
are more. which leads to low yielding phase.
In the present study, the duration of the Therefore, the yield obtained during the
wintering period for the two years are wintering period is said to be
different and the closest reason for the comparatively low when compared to
shorter wintering period observed in that of other months due to the low
2019 was the severe drought that sucrose content. Nutrient drain has
prevailed during the first few months of become a significant factor with tapping
the year. As far as yield reduction is and taking out of latex during wintering.
concerned, a marked yield reduction was However, some of the studies have found
observed during defoliation period that there is no significant damage to the
which is more than during re-foliation. physiological processes of the plants,
According to Sethuraj (1977), the extent even though they are tapped without
to which clones suffer from yield winter resting (Ng et al., 1969). As
depression during wintering period also reported by them, the reduction of the
depends on the clone. Some clones tend number of tappings due to the resting
to shed and replace part of their foliage period was compensated by the higher
in a simultaneous manner over a long yield in g/t/t during the producing
17
Effect of winter resting on yield

months. The longer the tapping rests areas in Brazil such as Sao Paulo,
during wintering season, the higher the experiencing defoliation, re-flushing and
g/t/t was. This observation was true for seed fall once a year (Ortolani et al.,
the yield data for 2018 and 2019 where 1998) and the trees are exploited
the length of the wintering period was throughout the year.
different. Experiments of Menattoor et A study was undertaken in India, to
al., (1991) demonstrated that the girth group rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) clones
increment is minimum during winter based on their wintering behavior in
months. There is a threat for occurrence Tripura (one of the rubber growing areas
of incidences like tapping panel dryness of North East India) with the objective of
of trees if they are tapped intensively analyzing performance of wintering
without giving any winter rest. pattern in different clones. Fifteen clones
Five major climatic zones have been from a clone evaluation trial were scored
identified in India as i). tropical rain, ii). for the wintering pattern at weekly
tropical wet and dry, iii). sub tropical wet intervals for six weeks from December to
iv). arid and v). desert (Priyardarshan, February during 1988-89, 1989-90 and
2011). First three regions are identified 1991-92 period. Wintering pattern of
as suitable regions for the cultivation of clones was uniform for all the years
rubber. Rubber plantations in north-east under the study. However, three distinct
region (eg. Tripura) experience clusters of i) early, ii) intermediate and
wintering during December to January iii) late wintering clones were obtained
and re-flushing commences by February. viz., (i) RRII 105 and RRIC 105, (ii)
Rubber cultivated in non-traditional RRIM 600, PB 86, GT 1, RRIC 52 and
areas of India experience a complete PB 235 and (iii) RRII118, RRIM 605,
defoliation during the period of February Gil, Harbell, RRII 5, PB 5/51 and RRIM
to March and it is evident that Oidium 703. RRII 203 was found to fall in
like leaf diseases occurring during re- between the second and the third clusters
foliation period (Priyadarshan, 2011). As (Vinod et al., 1996).
suggested by Priyadarshan et al. (1998); One of the main objectives of the present
latex yield becomes poor in this period study was to see the impact of winter
due to several reasons namely, low resting on the incidence of brown bast.
temperature and utilization of As we expected a reduction in brown
carbohydrate reserves for re-foliation, bast condition in trees rested during the
flowering and fruit set during the months wintering season as compared to those
of February to April. Non-traditional tapped at normal frequency (d3) or d6
areas record lowest yield during the frequency during the wintering, was
period of January to May. Normally trees observed for all three clones RRIC 100
are given about four weeks rest if the soil and RRIC 121, but not significant. One
is very dry and yield is uneconomic of the possible reasons for this could be
during re-foliation and flowering of the effect of tapping employed before
rubber trees in India (Rubber Research imposing the treatments. Trees of RRIC
Institute of India, 2002). Rubber growing 100 had been tapped for 20 years, RRIC
18
 P Seneviratne et al.

121 for 8 years and RRISL 203 for 4 physiological behavior of wintering.
years before being subjected to present Effect of winter tapping seems to be
treatments during the wintering period. If prevailed throughout the year and thus
incorrect tapping policies such as throughout life cycle of rubber tree. It is
excessive tapping and over stimulation important to analyze leaf samples for
had been practiced, the negative effect of nutrients and growth parameters such as
them could not be fully ruled out even girth, bark thickness, growth of root
under best tapping conditions also all systems etc. Apart from the expected
three clearings had brown bast affected effect on tapping panel dryness,
trees when the trial was initiated and they incidences of other diseases also should
were excluded from selecting. Further, be taken in to consideration.
brown bast is a result of a long term The data obtained in the present study
exposure to over exploitation and two too show the differences in the g/t/t
seasons of rest is not sufficient to show between winter rested and continuously
any effect. Furthermore, another factor tapped trees. But the economic analysis
contributing to mask the differences show a gain by resting during the
among treatments for brown bast may be wintering period. As evident by the crop
that the entire Kuruwita estate has been figures, the rate of reduction of the crop
rain guarded and tapped at d3 frequency vary among the clones and the year in the
with stimulation for many years. The present study. The effect of winter
average dry tree percentage in entire resting on the trees becoming dry is a
substation is very high, about 30%. As it long term process and if continued may
is seen in Table 4, partial dry tree expect some reduction in TPD. Saving
percentage is also high in all three on the bark or in other words extending
clones. Dry trees were determined when the tappable period is a beneficial result
tapping is being done and there can be of winter resting. The cost of tapping is
some trees which are nearing to dry but generally two thirds of the cost of
not showing symptoms. Therefore, effect production and therefore, tapping during
of winter resting on incidence of dry the wintering months should be very
trees should have been tested with new uneconomical. Though the wintering
trees to see the difference among period in Sri Lanka is not as long as in
treatments. Thailand, the resting period may be
The tapping panel dryness is an reduced, more towards the re-foliation
accumulation of stress within which period through further trials. Martin
exhibits after exposed to the factors (1969) recommends winter resting of
contributing for many consecutive years. young rubber fields where trees girth
Therefore, future research, more better during winter months if rested. He
physiological parameters should be further states resting during the latter part
included and the maintenance of the of the wintering period as more effective.
clearings to recommended standards In conclusion, resting during the
right from the beginning is also wintering, flowering and flushing period
important to get a clear understanding on generally from February to March or
19
Effect of winter resting on yield

April, length depending on the weather Hevea brasiliensis in Thailand. Journal

prevailing, will lead to reduction in total of Rubber Research 20 (4), 261-272.
crop for a given year irrespective of Chen, S-C, Peng, S-Q, Huang G-X, Wu, K,
clones. Resting during the wintering Fu, X and Chen, Z (2002). Association of
decreased expression of a Myb
period increases the g/t/t for the rest of
transcription factor with the TPD
the months. Also, as confirmed by the (tapping panel dryness) syndrome in
economic analysis, winter resting is Hevea brasiliensis. Plant Molecular
beneficial for the grower and for the tree Biology 51(2), 51–58.
in many ways. Although winter rest has George, P J, Premakumari, D, Markose, V C
not minimized brown bast or tapping and Panikkar, A O N (1980). The rubber
panel dryness significantly, during the tree (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.) In:
present study period of two years, lower Handbook of Natural Rubber Production
values are reported for RRIC 100 and in India pp. 25-31, (Ed. P.N.
RRIC 121. Therefore, all recommended Radhakrishna Pillay), Rubber Research
Institute of India, Kottayam, India.
clones should be tested for the effect of
Jacob, J L, Eschbch, J M, Prevot, J C,
winter resting and also for different Roussel, D, Leerate, R, Chrestin, H and
periods, i.e. at the beginning, towards re- d’ Anzua, J (1985). Physiological basis
foliation etc. for many consecutive years. for latex diagnosis of the functioning of
New fields should be selected and also the laticiferous system in rubber trees.
different harvesting systems need to be Proceedings International Rubber
included in these trials. Conference 1985 (p.43). Rubber
However, based on the results of the Research Institute of Malaysia, Kuala
present study, winter resting can be Lampur.
recommended as advantageous. Li, D-J, Deng, Z, Chen, C-L, Xia, Z-H, Wu,
M and He, P (2010). Identification and
characterization of genes associated with
Acknowledgements tapping panel dryness from Hevea
The authors wish to acknowledge the brasiliensis latex using suppression
generous assistance of Dr subtractive hybridization. BMC Plant
WasanaWijesuriya, Biometrician and Biology 10, 140.
Ms. P.G.N. Ishani, Agricultural Liyanage, A de S (1976). Influence of some
Economist for the statistical analysis and factors on the pattern of wintering and on
economic analysis respectively. the incidence of Oidium leaf fall in clone
PB 86. Journal of Rubber Research
References Institute of Sri Lanka 53, pp.31-38.
Annual Review (1972). Review of the Plant Martin, R (1969). Effect of tapping rest at
Science Department (pp. 11-38). Rubber different seasons. Journal of Rubber
Research Institute of Ceylon. Research Institute of Malaya 21(3), 353-
Dartonfiled, Agalawatta. 359.
Chantuma, P, Lacote, R, Sonnarth, S and Meenattoor, J R, Vinod, K K, Krishnakumar,
Gohet, E (2017). Effect of different A K, Potty, S N and Sethuraj, M R (1991).
tapping periods during wintering and Clone × environmental interaction during
summer months on dry rubber yield of early growth phase of Hevea brasiliensis:
1. Clonal stability on growth. Indian
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 P Seneviratne et al.

Journal of Natural Rubber Research 4(1), Journal of Natural Rubber Research 11,
51-54. 67-72.
Meenattoor, R J, Krishnakumar, A K, Sinha, Rubber Research Institute of India (2002).
R R and Potty, S N (1989). Flowering Rubber cultivation. Rubber Board.
pattern of Hevea clones in Tripura. Indian Available: Http:// rubberboard.org.in/
Journal of Natural Rubber Research 2(2), rubbercultivation.asp (2016.06.16).
139-142. Sethuraj, M R (1977). Studies on the
Nayanakantha, N M C and Seneviratne, P physiological factors influencing yield in
(2008). Wintering and flowering patterns rubber. PhD Thesis, Banaras Hindu
of Hevea clones in Wet and Intermediate University, Varanasi, India.
Zones of Sri Lanka. In: Proceedings of Tupy, J (1988). Ribosomal polyadenylated
Plantation Crop Research 2008, 132- content of rubber tree latex: Association
141. with sucrose level and rubber latex pH.
Ng, E K, Abraham, P D, P’ng, T C and Lee, Plant Science 55, 137-144.
C K (1969). Exploitation of modern Vinod, K K, Meenattoor, J R, Pothen, J,
Hevea clones. Journal of Rubber Krishnakumar, A K and Sethuraj, M R
Research Institute of Malaysia 21, 292. (1996). Performance analysis for
Ortolani, A, Sentelhas, P C, Camargo, M B wintering pattern in Hevea brasiliensis
P, Pezzopane, J E M and Goncalves, P de clones. Indian Journal of Natural Rubber
S (1998). Agro-meteorological model for Research 9 (1), 44-47.
seasonal rubber tree yield. Indian Journal Wimalarathne, S D and Pathiratna, L S S
of Natural Rubber Research 11, 8-14. (1974). Observation on ‘wintering’ in
Priyadarshan, P M (2011). Biology of Hevea Hevea. Bulletin of the Rubber Research
rubber.CAB International, Oxford shire, Institute of Sri Lanka 9 (1), 5-9.
United Kingdom. Pp.17-164.
Priyadarshan, P M, Sowmyalth, M K S, Address for correspondence: Dr (Mrs) P
Sasikumar, S, Vanghese, Y A and Dey, S Seneviratne, Deputy Director Research -
K (1998). Relative performance of six Biology, Rubber Research Institute of Sri
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yielding regimes in Tripura. Indian e-mail: [email protected]

21
Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (2020) 100, 22-37

Capital assets impact on rubber farming in Moneragala in Sri

Lanka: Rubber smallholders’ perception
P K K S Gunarathne*, T M S P K Tennakoon** and Jagath C Edirisinghe***

* Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Telewala Road, Ratmalana, Sri Lanka
** Department of Geography, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Gangodawila,
Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
*** Department of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Plantation
Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura

Abstract
Rubber farming in Moneragala district has been considered as an initiative to poverty
alleviation and livelihood sustainability. Thus rubber farming was introduced to eight
Divisional Secretariat (DS) divisions in the District. Yet, no study was found which
addresses the impact of capital assets on rubber farming. Hence, a questionnaire
survey was conducted in 2019 to evaluate rubber smallholders’ perception on the
impact of capital assets on rubber farming at the household and community level and
also to identify the factors affecting the perception. Several were defined to capture
changes in the capital asset categories of livelihoods, viz. financial, physical, natural,
human, and social assets at both household and community levels. A five-point
modified Likert-type scale was used to measure the extent of agreement of variables
and weighted values were used to derive the mean score of each item. The mean
perception score of respondents was calculated and their key socio-economic
characteristics were measured. Perception of the respondents was categorized as,
least, moderate and most favourable groups using the confidence interval method.
Descriptive methods and Spearman rank correlation analysis were used in data
analysis. The indicators used to evaluate the Perceptions on the Impact of Rubber
Farming on Capital Assets (PIRFCA) were reliable with Cronbach’s alpha exceeding
0.7. The overall perception level of RSs on the impact of rubber farming on livelihood
assets at the household and community level was under the most favourable level. The
level of education, age, the experience of farming and rubber farming, rubber farming
extent, training programmes attended, contacts with fellow farmers and income from
rubber farming were significantly correlated with PIRFCA, while gender and type of
job did not have a significant relationship. Accordingly, RSs’ perceived perception
explained that rubber farming is the main source of their livelihood developments.
Hence, policymakers should critically consider these factors when expanding rubber
farming to non-traditional areas in the country as a livelihood strategy.

Key words: capital assets, impact of rubber farming, perception

22
 P K K S Gunarathne et al.

Introduction Capital Assets (CA) in rural areas. The

The rubber cultivation is expanded to the Government of Sri Lanka implemented
agro-ecological regions, IL1c, IL 2 and policies and strategies for expanding RF
IM 2b belonging to the eight Divisional among the smallholders to reduce
Secretariat (DS) divisions of Moneragala poverty in rural areas, to enhance the CA
District, with the aim of transforming the of the peasant smallholders and finally,
existing system of shifting cultivation to uplift the socioeconomic status of
and cash crop farming to more them. Thus, the public eye by the RF as
ecologically stable cultivation systems a livelihood strategy in the non-
with proper land management by traditional area has focused on the
smallholders. Rubber Farming (RF) was development of the CA in both levels of
originally expanded to Moneragala with household and community (Wijesuriya
two major objectives in the Millennium et al., 2011). Therefore, the adaptability
Development Goals; namely, poverty of the RF as a livelihood strategy may
alleviation and livelihood sustainability affect the CA of the rural smallholders at
(Wijesuriya et al., 2011). However, the household level and community level
during the period from the year 2000 to both positively and negatively.
2005, a considerable increase was Many studies were found in the literature
observed in the rubber extent due to the in expansion of RF into rural areas and
adoption of RF by the smallholders in its effects on the farmers’ socioeconomic
Moneragala (Dissanayake et al., 2005). status (Kromkratoke and Suwanmanee-
At present, the total extent of rubber pong, 2017; Kongmanee et al., 2020).
smallholdings in Moneragala is about Also, the most of studies of RF in
4,402 ha which involves 7,802 holdings Moneragala have only focused on the
in number, out of which, the aspects of extension and technical
economically productive harvesting matters. Therefore, there is a research
extent is only 689 ha which accounts for gap in the studies of CA impact of RF in
20% (7,802 holdings). However, only Moneragala. This study contributes new
about 5% of cultivable lands are being insights by comparing independently
utilized for rubber cultivation in observed changes in usage of land and
Moneragala (MPI, 2017). On the other associated CA changes, with perceptions
hand, Moneragala is the first of those changes, and the impacts of
intermediate zone RF practice that has change in the lives of rural people. In the
been implemented in Sri Lanka. light of the above, the success of RF
There is a positive relationship between during and after the establishment of RF
the growth of agriculture and poverty would be a major learning curve, so to
alleviation with the engagement of the mention, and if recorded properly, its
majority of rural people in the agriculture successes and failures would be of
sector. Agricultural development enormous value for planting
programmes would affect poverty development programmes which are to
reduction and focus on up-lifting of the be planned in the future in Sri Lanka.
23
Impact of capital assets on rubber farming

As noted in the background of the Table 1. The selected sample sizes of rubber
research problem, it is clear that RF is smallholders from different DS
expected to change the CA and linkage divisions in Moneragala District
between RF on the household and
community level. This study, therefore, DS division No. of smallholders
Bibila 43
attempts to make a point of filling the
Madulla 65
prevailing gap in the literature and to Madagama 92
uncover the impact of RF on CA of Siyabalanduwa 4
smallholders through achieving the Moneragala 99
objectives; viz. to study the perception on Badalkumbura 182
the impact of RF on CA of smallholders Wellawaya 19
based on household and community Buttala 7
level in Moneragala and identify the Total 511
factors affecting to the perception.
factors related to agriculture such as
Methodology extension (Moore, 1988), adoption of
Sampling procedure and data collection farming systems (Williams and Wise,
The study was conducted in the 1997), environment (Bruening et al.,
Moneragala District (6.872575°N 1992) and information technologies
81.33728°E) in Sri Lanka during 2019. (Ahmed et al., 2004). Perception is the
The farmer survey was conducted with cognitive process where people used to
511 Rubber Smallholders (RSs) in eight make sense out of the environment by
rubber growing DS divisions (Table 1). selecting, organizing and interpreting
The stratified sampling technique was information from the environment
applied according to the distribution of (Lindsay and Norman, 1977). Attitudes
RSs in each division. Pre-tested affect perceptions and vice versa. Hikson
questionnaire and field observations and Keith, (2000) mentioned, that
were used to collect data and information assessing farmers’ perceptions is an
from the RSs. The questionnaire consists important means to evaluate their
of questions from the key general knowledge level on a particular issue, as
information of RSs and perception on the perception refers to an individual’s
impact of RF on the development of CA current appraisal of an object or program.
on RSs based on the household and People base their perceptions on past
community level. experience and knowledge; therefore, if
The qualitative methodology was a person has limited knowledge and
selected for this study because of its experience about a topic, then they
ability to elicit experiences through a cannot accurately perceive it or form an
descriptive, reflective, interpretive and opinion on it (May, 1969; Bohlander and
engaging research framework (Creswell, Snell, 2004). Therefore, the impact of RF
2009). Some research has been on RSs’ CA was investigated by RSs’
conducted about perception, including perception to gain deeper understanding
24
 P K K S Gunarathne et al.

through experiences. So that it might be (Eldis, 2010; Lindenberg, 2002;

helpful to the concerned policymakers to Tennakoon, 2002). Accordingly, items
have the field level idea during policy (indicators) were defined to capture
making and implementation process. changes in the five CA categories that
form the main components of RSs’
Measuring the impact on capital asset livelihoods, namely financial, physical,
The CA impact of this study was natural, human, and social assets and
considered whether and to what extent these categories have been widely
the RF has affected peoples’ livelihoods adopted as an organizing principle of
in Moneragala area. The hypothesis was RSs’ CA impact (Bebbington, 1999:
that increasing trade of rubber products Bossel, 2001; Campbell et al., 2001;
(Latex and Ribbed Smoke Sheets - RSS) Cramb et al., 2004; Gottret and White,
would provide income, employment, 2001).
changing environment and other
opportunities for RSs to improve their Developing the items to measure the
welfare in the household and community perception on capital assets at the
level. According to the definitions of CA household level
that include non-financial aspects of The perception of each indicator was
sustainable rural livelihoods framework presented as an item/statement (Segnon,
was used (Carney, 1998, DFID, 2005) to 2015). Twelve household level items
guide the selection of indicators (Table were selected to measure the CA with the
2) (DFID, 2005; IFAD, 2007) and these discussion of the experts of the rubber
may be tangible and intangible assets sector and literature review (Table 3).

Table 2. Definitions of the five capital assets

Type of capital asset Definition

Natural capital The natural resource stocks from which resource flows useful for
livelihoods are derived (land, water, wildlife, biodiversity and
environmental resources)
Physical capital The basic infrastructure (transport, shelter, water, energy and
communications) and the production equipment and means that
enable people to pursue their livelihoods
Social capital The social resources (networks, membership of groups,
relationships of trust, access to wider institutions of society) upon
which people draw in pursuit of livelihoods
Human capital The skill, knowledge, ability and good health of the labour which
are important to pursue different livelihood strategies
Financial capital The financial resources which are available to people (savings,
supplies of credit or regular remittances or pensions) and which
provide them with different livelihood options

25
Impact of capital assets on rubber farming

Table 3. The selected items to measure the capital assets at the household level

Type of capital Items

Natural capital HN 1: Improve soil condition in the rubber land
HN 2: Protects water resources in the rubber land
Physical capital HP 1: Development of living house
HP 2: Buying vehicles
HP 3: Buying household durables
Social capital HS 1: Improves social relationships
HS 2: Access to wider institutions of society
Human capital HH 1: Improve the health status of family members
HH 2: Improve the nutritional status of family members
Financial capital HF 1: Continuous income throughout the year
HF 2: Household savings were developed
HF 3: Access to credit was improved

Developing the items to measure the 1994; Ashley and Hussein, 2000).
perception on capital assets at the Theoretically, a strong production-
community level consumption system might also
To measure the impact of RF on the contribute to economic performance at
community level, a set of items relevant the national level through job creation
to each CA was selected, based on the and foreign exchange earnings.
discussion of the experts of the rubber However, in this study, national-level
sector and also through literature review. impacts were not analysed. Table 4
At the community level, indicators shows the items selected to measure the
address the effects on overall community CA at the community level.
assets in the rubber growing areas (Dove

Table 4. The selected items to measure the capital assets at the community level

Type of capital Items

Natural capital CN 1: Reduce soil erosion
CN 2: Protects water resources in the area
Physical capital CP 1: Development of access roads to access farming lands
CP 2: Development of bridges to access the farming lands
Social capital CS 1: Improves the socio-cultural cohesion
CS 2: Effective community organization
Human capital CH 1: Enhance the full-time employment opportunities
CH 2: Enhance the part time employment opportunities
Financial capital CF 1: Improves the community financial resources
CF 2: Access to credit facilities

26
 P K K S Gunarathne et al.

Measurement of items respondents were separated into three

The assessment of CA outcomes was perception categories viz. most
based on the last ten-year reference favourable, favourable and least
period (2009 to 2019), due to no baseline favourable attitude based on their total
data regarding livelihood status, the score by using the confidence interval
assessment relies on the expert judgment method (Fisher, 1935) and categorized
of changes on indicators. The ten year the respondents as follows; Least
period was deemed sufficiently long to favourable group = Below X – 1.96*SE,
be able to observe changes, but short Favourable group = Between X –
enough for the assessor to make reliable 1.96*SE and Between X + 1.96*SE and
judgments of changes based on the Most favourable group = Between X +
information available. Changes that 1.96*SE (SE is the standard error).
occurred before 2009 were not captured Cumulative frequency distribution and
in the assessment. Each item was percentage analysis were used to
assessed according to the questionnaire. quantify groups. Statement-wise
RSs were asked to mark their opinion on perception was evaluated by using
these items based on a five-point ordinal descriptive statistical methods.
scale (Babbie, 2010). A five-point Descriptive methods and Spearman rank
modified Likert-type scale was used to correlation analysis were used in data
measure the extent of agreement; analysis employing STATA 15.0. The
strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree scale reliability of the statements was
and strongly disagree (Likert, 1932). The tested using the Cronbach alpha value.
weighted values on the Likert-scales The perception analysis of the alpha
were used to derive the mean score of values exceeding 0.7 was considered
each indicator. The weights assigned to sufficient (Lord and Novick, 2008). The
the responses were 4, 3, 2, 1 and 0, aggregate mean scores of the five CA
respectively. The values on the Likert- and mean perception score of a
scales were used to derive the mean score respondent were measured at the
of each item and then the aggregate mean household and community level. RSs’
scores of the five capital aspects were socio-economic characteristic and their
calculated (Jayasinghe-Mudalige and influence on the perception of CA
Henson, 2006). The mean perception impacts were also analysed.
score of a respondent was determined by
adding up the weighted values for all the Results and Discussion
responses against all the items and RSs’ Key socio-economic profile of the
key socio-economic characteristics. farmers
The key socio-economic characteristics
Data analysis of RSs (Table 5) were used to identify
Respondent’s perception was measured the relationships with perception
by summing up the score of each item in (Shankaraiah and Swamy, 2012). The
the questionnaire. The mean perception age of the rubber farmers varied from 21-
score in each capital was measured. The
27
Impact of capital assets on rubber farming

78 years and the majority was young and Consistency test of perceptions of
were 40 years or below. The half of the rubber smallholders on the impact of
sample of the smallholders had studied capital assets
up to O/L while about 9% of Table 6 shows the mean and reliability
smallholders had studied up to grade 5 coefficients (Cronbach alpha values) of
and 21%, up to advanced level. Around the indicators used to evaluate the
30% of smallholders had less than 15 Perceptions on the Impact of Rubber
years of experience in farming, while Farming on the Capital Assets (PIRFCA)
36% were reported to have more than 36 at the household and community level by
RSs. As all items exceed 0.7 (Cronbach
years of experience. The mean land size
Alpha value), the indicators used in this
was 0.62 ha. About 50% of the lands study are valid and reliable to explore the
were less than 2.9 ha in size. perceptions of RSs.
Table 5. Distribution of key socio-economic Distribution of rubber smallholders by
characteristics of rubber
perception categories
smallholders
More than 50% of the RSs in this study
area consider RF as the most favourable
Key socio-economic characteristics %
livelihood strategy on their impact on
and their categories
Age (years)
CA (Table 7). Whilst, 30% of the RSs
< 40 42 consider it as a favourable livelihood
41-60 38 strategy, 16% of the RSs consider it as
>61 20 the least favourable. However, overall
Range 21-78 PIRFCA is considered as the most
Education level favourable level.
Up to grade 5 09 Table 8 explains the category of PIRFCA
Up to grade 8 19 at the household and community level.
Up to Ordinary Level 51 More than 50% of the RSs in this study
Up to Advanced Level 21 area consider RF as the most favourable
Experience in farming (years) livelihood strategy on their CA at
<15 31 household level while 28% of the
16 – 25 15 farmers considering it as a favourable
26 – 35 18 livelihood strategy and 8% of the RSs
>36 36 considering it as a least favourable
Range 5-55 livelihood strategy. Nearly half of the
Land size (ac.) RSs of the sample in this study area are
<1 7.5 considering the RF as the most
1-1.9 38 favourable livelihood strategy (44%) on
2- 2.9 7
their CA at the community level.
3-3.9 22.5
However, favourable and least
4-4.9 21
>= 5 4
favourable percentages are 32 and 24
Mean 1.5 respectively, at community level
perception.
28
 P K K S Gunarathne et al.

Table 6. The reliability of perception variables

Type of capital Household level Community level

Cronbach Alpha SD Cronbach Alpha SD
Natural capital 0.8777 0.3322 0.7777 0.3555
Physical capital 0.7807 0.6964 0.7507 0.6567
Social capital 0.7277 0.4183 0.7531 0.5183
Human capital 0.9833 0.3864 0.7621 0.4868
Financial capital 0.9817 0.6924 0.7111 0.7930
SD=Standard deviation

Table 7. Distribution of rubber smallholders by overall perception categories

Category Mean perception score % of respondents

Most favourable >3.382 54
Favourable 3.381-3.300 30
Least favourable <3.301 16

Table 8. Distribution of rubber smallholders by perception categories

Category Household level Community level

Mean Percentage Mean Percentage
perception of perception of
score respondents score respondents
Most favourable >3.521 64 >3.243 44
Favourable 3.520-3.485 28 3.242-3.119 32
Least favourable <3.484 08 <3.118 24

Analysis of item-wise perception The mean scores of PIRFCA at the

The mean scores of PIRFCA at community level are given in Table 10.
household level are given in Table 9. The The assessments show that the mean of
assessment shows that the mean of overall PIRFCA at the community level
overall PIRFCA at the household level is is 3.27 while the highest mean score was
3.74. The highest mean score was recorded from human capital (3.99) and
recorded from physical capital (3.69) and the lowest (2.16) was recorded from
the lowest (3.73) was recorded from physical capital. The mean scores of
social and financial CA. The mean scores financial, natural and social assets were
of natural and human capitals were 3.81 3.53, 3.89 and 2.76 respectively.
and 3.78, respectively.

29
Impact of capital assets on rubber farming

Table 9. Mean scores of the items and capital assets to assess the perception at household level

Type of Items Mean Mean score

capital score of of capital
items assets
Natural HN 1: Improve soil condition in the rubber land 3.835 3.812
capital HN 2: Protects water resources in the rubber land 3.790
Physical HP 1: Development of living house 3.730 3.696
capital HP 2: Buying vehicles 3.645
HP 3: Buying household durables 3.715
Social HS 1: Improves social relationships 3.690 3.730
capital HS 2: Access to wider institutions of society 3.770
Human HH 1: Improve the health status of family 3.825 3.780
capital members
HH 2: Improve the nutritional status of family 3.735
members
Financial HF 1: Continuous income throughout the year 3.700 3.730
capital HF 2: Household savings were developed 3.730
HF 3: Access to credit was improved 3.760
Mean score of overall perception at the household level 3.74

Table 10. Mean scores of the items and capital assets to assess the perception at the community
level

Type of Items Mean score Mean score of

capital of items capitals
Natural CN 1: Reduce soil erosion 3.860 3.896
capital CN 2: Protects water resources in the area 3.932
Physical CP 1: Development of access roads to 2.215 2.163
capital access farming lands 2.112
CP 2: Development of bridges to access
the farming lands
Social CS 1: Improves the socio-cultural 3.324 2.765
capital cohesion 2.205
CS 2: Effective community organization
Human CH 1: Enhance the full-time employment 3.941 3.996
capital opportunities 3.992
CH 2: Enhance the part time employment
opportunities
Financial CF 1: Improves the community financial 3.514 3.536
capital resources 3.559
CF 2: Access to credit facilities
Mean score of overall perception at the community level 3.27

30
 P K K S Gunarathne et al.

Perception of the natural capital assets Perception of the physical capital

development development
From the items which assessed the From the indicators used for evaluating
impact on natural capital assets, the HC1 the impact on physical capital, HP1
(improve soil condition in the rubber (Development of living house) has the
land) had the highest mean with (3.83) highest mean (3.73) while, the means of
and HC2 (protects water resources in the HP2 (Buying vehicles) and HP1 (Buying
rubber land) in the rubber land second. household durables) are 3.64 and 3.71,
The overall perception on improving respectively. The overall perception on
natural capital development is under the improving physical capital development
most favourable level (mean =3.81) at is under the satisfactory level (mean
household level while, the CN2 (protects =3.69). The CP1 (development of access
water resources in the area) had the roads for farming lands) had the highest
highest mean with (3.93) and CN1 mean with (2.21) and CP2 (development
(reduce the soil erosion in the area) was of bridge to access the farming lands) in
the second. However, the overall the cultivated area second. However, the
perception on improving natural capital overall perception on improving natural
assets development is under the most capital development is under the least
favourable level in (mean =3.89) at favourable level (mean =2.16) at the
community level. Rubber is a perennial community level. RSs developed some
tree crop and it has a deep rooting system access roads to their farms in
and a closed canopy. Therefore, rubber Badalkumbura and Medagama areas, but
plantations have the ability to reduce the reported cases were limited. RSs in this
high-intensity of rains and prevent soil sample believe that rubber cultivation
erosion (Samarappuli et al., 2005). From has the most favourable impact on
an ecological point of view, rubber physical capital development at
plantations can be considered as a self- household level.
sustaining environmentally acceptable
eco-system, which are capable of Perception of the social capital
mitigating extreme weather conditions development
and protecting biodiversity (Samarappuli The mean scores of items HS1 (improves
et al., 2005). One of the main ecological the social relationships) and HS2 (access
services of the rubber plantation is to wider institutions of society) are 3.69
carbon sequestration which was and 3.77, respectively. The overall
estimated as 1296 MT/ha, at the end of perception on improving social capital
24 years of the life cycle (Munasinghe et development is under the most
al., 2011). Therefore, the environmental favourable level (mean =3.73) at
impact of rubber cultivation is a crucial household level. Considering the
factor to the Moneragala as this district community level, the mean scores of
covers different agro-ecological regions. indicators CS1 (improves the socio-
cultural cohesion) and CS2
31
Impact of capital assets on rubber farming

(effectiveness of community support the human development

organization) are 3.32 and 2.20, programes operated by RRISL with the
respectively. The overall perception on aim of providing new job opportunities
improving social capital development is as harvesters and sheet makers have been
under the least favourable level (mean conducted Thus, many types of job
=2.76). Most of the RSs in the opportunities were created as latex
Monaragala are members of the collectors and transporters, RSS
Thurusaviya rubber society. This society collectors/dealers, input sellers of rubber
have welfare and credit schemes to the farming and private advisors due to the
members and society members share the rubber farming in Moneragala (RRISL,
labour among themselves for free of 2012).
charge to engage in agronomic practices
of rubber cultivation, such as planting, Perception of the financial capital
weeding and manuaring. RF is development
considered as a subculture in the The mean scores of the perception on
agricultural sector in Moneragala and it HF1 (continuous income throughout the
is important to maintain the social year), HF2 (enhance the household
integrity of non-traditional RF areas savings) and HF3 (access to credit
(Dissanayake and Wijesuriya, 2012; facilities) are 3.70, 3.73 and 3.76,
Wijesuriya et al., 2008). respectively. The overall perception on
improving financial capital development
Perception of the human capital is under the satisfactory level
development (mean=3.73) at the household level.
From the two indicators used for From the indicators used for evaluating
evaluating the impact on human capital, the impact on financial capital, indicator
the HH1 (improve the health status of CF2 (access to credit facilities) has the
family members) has the highest mean highest mean (3.59) whilst, the means of
score (3.82). The overall perception on CF1 (improves the community financial
improving human capital development is resources) was 3.51. The overall
under a most favourable level (mean perception on improving the financial
=3.78). Wijesuriya et al., (2012) reported capital assets development is under the
that most RSs spend more than 95% of most favourable level (mean =3.53).
their income on food and beverages and Although most of the RSs in the study
health care. From the indicators used for area are engaged in seasonal farming,
evaluating the impact on human capital their main source of income is rubber
based on community level, indicator farming throughout the year. Further, the
CH2 (enhance the part-time employment main economic objective of RSs is to
opportunities) has the highest mean maximize their family income
(3.99) whilst, the means of CH1 (Dissanayake and Wijesuriya, 2012).
(enhance the full-time employment RSs in this sample believe that RF has an
opportunities) is 3.94. These findings
32
 P K K S Gunarathne et al.

impact on this financial capital education. This is an indication that more

development on their livelihoods. the education level of RSs, the greater
their ability to perceive the economic and
Influence of socio-economic non-economic benefits from the RF.
characteristics of rubber smallholders’ Education helps people to gain
on their perceptions knowledge and understanding about a
This section examines the impact of the particular idea and makes them more
key socio-economic characteristics of communicative (Khan, 2005).
the RSs on their PIRFCA. Except for Farming and RF experience showed a
gender and type of the job, the other eight significant positive influence on
variables had a significant positive PIRFCA. With the accumulated farming
correlation with the farmer's perception experience RSs can compare the
at 0.001 significant level (Table 11). Age different farming systems with RF with
is negatively correlated with PIRFCA. regard to CA. Experience is very
Age is an important factor that important in any field of life to gain
determines the response of a person benefits and quality (Khan, 2005). It
during various activities in his life. develops the communication network
Rational decision making process also among the RSs and also helps to share
depends on age and a younger person has the knowledge, experience and attitudes
more ability to adapt and respond to an among them. The extent of cultivation of
activity (particularly, in communication RF positively influenced PIRCL. It
and understanding) than an older person means that the perceived livelihood
(Tsur et al., 1990). RSs’ PIRFLA is benefits from large scale RF is
positively correlated with the level of comparatively high.

Table 11. Rubber smallholders’ socio-economic characteristic and their influence on their
perceptions

Farmers’ characteristics Coefficient P value

Gender 0.0599 0.3994
Level of education (years) 0.9704* 0.0000
Age (years) -0.9764* 0.0000
Type of the job (full time, part-time) 0.0944 0.1835
Experience of farming (years) 0.3562* 0.0000
Experience of rubber farming (years) 0.9600* 0.0000
Total cultivated rubber land extent (ha) 0.9796* 0.0000
Participated training/extension programmes 0.9591* 0.0000

33
Impact of capital assets on rubber farming

Participation in training/extension RF can be expanded into non-traditional

programs is positively correlated with areas in the country as a livelihood
PIRFCA. Agricultural extension is strategy to enhance the development of
responsible for technology transfer and CA. The level of education, the
plays a significant role in increasing experience of farming and RF, rubber
productivity, income and profit (Luqman farming extent, participated training
et al., 2004). Agricultural education, programmes, contacts with other RSs
information and skill development are and income of RF are positively
the main concerns of agricultural correlated with PIRFCA, while age is
extension agencies (Farooq et al., 2007). negatively correlated. Hence,
Thus agricultural extension policymakers should critically consider
organizations are entrusted with the these factors in the programmes on
primary task of educating and expanding RF as a livelihood strategy.
disseminating the latest agricultural
technologies to the farmers, using References
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37
Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (2020) 100, 38-54

Silica/white rice husk ash hybrid filler for rubber composites for
the manufacture of low speed castor wheel rubber treads
Daminda Iluppalla*, S Ranatunga* and S Siriwardena**

* Elastomeric Group, Industrial Zone, Horona, Sri Lanka

** Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Telawala Road, Ratmalana, Sri Lanka

Abstract
The possibility of replacing a part of the 60 pph of commonly used silica filler imported
from Wellink Chemical Co., India used in rubber composite for the manufacture of low
speed castor wheel rubber tread formulations was studied. The curing characteristics
and mechanical properties such as specific gravity, hardness, tensile strength, rebound
resilience and abrasion volume loss of the composites prepared with varying amounts
of White Rice Husk Ash (WRHA) ranging from 15 to 60 pph were determined. Results
obtained were compared with those properties of the control composite containing 60
pph of commercial silica alone. The composites were then modified into a hybrid filler
system by incorporating 6% (w/w) silane coupling agent based on the load of silica it
contains. Commercial silica loading in the composite were varied from 10, 15, 20
and25pph, keeping WRHA loading at 45 pph at which loading, composites showed the
closest properties to the properties of the controlled composite among candidate
WRHA composites. Physical and mechanical properties of the vulcanizates were
determined. The results showed that WRHA/Silica: 45/20 hybrid containing rubber
vulcanizates exhibited the properties comparable to those of the vulcnizates of the
control.
An approximate cost estimation analysis revealed that around 50% of the imported
filler material cost saving could be achieved using this recipe instead of using only
imported silica filler in the formulation to produce economically competitive tire
treads.

Key words: rubber composites, silane coupling agent, silica, tyre tread formulae, white rice husk
ash

Introduction accepted and technologically proven

During the manufacture of rubber conventional reinforcing fillers used in
products, incorporation of fillers to the rubber product manufacturing
rubber matrices, in order to meet the end applications irrespective of whether
user service requirements and to gain rubber is Natural Rubber (NR) or
economic advantages has been a Synthetic Rubber (SR). In view of
common practice. Carbon black and growing public concerns of the
silica are the most popular, widely environment, increasing stringent
38
 Daminda Iluppalla et al.

regulations on disposal of waste and and White Rice Husk Ash (WRHA) are
associated cost coupled with the derived from rice husk depending on the
increasing global competitiveness of conditions in which the burning process
rubber products in the market, interest of RHA is carried out. Among these two
has been growing among researchers to types, former is produced by partial
study the potential use of materials combustion of rice husk under limited
derived from agricultural and industrial oxygen supply and contains substantial
waste to be used in the rubber product amounts of both silica and carbon.
manufacturing sector. Materials derived Carbon in BRHA is responsible for the
from agricultural waste such as rice husk black colour. On the other hand, WRHA
ash (RHA), palm kernel shell powder is produced by complete combustion of
and industrial waste such as ground the rice husk in the atmosphere at a
rubber tyre (GRT), buffing dust, fly ash, higher temperature than that in BRHA.
etc. are some of such waste materials that Both types have been widely studied for
have been studied for their potential use their vulcanization characteristics and
in industrial applications (Maan et al., mechanical properties in the rubber
2015; Tatangelo et al., 2019; Daud, et composites. These studies have shown
al., 2016; Withayalcool et al., 2017). that the effect of BRHA and WRHA on
Among the derived materials from the processing and the vulcanizate
agricultural waste, rice husk ash, properties of rubber composites are
obtained from rice husk using low cost generally similar to the effects of semi
processing technologies based on reinforcing or non-reinforcing fillers
combustion process contains a when filled in natural rubber composites
considerable quantity of silica (Jembere (Arayapranee, 2005; Da Costa, 2014a).
and Fanta, 2017). WRHA has a firm It has been reported that rice husk as
guarantee of a reliable supply in filler does not adversely affect the
significantly high quantities and vulcanization characteristics or the aging
therefore, could be considered a potential properties of rubber compounds. A
raw material for industrial applications. study carried out by De Costa et al., 2001
When referred the numerous studies that observed that the rice husk ash responds
have been carried out, it is evident that to Si-69 silane coupling agent marginally
the use of this material is very common improving the performance of filled
in a wide spectrum of industrial sectors natural rubber composites (Da Costa
including rubber sector. Use of rice husk 2001b).
ash in other sectors such as ceramics, and Most of the studies have been based on
cement industries has been reported in general recipe and to date, not much
literature (Hossin, 2018; Zareei, 2017). studies appear to have been reported on
Basically two types of rice husk ash the use of these filler as partial filler in a
namely Black Rice Husk Ash (BRHA) hybrid filler system with commercial

39
White rice husk as a filler for natural rubber

silica targeting a specific product. It has and specific gravity 1.14) were supplied
been reported that carbon black could be by C.W. Mackie PCL, Horana Sri Lanka
replaced partially from rice husk ash and Raplast reclaim company Pvt. Ltd.
with satisfactory physical properties and India respectively. Commercial silica
improved in tyre tread compounds with (purity 98%, Moisture content 6%, pH
reduced rolling resistance (Fernandez et value 6.8, average particle size < 18 µm,
al. 2017). A study carried out on partial and surface area 165 m2/g) was supplied
replacement of silica by WRHA in by Wellink chemical industrial company
natural rubber composite has shown the in India. The silane coupling agent, bis
replacement of silica by WRHA (3-triethoxysilylpropyl-tetrasulfane (Si-
improves cure rate and increase the 69) used was manufactured and supplied
resilience (Ismail and Chung 1999). In by Grand Central Intillc. (Pvt.) Ltd.
the work reported on WRHA/Silica China. China clay (Aluminum silicate
filled systems, there is no much work 90%, Moisture content 5%) and Calcium
carried out on the use of WRHA or its Carbonate (CaCO3 90.8%, MgCO3
hybrid filler system in the rubber 6.12%, moisture content 5.5%) were
composites based on virgin rubber- supplied by a local supplier, Lanka
reclaim rubber blends aiming to mineral clay (Pvt.) Ltd. Process oil was
manufacture specified rubber products. supplied by Raj petro specialties (Pvt.)
Considering the above facts and the more Ltd. in India.
or less similar colour of WRHA to that
of commercial silica, attention was paid Preparation and characterization of
to study the possibility of the use of WRHA
WRHA as filler in a specific rubber White rice husk ash was prepared by
product formulation used in low speed controlled burning of dried raw rice husk
castor wheel (up to 4 km/h) for four hours at controlled specific
manufacturing sector where silica is used temperature of 600 oC in a Muffle
as component filler with other non- furnace at University of Moratuwa for 4
reinforcing fillers. hrs. Ash content of the rich husk ash
Present paper focuses on WRHA/silica generated was around 20% (w/w). The
filled composites based on NR and product was washed in clean water and
reclaim rubber blend, which meets a set dried to a constant weight. The dried
of general specifications suitable for product was then sieved through 80 mesh
manufacture of a particular type of size to minimize the particle size
export market oriented low speed wheels variations. Particle size distribution in
at industrial scale. WRHA were analysed by using
Beckman Coulter LS 13 320 particle size
Materials and Methods analyser.
Materials
Natural rubber (RSS Grade no. 3) and Typical formulation
reclaim rubber (hydrocarbon content > The formulation shown in Table 1,
78%, Mooney viscosity ML (1+4) @100 which is a recipe suitable for particular
40
 Daminda Iluppalla et al.

type of castor wheel tread, was used as Rubber compound preparation

the typical formulation in this study. The rubber compound preparation was
Filler loading of this formulation was carried out using a 1.2 liter laboratory
modified by replacing silica with Banbury mixer (mixer type Farrell,
different WRHA loading as shown in Model BR Mixer, Item no 1529) and a
Table 2 and properties of the composites 12-inch Farrell (1.5:1 friction ratio)
evaluated in the first phase of the study. laboratory type mill. Mixing sequence
used is given in Table 3.
Table 1. Typical formulation used for commercial products

Material name Amount (g)

Natural rubber (Ribbed Smoked Sheet 3) 77.00
Reclaim rubber [77% Rubber hydrocarbon (RHC)] 15.00
High styrene resin [HS 68 type; 32% (RHC)] 20.00
Precipitated silica 60.00
Mineral fillers 95.00
Coupling agent 3.50
Zinc oxide 5.00
Stearic acid 1.50
Antioxidant 2.00
Antiozonant 1.00
Sulphenamide accelerators 3.0
Guanidine accelerator 0.75
Sulphur master batch [S % 50 (w/w)] 10.00
Note: The recipe contains total rubber 100g contributed from RSS, reclaim rubber, high styrene
resin and sulphur master batch.
Table 2. Different filler types and loading used in the first phase

Materials Filler loading (phr)

Control A B C D
Silica filler 60 0 0 0 0
WRHA 0 15 30 45 60

Table 3. Mixing sequence ingredients

Time (min.) Ingredients
0 Rubbers
1 Silica filler + Diethylene glycol + Coupling agent
2 China clay + Whiting + Crumb rubber + Oil + Styrene Resins
3 Zinc oxide + Stearic acid and other materials
3.5 Sulphur + Accelerators
4 Dump
41
White rice husk as a filler for natural rubber

Silica filler and Rice husk ash were dried Silica content of the composite (Table 4).
before use at 100 0C and sieved through Silane coupling agent equal to 6% (w/w)
80 mesh sieve to minimizes the particle of the hybrid filler loading was also
size variations. During the first phase of added in these formulations.
the study, a series of WRHA filled
composites with varying loadings from Determination of curing characteristics
15-60 phr at 15 intervals were prepared Curing characteristics of the composites
(Table 2). Silane coupling agent was at 150 oC were studied using an
added based on the WRHA loading Oscillating Disc Rheometer (ODR)
maintaining the 6% (w/w) ratio. A according to ASTM D2084. The cure
commercial silica filled rubber time (t90), scorch time (ts2) maximum
composite of 60 phr based on the same torque (MH), minimum torque (ML), etc.
formulation (a comparable commercial were determined from the respective
recipe) was also prepared as the control rheographs.
composite. Physical and mechanical
properties of these composites were Physico-mechanical testing of the
compared with the commercial silica samples
based composite prepared following the Mixes were vulcanized for their
commercial formulation of interest respective t90s in an electrically heated
(Table 1). WRHA filled composite with laboratory press (Press Model Schubert
closest properties to the properties of the and press size 18 x 18 inches) at a
typical composite was selected for the pressure of 10.5 MPa. Vulcanizates were
next phase of the study, i.e. study of conditioned for 24 hours before testing.
silica/WRHA hybrid rubber composites. Physico-mechanical properties (Shore A
hardness, tensile properties, rebound
Preparation of hybrid silica/WRHA resilience and abrasion volume loss)
filled rubber composites were measured following the ISO 7619,
WRHA based formulation which offered ISO 37, ISO 4662 and ISO 4649,
the closest properties to the typical respectively. Tensile tests were carried
composite was selected as the reference out on an Instron Universal Testing
for further studies. This composite was machine, model 3365. All the
modified to form a hybrid filler system mechanical tests were conducted at the
of WRHA and silica by varying the ambient temperature at 28 oC ±2.

Table 4. Formulations with progressive increment of silica in the selected WRHA filled rubber
composite

Materials Filler loading (Phr)

E F G H
Silica filler 10 15 20 25
WRHA* X X X X
* X: WRHA content in the selected formulation in the study carried out in the first phase

42
 Daminda Iluppalla et al.

Results and Discussions and nature of the impurities, burning

Particle sizes of the composites conditions, and the basicity of the fillers
Average particle size and the surface (Da Costa 20014a; Da Costa 2001b;
area of the WRHA used are presented in Fernandez et al., 2017; Ismail and Chung
the Table 5 along with the corresponding 1999; Siriwardena et al., 2001).
information of commercial silica It could also be seen that control sample
obtained from the technical data sheet (60 phr silica loaded) has exhibited
provided by the supplier. It could be seen almost similar ts2 and t90 values when
that average particle size of WRHA is compared with those exhibited by the
larger than that of commercial silica used corresponding WRHA filled sample
in the study. Commercial silica is a (W60). Minimum torque (ML) values
synthesized product made under control presented in Table 6 shows that it is
conditions while WRHA obtained here is increased with increased WRHA
a product obtained from agricultural loading. As WRHA forms aggregates
waste using a simple and economical and convoluted structures in NR phase,
burning process without a strict control this trend is elucidated. The maximum
of the process. value (MH) which is an indicative of the
stiffness of the vulcanizate also
Table 5. Particle sizes of the filler increased with the increasing loading
probably due to the restrictions exerted
Fillers type Average Surface by the possible agglomerates formed
particle area against the macromolecule movements
size (um) (m2/g) with increasing filler loading. However,
RHA (Rice Husk
both control sample and WRHA filled
Ash) 45 75
NR composite at 60 phr loading exhibit
Silica 18 165
almost similar properties irrespective of
their source. Therefore, it could be
Cure characteristics of filled
concluded that filler type has no
composites
influence on the processability as far as
Table 6 shows the values of the scorch
the curing characteristics of both types of
time (ts2) and optimum cure time (t90) of
composites are concerned. Therefore,
the composites. WRHA loading has only
WRHA could be incorporated into wheel
a slight retarding effect on both (ts2) and
formulations under study without any
t90. WRHA is known to affect the curing
processing problems.
rate differently depending on the levels

43
White rice husk as a filler for natural rubber

Table 6. Curing characteristics of the rubber composites studied

Cure parameter Control A B C D

t 90 1.43 1.29 1.47 1.55 1.62
ts2 0.38 0.22 0.30 0.49 0.50
ML 4.00 1.95 2.90 3.10 3.60
MH 28.00 9.00 16.00 20.00 26.00

Physical properties consequently, addition of filler increase

Specific gravity the specific gravity of the composites. It
Specific gravity of a composite is of could be noted that at the same filler
great importance in rubber product loading (60 phr), WRHA filled
manufacture as it directly determines the composite exhibit a higher specific
weight of the product. Generally, gravity than the commercial silica filled
specific gravity and hardness of rubber composites which probably may be due
composite increase with the increasing to the higher specific gravity of WRHA.
rigid filler loading in rubber composites However, specific gravity of all the
(Osabohicn 2007). Figure 1 and 2 show samples closely falls within the
that variation of those properties are in acceptable levels as per the technical
agreement with the trend mentioned specifications recommended for the
above. Being inorganic fillers, both castor wheel in question given in Table 7
silica and WRHA have higher specific below.
gravity than natural rubber and

1.5
Specific Gravity (g/cm3)

1.4

1.3

1.2
Control A B C D
Sample
Fig. 1. Variation of specific gravity with filer loading

44
 Daminda Iluppalla et al.

Hardness WRHA filled composite shows a lower

Increasing WRHA loading from 15 to 60 hardness value than that in silica filled
phr has shown a gradual increase in the counterpart suggesting the non-
hardness value of the composites from reinforcing character of the former.
45 to 75 shore A (Fig. 2). Being a silica WRHA is renewable, but non-
rich source, when percentage of rigid conventional filler derived from rice
WRHA content is higher with husk ash and consist of large size
simultaneous reduction of the percentage particles. Consequently, WRHA
of softer elastomer content in the agglomerates yields a smaller surface
material, increase in the hardness is an area as reported earlier. Therefore, filler
expected trend. Similar trend could be to matrix interaction become poorer in
seen for the numerous rubber composites WRHA filled composites and lower
studied with varying contents of similar hardness value is obtained for the
filler types including WRHA filled composites in comparison to
rubber composites (Osabohicn et al., corresponding silica filled NR
2007, Daud et al., 2016b, Pongdhorn et composites. However, it should be noted
al., 2002). that the hardness of the composite D
The hardness value of the control sample which has 60% WRHA loading is closer
which has 60 phr silica has yielded the to the hardness value range set out
highest value among all the studied (formulated) in the specifications given
samples. At the same filler loading, for the commercial composite (Table 7).

100
Hardness (Shore A)

90
80
70
60
50
40
Control A B C D
Sample

Fig. 2. Variation of harness with filer loading

45
White rice husk as a filler for natural rubber

Mechanical properties Tensile strength

Rebound resilience As it could be seen in Figure 4, WRHA
Figure 3 shows the effect of filler type filled composites have shown a slight
and WRHA loading on the rebound reinforcing effect as evident from the
resilience of composites. As expected, increased tensile strength from sample
rebound resilience has shown a gradual W15 to W45. As the WRHA content
reduction in composites with increasing exceeds 45 phr, it has shown a dramatic
WRHA loading from 15 to 60 phr. reduction in tensile strength. It has been
Rebound resilience is related to the reported in literature that WRHA has a
flexibility of molecular chains in the tendency to agglomerate the particles
vulcanizate; the more flexible the (Siriwardena et al., 2001). As the
molecular chains, the better the WRHA loading increases, they may
resilience is. However, when the filler form lager agglomerates reducing the
loading is increased, it restricts the surface area of filler particles that could
molecular movement which affects the be wetted by the rubber molecules.
flexibility with a simultaneous reduction Consequently, the efficiency of stress
of the flexible elastomer content in a unit transfer from the rubber matrix to the
volume of the composite. Therefore, WRHA particles is reduced resulting in a
with the addition of WRHA, composites drop of tensile strength with increasing
exhibit poor flexibility and enhanced filler loading. It is also shown that at the
stiffness of matrix resulting in a gradual same higher filler loading (60 phr),
decrease in rebound resilience (Daud et WRHA filled composites have shown a
al., 2016b). At 60 phr filler loading, drastic reduction in tensile strength
silica filled NR composites (control compared to the corresponding silica
sample) has also showed lower resilience filled counterpart. This observation
values than the first three WRHA filled clearly suggests poor reinforcing effect
composites. However, at the same filler of WRHA than that in commercial silica
loading, silica filled composites exhibits used composites in this study. When the
slightly higher resilience than 60% tensile properties required for the
WRHA filled composite (W 60). This product which has given in the
may be due to the better dispersion and recommended specifications is
reinforcement effect of silica in the considered, none of the WRHA filled
rubber matrix. However, it is interesting composites has exceeded the minimum
to note that resilience values of Sample limits. Therefore, if WRHA is to be
W45 and W60 (WRHA loading 45 and incorporated to NR to qualify the
60 phr) fall in the recommended range composite for particular application, it is
given in the specifications (Table 7). necessary to modify the filler system to
achieve the required level of tensile
strength.

46
 Daminda Iluppalla et al.

70
Rebound resilince (%)
60

50

40
Control A B C D
Sample
Fig. 3. Variation of rebound resilience with filer loading

15
Tensile Strength (MPa)

10

0
Control A B C D
Sample
Fig. 4. Variation of tensile strength and modulus 100% elongation with t filler loading

Modulus @ 100% elongation loading reveals that WRHA has a higher

Modulus @ 100% elongation at different impact on the modulus of the composites
filler loading is presented shown in which perhaps may be due to the
Figure 5. Increase in WRHA loading has presence of the larger WRHA
only a slight increase in the modulus. agglomerates in the matrix. However, it
This result is in agreement with the has no any significance as the difference
observations made with regard to of the modulus values is only around 1
WRHA filled natural rubber composites MPa. As far as the modulus values are
found in literature (Siriwardena et al., concerned, all the composites qualify for
2001, Pongdhorn 2002). The highest the purpose as they all have met the
modulus has been recorded by the required level of modulus given in the
WRHA filled composites with 60 phr specifications for intended product
filler loading. Comparison of modulus (Slow speed castor wheel tread) given in
values of composites having 60 phr filler Table 6.
47
White rice husk as a filler for natural rubber

4.00
M100 (MPa)
3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
Control A B C D
Sample
Fig. 5. Variation of Modulus @ 100% elongation with filer loading

Elongation @ break therefore, higher elongation at break

Elongation at break of the WRHA filled value could be expected due to the higher
composite series has shown a gradual interactions (Van der Waals forces)
reduction with increasing filler loading between rubber matrix and filler
(Fig. 6). WRHA particles are not surface particles. However, it is interesting to
treated and therefore, rubber-WRHA note that elongation at break of all the
interface is not strong enough to WRHA composites studied shows values
reinforce the matrix. Simultaneously, more than 300%, thus the elongation at
increase in WRHA loading, may tend to break of the composites could be
form larger WRHA agglomerates obliterated as a determinant factor in the
reducing the surface area of the filler selection process of optimum WRHA
particles as already reported in literature loading.
(Siriwardena et al., 2001). Strain induced
crystallization of NR molecules is also Abrasion volume loss
restricted as fillers are added to the Abrasion volume loss indicates the
composites. As the filler loading reinforcing effect of the filler and the
increases, this effect becomes more heat development during the fiction of
prominent. These factors justify the the material (Fig. 7). WRHA loading has
decrease in elongation as the WRHA resulted in increase of abrasion volume
loading increases. However, when the loss. This observation again suggests that
elongation values of controlled sample WRHA is not a filler with reinforcing
(60 phr silica loaded sample) and the characteristics. Analysis of previous
corresponding WRHA filled composite results observed for mechanical
(60 phr WRHA loaded sample), former properties shows that, silica filled
has recorded a higher elongation at composites exhibit better reinforcing
break. At the same filler loading, silica characteristics than that of corresponding
may form agglomerates smaller than the WRHA filled composite (Controlled
WRHA fillers and wetted by the sample and W60). As discussed earlier,
macromolecules more efficiently and tendency towards filler agglomeration at
48
 Daminda Iluppalla et al.

high filler loading is also evident from A comparison of the recommended

these results, when one compares the specifications and the mechanical
abrasion volume loss trend of WRHA properties achieved for the WRHA filled
filled composites with that of increasing composites shows that sample W45
WRHA loading. However, as in the case (WRHA loading 45 phr) exhibits the
of modulus and elongation, all the closest properties to the standard
composites have abrasion volume loss technical specifications presented in
below the limits of the recommended Table 7. Therefore, this composite was
specifications for castor wheel given in selected for preparation of hybrid fillers
Table 7. with silica in our further studies.

450
Elongation @ break (%)

400

350

300
BControl C A D
Sample
Fig. 6. Variation of elongation @ break with filler loading

350
Abrasion volume loss
(mm3)

300

250
Control A B C D
Sample

Fig. 7. Variation of abrasion volume loss with filler loading

49
White rice husk as a filler for natural rubber

Table 7. Comparison of mechanical properties of different composites

Physico-mechanical C (WRHA Control sample Recommended

properties loading 45 phr) (Silca loading 60 phr) specification
Specific gravity 1.31 1.35 1.34 ± 0.03
Hardness (Shore A) 72 80 79 - 82
Resilience (%) 49 48 45 ± 5
Tensile strength (MPa) 10 13 > 10
Modules 100 (MPa) 3.0 2.2 >2
Elongation (%) 400 388 > 300
Abrasion volume loss (cm3) 325 275 <350

Rubber composites with silica/WRHA could be seen that as the silica content
filled systems increases the hardness values, rebound
As the next step, composition of W45 resilience, tensile strength and modulus
which showed the closest performance to @ 100% elongation of the composites
the required specifications was modified also increase. This is attributed to the
by using hybrid filler of WRHA and reinforcing effect of silica when used
silica. As explained in the experimental with a suitable coupling agent.
section, silica content in the selected Both tensile strength and modulus @
composite (W45) was progressively 100% elongation of the hybrid
increased from 10 to 25 at 5 phr intervals. composites increase with the silica
The resultant WRHA/silica hybrid filler loading. As the silica content exceeds 15
system was treated with silane coupling phr, composites have shown an increase
agent as mentioned earlier. The physical in tensile strength. As the same WRHA
and mechanical properties of these content was used in each modified
composites are tabulated in the Table 8. composite, it could be inferred that the
Specific gravity of hybrid composites contributing factor to these property
has shown a slight increasing trend with changes is the silica incorporation. As
increasing silica loading. Specific the silica content reaches 20 phr, it could
gravity of the composites exceeds its be seen an increase in tensile strength
value of control sample and reaches the exceeding its value from the minimum
level required in the specification as the required value given in specifications
silica content exceeds 15 phr loading. It (10 MPa) presented in Table 7.
Table 8. Mechanical and physical properties of hybrid composites

Property E F G H Control sample

Specific gravity 1.34 1.34 1.36 1.36 1.35
Hardness (Shore A) 75 77 78 80 80
Resilience (%) 51 51 51 53 48
Tensile strength (MPa) 10 10 12 14 13
Modulus @ 100% 4.0 4.0 5.5 5.5 2.2
elongation (MPa)
Elongation % 370 380 388 400 388
Abrasion value (cm3) 280 280 288 288 275

50
 Daminda Iluppalla et al.

Increment seen in the modulus @ 100% When physical and mechanical

elongation of the hybrid samples with properties of the four WRHA/Silica
silica shows improved filler to matrix hybrid composites studied are
attractions in the presence of a coupling considered, there is no significant
agent. All the composites have registered deviation in the properties from the
higher modulus values than that required minimum level of properties given in the
in the specifications for the intended recommended specifications. The work
product. It could be also observed that as carried out by Chandrana et al. on a
the silica content of the hybrid different combinations of silica
composites increases, elongation at containing hybrid filler incorporated NR
break has also increased. Similar composites has also shown that silica
property enhancements up to an containing hybrid fillers could improve
optimum ratio of component fillers in the mechanical properties of natural
hybrid carbon black and calcium rubber composites (Candrana et al.
carbonate fillers has been reported and 2018). Considering the economic
the mechanical properties variations of
aspects and the importance of having the
the hybrid silica and WRHA filled
allowance for the minimum specified
composites reported in this study is in
limits in industrial applications,
well agreement with the above
observations (Reginald et al., 2019). composite with Hybrid filler with 45%
This may be attributed to the (w/w) WRHA and 20% (w/w) silica
contribution of the reinforcing filler on could be considered as the optimum
the property enhancement and the hybrid filler combination for the
mutual restriction offered on each other application referred to.
by the component filler particles against
the filler agglomeration. Economic analysis
Abrasion volume loss of the hybrid A summary of approximate estimation
samples shows only a slight increase carried out on the cost of silica based
with the increase of the silica content of filler materials (silica and WRHA) is
the hybrid composites as shown in Table given below (Table 9) using the rates in
8. When the composite filled only with 2019 and certain assumptions. It could
WRHA at 45 phr loading is compared be seen that there is a potential for a
with hybrid filler of Silica and WRHA considerable financial gain, if the hybrid
treated with silane coupling agent, the filler is used to manufacture low speed
latter has remarkably reduced the wheel considered in this study achieving
abrasion volume loss, i.e. improved over 50% saving in the filler cost.
abrasion resistance.

51
White rice husk as a filler for natural rubber

Table 9. Approximate cost analysis

Item Approximate cost

(Rs/kg)
Cost for Raw material (Cost for Husk in the local market) 5.00
Transport cost (assumption) 2.00
Cost for incineration based on an electrical box furnace (power 11.37
requirement 3.33 kwh) used for incineration of rice husk
(assumption)
Miscellaneous cost (10% of the total cost) (assumption) 1.18
Total cost of WRHA 20.21
Market price of silica 98.00
Total cost of selected hybrid filler (WRHA45:Silica 20) 44.13
Percentage of saving when silica filler is replaced with hybrid filler 54.96

Conclusions silica filler used in selected commercial

Incorporation of WRHA in the white rubber compound recipes and to
composites studied has no remarkable add value to the rice husk while
influence on the curing characteristics of mitigating the environmental problems
the composites. However, the physico- associated with disposal of rice husk.
mechanical properties decreased with Considering overall properties of the
increase of WRHA loading. It has been hybrid composites studied, it was found
shown that among the candidate WRHA that WRHA/silica: 45/20 filler system is
filled composites, 45 phr WRHA filled qualified to be used to manufacture the
composite exhibits physical and low speed wheel of interest replacing 45
mechanical properties comparable to the phr commercial silica in the formulation.
properties of the control sample It was also found that filler material cost
(commercial silica 60 phr filled saving would be approximately 50% per
composites) and also they are within the kg of silica filler used.
specifications given by the customers for
the particular type of castor wheel under References
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R and Furtado, C R G (2004). Rice husk Studies on the synthesis of silica powder
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Da Costa, H M, Visconte, L L Y, Nunes, R C Maan, A, Kumar, U, Singh, A K, Mehra, D S
R and Furtado, C R G (2001). Rice-husk- and Rattan, S (2015). Studies on effect on
ash-filled natural rubber. II. Partial a coupling agent (TESPT) on the
replacement of commercial fillers and the properties of fly ash filled natural rubber
effect on the vulcanization process. composite. Journal of Polymer Mater
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(9), 1405-1413. Osabohicn, E and Egboh, S H O (2007).
Daud, S, Ismail, Hanafi and Abu Bakar, Curing characteristics and physic-
Azhar (2016a). Soil burial study of palm mechanical properties of natural rubber
kernel shell-filled natural rubber filled seed shells of cherry
composites: The effect of filler loading (Chrysophyllumalbidum). Journal of
and presence of silane coupling agent. Applied Sciences & Environmental
Bioresources. 11 (4), 8686-8702. Management 11(2), 43-48.
Daud, S, Ismail, H and Abu Baker, A Pongdhorn, S, Rakdee, C and Thanmthorn, P
(2016b). The effect of 3-Amino propyl (2002). Use of rice husk ash as filler in
trimethyoxysilan (AMEO) as a coupling natural rubber vulcanizates: In
agent on curing and mechanical comparison with other commercial
properties of natural rubber/palm kernel fillers. Journal of Applied Polymer
shell powder shell powder composites. Science 83(11), 2485-2493.
Procedia Chemistry 19, 324-337. Reginald, U, Akinlabi, O, Benjamin, O A,
Fernandes, M R S, De Sousa, A M and Wilson, U, Uzoma, S and Ifeoma, J U
Furtado, C R G (2017). Rice husk ash as (2019). Mechanical properties and
filler in tread compounds to improve microstructure of hybrid vulcanized
rolling resistance. Polymeros 27 (1), 55- natural rubber filled with carbon black
61. and Nano-CaCO3 from achatina achatina
Hossin, S K S, Mathur, L and Roy, P K shells. Journal of Metals, Materials and
(2018). Rice husk/rice husk ash as an Minerals 29(4), 80-89.
alternative source of silica in ceramics: A Siriwardena, S, Ismail, H and Ishiaku, U S
review. Journal of Asian Ceemic (2001). A comparison of white rice husk
Societies 6 (4), 299-313. ash and silica as filler in ethylene-
Ismail, H and Chung, F L (1999). The effect propylene-diene terpolymer vulcanizates.
of partial replacement of silica by white Polymer International 50, 707-713.
rice husk ask in natural rubber Valeria Tatangelo, Ivan Mangili, Paola
composites. International Journal of Caracino, Giuseppina Bestetti, Elena
Polymer Matter 43, 301-312. Collina, Manuela Anzano, Paola

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Branduardi, Riccardo Posteri, Danilo Zareei, S A, Ameri, F, Dorostkar, F and

Porro, Marina Lasagni and Andrea Ahamadi, M (2017). Rice husk ash as a
Franzett (2019). Microbial partial replacement of cement in high
desulfurization of ground tire rubber strength concrete containing micro silica:
(GTR): Characterization of microbial Evaluating durability and mechanical
communities and rheological and properties. Case Studies in Construction
mechanical properties of GTR and Materials 7, 73-81.
natural rubber composites (GTR/NR).
Polymer Degradation and Stability 160, Address for correspondence: Dr S
102-109. Siriwardena, Deputy Director Research
Wongwitthayalcool, P, Yang, S, Siripanth, J, (Technology), Rubber Research Institute of
Siriwong, C and Saowapark, T (2017). Sri Lanka, Telewala Road, Ratmalana, Sri
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rubber latex film. Key Engineering
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54
 Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (2020) 100, 55-68

The present status and role of the Thurusaviya Rubber

Societies in the smallholder rubber sector in Moneragala
District: Extension Officers’ perception
P K K S Gunarathne*, T M S P K Tennakoon**, Jagath C Edirisinghe***,
and K G J P Mahindapala****
* Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Telewala Road, Ratmalana, Sri Lanka
** Department of Geography, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Gangodawila,
Nugegoda, Sri Lanka
*** Department of Agribusiness Management, Faculty of Agriculture and Plantation
Management, Wayamba University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Sri Lanka
**** Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

Abstract
The farmer-based organization known Thurusaviya Rubber Societies (TRSs) has been
established by the Thurusaviya Fund (TF) for the development of the smallholder
rubber sector. This study attempted to assess the present status and role of the TRSs in
the smallholder rubber sector in the Moneragala District. The views of 18 Extension
Officers (Rubber Development Officers and the two district Coordinating Officers of
TF) with over five years of work experience were used to create two focus group
discussions by Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Approach. The perception of
the key entities (Organizational structure, Organizational culture, Function of the
organization, External environment and Intervention of organizational development)
responsible for the development and welfare support for the rubber smallholders was
assessed. Data were analysed qualitatively as a case study in Moneragala.
Results revealed, that the majority of TRSs considered in the study were not performing
well due to factors such as poor leadership, lack of transparency, lack of enthusiasm
of members, lack of trustworthiness, attitudes of members, the role of the Field Officers
and changes in the external environment and politics. The contribution from the
management unit and the membership was greater in TRSs that were highly active than
that of the poorly active TRSs. The self-reliance capacity was low in the majority (99%)
of the TRSs and was highly dependent on Extension Officers involved and the
Government’s assistance. The majority of TRSs were not goal-oriented and under
performing and not dynamic in organizational performances. Hence, extension and
development agents feel that critical intervention is required to overcome the above
weaknesses. Therefore, organizational development should be done by concerning;
goal orientation, need identification, the interaction between Field Officers and TRSs
and guiding the TRSs, restructuring of organizations, offering compensation for the
management unit, development of physical resources and developing as business
entities to achieve their goals and objectives.

Key words: Rubber smallholders, Rubber Societies, Thurusaviya Societies

55
Thurusaviya Rubber Societies in the smallholder rubber

Introduction societies called TRSs and district-level

Rubber smallholders (<20.2 ha) is committees. The district-level committee
considered the most dynamic segment of comprises representatives of TRSs and
the rubber sector as it represents 59% of its main role is coordinating between the
the national rubber extent and TF and TRSs. About 85 TRSs are
contributes 48% to the rubber production operating in the main rubber growing DS
in 2019 (MPI, 2019). During the last divisions in Moneragala (Table 1). Two
decade, a considerable increase was District Coordinating Officers of TF
observed in the rubber extent due to the (DCOTF) are the grassroots level
adoption of rubber farming by the personnel attached to TF who are
smallholder farmers in Moneragala responsible for managing the TRSs in
District (Wijesuriya et al., 2011). At Moneragala (http://www.rubberdev.gov.
present, the total extent of rubber lk).
smallholdings in Moneragala District is
about 5,087 ha and it is the fifth rubber Table 1. Thurusaviya rubber societies
growing District based on land extent operating in Moneragala
under rubber cultivation in Sri Lanka and district in each Divisional
has 7,802 holdings in number. Three Secretariat Divisions
government institutions are functioned to
DS division Number of TRSs
cater to the needs of the rubber
Bibila 04
smallholder sector in Moneragala; viz. Moneragala 12
Rubber Development Department Medagama 19
(RDD) Thurusaviya Fund (TF) and Siyabalanduwa 03
Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka Madulla 10
(RRISL). RRISL is responsible for Buttala 04
research and development activities, Badalkumbura 29
while RDD is responsible for the Wellawaya 04
development of all aspects of the Total 85
smallholder rubber sector and TF is a
supportive agency. Studies revealed that FBOs could be
The TF has been established under Act used effectively in providing
No. 23 in 2000 to uplift the living multifunctional services to the farmers
standards of rubber smallholders by such as delivering agricultural
facilitating the production and marketing technologies and inputs, capacity
of quality rubber sheets and ensuring a building, assisting in value addition and
fair price for their products through the marketing of products, and also
establishment of Farmer Based providing welfare facilities (Chamala
Organizations (FBOs) called and Shingi, 1997). However, due to
Thurusaviya Rubber Societies (TRSs) various reasons, these FBOs were unable
(smallholder rubber societies). There are to produce expected results. Political
two different layers in the system of influences, poor managerial practices,
TRSs; village-level rubber growers’ poor monitoring and mistrust between
56
 P K K S Gunarathne et al.

management and the member farmers, study to collect the data towards the
failing in value addition and phenomenon being studied. IPA is an
establishment of effective market approach to qualitative research with an
linkages, lack of product diversification idiographic focus, which means that it
are some of the possible reasons for aims to offer insights into how a given
failures (Esham, 2012). However, when person, in a given context, makes
it comes to Sri Lanka, it appears that sense of a given phenomenon (Arnold
traditional FBOs were unable to deal and Fischer 1994; Morgan and Arcelus,
with the challenges that had faced due to 2009; Petrovici, 2013; Sandberg, 2005).
poor leadership, poor attitudes, IPA approaches are used in Social
ideological conflicts of cultural and Science research to explore how the
religious, political influences, structural subject-object dichotomy may be
matters and inefficiencies of relevant bridged by an interpreter focusing on the
government officers (Girragama et al., context (Farooqa and O’Brien, 2015;
1999; Mahindapala et al., 2020 and Goulding, 2005; Pernecky and Jamal,
2021). 2010; Szarycz, 2009). Thus the primary
Dissanayake et al., (2003) revealed that goal of IPA is to investigate how
these TRSs failed to fulfill their expected individuals make sense of their
organizational goals. In that context, it is experiences. It was assumed that people
important to understand how TRSs are ‘self-interpreting beings’, which
behave in the sector as which may give means that they are actively engaged in
some valuable insights to add the value interpreting the events, objects, and
to smallholder rubber sector. Therefore, people in their lives (Smith and Osborn,
studying the organizational behaviour, 2003; Thompson et al., 1989).
the management system of TRSs and According to the codes of Table 3, the
current issues are important to develop interview guide was prepared with the
strategies for the organizational assistance of experts in the smallholder
development of TRSs. The objective of rubber sector. Using the IPA, the overall
this study was to examine the organizational function of the TRSs
organizational role in the smallholder which affect the status of rubber
rubber sector in Moneragala District. smallholders was investigated under the
Finally, it will help to improve the conceptual framework illustrated in
development of the smallholder rubber Figure 1, based on the literature
sector in Moneragala. discussed above. In addition to the FGD,
the secondary data published in various
Methodology reports were also used (document
Research approach survey) to interpret the results.
The Interpretative Phenomenological
Analysis (IPA) approach was used in this

57
Thurusaviya Rubber Societies in the smallholder rubber

Efficacy of Thurusaviya
Rubber Societies

Functions of the organization

Welfare
Attributes of
Thurusaviya Rubber Input distribution
Status of
Societies Marketing rubber
Organizational structure smallholders
Facilitation for the
Organizational culture training programmes
External factors Future development
Interventions

Fig. 1. Conceptual framework

Source: Adopted from the concept of Bohlander and Snell, 2004

Data collection Data were collected through two Focus

Both categories of Field Officers (FOs); Group Discussions (FGDs) using an
Rubber Development Officers (RDOs) unstructured interview guide. Among
who are responsible for the extension qualitative primary data collection
activities in the field level attached to techniques, FGDs have been widely used
RDD and DCOTF are the closest in agricultural research dealing with a
officials to TRSs. Therefore, this study range of extension-related development
has investigated the role of TRSs through topics and facilitating an in-depth
the perception of FOs, based on their understanding of certain issues (Morgan
experiences. The TRS members and and Krueger, 1997). The main advantage
committee members were excluded in of the FGDs is that they allow much
the data collection anticipating the more freedom of speech among
possible biasedness. FOs, the research participants, encouraging them to
participants belonged to different rubber interact, debate and exchange views
growing DS divisions of Moneragala, during the discussion (Krueger and
and each of them was assigned for a Casey, 2015). FGDs are conducted with
specific geographical area known as an the participation of seven to twelve
RDO range. The average number of people to capture their experience and
TRSs in one RDO range was five, views regarding specific issues closely
ranging from 3 to 7, based on the density related to the research objectives. FGDs
of the smallholders in the respective were moderated by the main author in a
range. manner that adheres to the accepted
58
 P K K S Gunarathne et al.

guidance related to the particular method was adopted by (Mahindapala et

research strategy given by Bryman, al., 2020) to investigate the role of tea
(2012). smallholding development societies in
FOs were selected for the FGDs purely the tea smallholding sector. The quotes
on a random basis and based on the were indicated as PnDn (Pn=
working experience with a minimum of Identification number of participant,
five years of experience in Moneragala. Dn=Identification number of FGDs).
The total number of respondents was 18,
which is nearly 16 RDOs and two Results and Discussion
DCOTFs were selected (Table 2). They According to the view of FOs, around
provide the services for nearly 85 TRSs. 65% of the rubber smallholders in
Each FGD consists of eight RDOs and Moneragala were members of TRSs.
one DCOTF. FGDs were held in the According to the views of FOs, the
local language and were audio-recorded reasons for not obtaining the
in addition to taking notes. membership of TRSs were;
1. TRSs have not been established in
Table 2. Selected sample of RDOs for the areas where rubber lands were
study representing the DS divisions dispersed arbitrarily, especially in
Bibila, Buttala, Wellawaya and
DS division No. of RDOs Siyabalanduwa DS divisions,
participated 2. Medium-scale rubber growers were
FGD 1 FGD 2
not interested to join the TRSs
Bibila 1 1
Madulla 1 0
because of social dignity, and
Madagama 1 1 3. Terminating the membership by
Siyabalanduwa 0 1 themselves of the TRSs due to various
Moneragala 1 1 matters. Based on the opinion of
Badalkumbura 2 3 RDOs, there was variability in the
Wellawaya 1 0 status of activeness of the TRSs in
Buttala 1 1 Moneragala. It was revealed that 38
Total 8 8 TRSs were entirely ‘dormant’, where
no action has been taken place in the
Data analysis last three years. The relevant quote
The audio recorded data were concerning the above is given below.
transcribed following the method
suggested by Colaizzi (1978). Then a set “The effort of FOs to reestablish the
of codes and categories were developed dormant TRSs was turned out be a
according to the grounded theory failure several times, due to the internal
approach as shown in Table 3 and politics within societies and ruthless
following the method described by management practices of the
Strauss and Corbin (1997). A similar management unit of TRSs” (P5D1).

59
Thurusaviya Rubber Societies in the smallholder rubber

Table 3. Perception matrix of Field Officers of the TRSs

Categories Codes
Structure of the organization Structure of the management unit, Decision making, Type
of the membership, Goal orientation
Organizational culture Leadership, Gender issues, commitment, Attitudes
Function of TRSs Welfare, Input dealing, Marketing, Facilitation for the
training programmes
External Interaction between FOs and TRSs, Political influence,
Environment Political pressure, Link with external organizations
Organizational development Restructuring of organizations, Development of physical
of TRSs resources, Developing as business entities

Three TRSs under the purview of FOs of TRSs greatly depended upon the
acted beyond their expectations. Overall, members in the MU. Although the MU
as per their opinion, 43 of TRSs in of these TRSs was supposed to meet at
Monaragala district provide reasonable regular intervals (usually 2 months), and
service to their members. Further, the discuss various issues that affect the
activeness scale based on a scientific members and take decisions, it was
approach should be developed to revealed in FGDs that the majority of the
categorize TRSs as it would help to TRSs were not doing so. The
develop the TRS by solving their specific composition of the MU also matters to a
issues and achieve the expected goals. great extent to the decision-making of
TRSs. Most of the office-bearers of MU
Organizational structure of were older and retired people (the School
Thurusaviya rubber societies Principals, Teachers, Bank Officers) or
Structure of the management unit village leaders who have been holding
Organizational structure refers to the the post for the previous five to ten years.
framework in which the organization Usually, most village leaders do not wish
defines how tasks are divided, resources to have the younger generation in the
are deployed, and departments are MU. This can be identified as the main
coordinated (Bohlander and Snell, reason for the non-active nature of the
2004). As per the constitution of TRSs, TRSs. The decision-making process in
the Management Unit (MU) comprises active TRSs was more systematic than
11 volunteer members, including the the other societies. The used to have
President, Vice President, Secretary, regular MU meetings, special meetings
Assistant Secretary and Treasurer, and address burning issues and annual
six committee members. In the case of general meetings conducted at regular
highly active TRSs, usually MUs and the time intervals. Thus, active TRSs used
majority of the committee members and proper and active communication
sometimes even ordinary members were channels among members. It was
deliberately involved in the management revealed in the following quotes.
functions. It appeared that the activeness
60
 P K K S Gunarathne et al.

“Most of the active societies invited Both full-time and part-time rubber
FOs to participate in their regular smallholders were members of the TRSs.
meetings. If FOs were unable to As per the general understanding of the
participate, MU even postponed the FOs, the youth involvement had been at
particular meeting” (P6D2). a moderate level in both categories. The
majority of the FOs argued in the
“One of the active societies had a following way:
WhatsApp group to share ideas among
members. This society had young “Full-time farmers fully engaged in
members in the MU. FOs also linked rubber cultivation-related practices
with this group and shared pieces of and their preparedness in TRSs
advice and views with the society activities was high as it was a part of
members” (P2D2). their livelihood strategies. With the
part-time rubber smallholders, they
It was also revealed that some TRSs did may be employers or self-employed
not have a proper mechanism to conduct and have to engage in many activities
annual general meetings. The majority of and therefore, they did not have time to
the FOs in FGDs were of the view that spend for TRSs activities” (P2D1)
the accounting procedure of these TRSs
suffers from lapses such as transparency, Because of that, FOs and MU faced
incompleteness and mistakes. FOs were difficulties when distributing limited
not in a position to individually monitor subsidized resources among the
all TRSs as they had other extension members. Many members argued that
tasks. The most serious issue was that priority should be given to the active
those TRSs failed to adopt a transparent members, except for 12 TRSs, where the
auditing procedure in their final accounts majority of the members were women.
and that paved the way to misuse of One of the reasons for the higher
collective funds. This had affected the participation of females was that most
membership morale and engagement of males are unable to participate in
societal activities. One of the Field meetings of TRSs during the daytime.
Officers explained his view in the Sometimes, the registered rubber
following quote. smallholders do not participate in
meetings of TRSs, but their children tend
“One of the Presidents and a to participate in these unless their
Treasurer of society had used society registration is canceled. The following
funds for personal affairs. Members quote is about the memberships, as stated
couldn’t recover the misused funds by the respondents.
from both these persons. It had
generated a bad attitude on the society “However, under normal
and finally it was collapsed” (P3D1) circumstances, the level of
participation did not exceed 50% of
the total membership. But in the
61
Thurusaviya Rubber Societies in the smallholder rubber

subsidy distribution period, the extension and welfare programme in

participation was more than 80%. order to achieve the development of
However, attitude on the MU by the rubber farming” (P1D1)
members was also effecting the
participation in societal activities” Nevertheless, in a few TRSs close to the
(P6D1). urban areas, there were no such factors
(subsidies) taken into consideration in
“Although most of members were not the development of their societies.
in an active state in societies, they Therefore, TF should make policies
maintained their membership as it is a attract young and energetic generation
requirement to receive subsidies from into the MU by facilitating with
TF.” (P5D2). attractive allowances, due recognition
and conducting human resource
Except for a very few TRSs, the majority development programmes for the
of the societies had not set a goal/target members of MU.
to be achieved and no activity plan had
developed. However, TF had some Organizational culture of Thurusaviya
targets and had prepared a common rubber societies
activity plan common for the whole Organizational culture is defined that a
country. Therefore it should be changed system of shared meaning held by
and developed according to individual members that distinguish the
societies. Yet, this situation should be organization from other organizations
changed by the training of MU. (Bohlander and Snell, 2004). The role of
Participatory and need-based activity leadership plays a key role to influence
plans should be developed for each people towards the attainment of
society with the assistance of the FOs organizational goals. Therefore,
and the district committee. leadership qualities and role of MU is the
Implementation of extension programs most crucial factor highlighted in
should be based on their own needs. discussions as TRS is FBO. The active
Therefore, TRSs maintain good and successful TRSs represent the multi-
interaction with the FOs. On the other talented and skilled leaders in MU. They
hand, the majority of the FOs were of the always tried to achieve their
view that some societies were organizational goals effectively and
established solely to capture efficiently. It was described by many
Government aids. The relevant quote by respondents as in the following quote.
the respondents is stated below.
“Not only the input distribution
“Some societies were created only to programmes under the subsidy, but
obtain a subsidy for the smokehouses, also in other programmes (extension,
coagulate cups and trays and rollers welfare and marketing), effective
for rubber processing, while they were leaders promptly involve and
not keen enough to arrange any accomplish the basic requirements of
62
 P K K S Gunarathne et al.

programmes in an efficient and in a not done in the proper way. However,

transparent manner” (P8D2) no one is going to question. On the
other hand, they did not have an idea
With the poor leadership traits of MU, about their misuse also” (P8D1).
there were many conflicts arisen among
the members of the MU and also the Although the majority of the members in
members and MU. It would be affected MU comprised of female members,
the effectiveness and efficiency of TRSs. there were no issues related to gender in
The relevant quote by a participant is the management of TRSs. There were no
given below. specific relations with gender and
management with respect to the
“Two of my eight TRSs had been activeness of the committee and the
performing well under a good society. According to the respondents,
leadership, whilst the rest were not. trustworthiness and transparency were
Because of that the members were not the essential characters of the members
participating even in the annual of MU. They were required to maintain
general meeting and not paying trust in their actions and it helped to
membership fees” (P4D1) develop a favourable relationship
between all stakeholders (the MU, FOs
Some members of MU who have and the members) as it was necessary to
personal issues with member groups have good interactions with each
would treat the particular group category.
differently, and that affects the
organizational commitment as stated in The function of Thurusaviya rubber
the quote below. societies
The major functions of TRSs were,
“One of the Presidents always tried to subsidized input distribution, developing
facilitate his neighbours and close the marketing facilities, organizing the
relatives and this society is now under training programmes for members for
dormant condition” (P9D1) the rubber farming and welfare activities.
As revealed in the FGDs, the training
Thus, a FO pointed out that; programmes organized by MU were
“TRSs especially located in remote poor in most societies. FOs had targets to
areas or when most of the rubber conduct training programmes for rubber
smallholders were not well-educated farming, yet, it was difficult to organize
or due to both of reasons, members training programmes with most of TRSs.
with respectful characters were in the TRSs do not identify the importance of
top positions of the MU. Because of the technology transfer programmes
that situation, “The president and the whilst they always tried to implement
Secretary of that TRSs were suspects subsidy disbursement programmes. It
for misuse of funds and distribution of seemed that a hidden objective of the
subsidized inputs among members was establishment of some of the TRSs was
63
Thurusaviya Rubber Societies in the smallholder rubber

just to acquire the benefits given by the loan scheme and not only that, gifts
Government as explained by respondents (books and toys) were given to the
in the following quote children of members at the end of every
year by using profits of the society”
“All the TRSs were highly concerned (P4D2)
about the benefits and subsidies that
are given by the Government. Those The major function of the TRSs was to
who have left the society will be re- strengthen the rubber marketing system
joined when the Government in the village level rubber smallholders.
introduces a beneficiary program To achieve this objective, 28 TRSs had
(GPCs and rubber rollers) again. Most established Group Processing Centers
of the society members perceived that (GPCs). Rubber smallholders who don’t
the technical knowledge had less value have rubber processing facilities can use
than those physical and financial these centers to produce quality sheet
inputs. Rubber smallholders were rubber. This product was sold in bulk at
highly addicted to the subsidy and seek a high price. The most of GPCs have
subsidies for every aspect. It was a functioned well and achieved their
dependency mentality, developed over targets. There were many successful
the decades through the policies that cases of TRSs as mentioned by FOs and
have been adopted” (P7D1). as a summary;

Carrying out a decent welfare system “Many advantages were achieved by

promotes the group dynamics within the the establishment of GPCs, low sheet
TRSs, people were encouraged to attract production cost, high-quality sheet
to the TRSs, which leads to strengthen production, time-saving for rubber
the activities of TRSs. Most of the TRSs smallholders, enhancement of the
were given less priority to promote activeness and group cohesiveness in
welfare activities due to various reasons; the society” (P3D2).
lack of initial funds, management not
being in the position to initiate welfare A few of the FOs highlighted the issues
projects, and presence of many specific of GPCs; viz.
welfare societies at village-level. 1. There was a trend that rubber
However, a few societies started smallholders opt to purchase their
successful programmes as stated in the processing equipment such as rollers
quote below. and smokehouses. Therefore, they did
not want the facilities of GPCs. This
“One society had a well-functioned led to discontinuation of the
money lending system. The interest functions of GPCs, as the capacity of
rate of these societies which was the smokehouse could not be fulfilled,
comparatively low compared to other 2. Difficulty inmanaging the mainte-
micro-finance institutions in the nance cost and
village. They had a separate act for the
64
 P K K S Gunarathne et al.

3. Non-stability of marketing channels. Rubber sheet and latex collectors had

According to the above discussion, requested TRSs to strengthen the rubber
most of TRSs were not focused on marketing channel. It helped to get a
their major role at the village level. marketing commission into the TRSs.
Concerning the political influence, there
External environment were differences in opinion based on the
This section explains how FOs locality. Some FOs had expressed that
recognized TRSs’ response against the political influences were affecting TRSs’
external factors/effects. It was revealed affairs especially in the distribution of
that all the TRSs were highly sensitive to rollers. One of the major roles of FOs
external support in relation to extension was the development of TRSs. The
activities and forms of subsidies. FOs opinion of all FOs was that TRSs were
guide the TRSs on different occasions, not independent organizations but they
such as the time of the election of office mainly depend on FOs in the particular
bearers, organizing the extension region. As per the discussions, they were
programmes and financial matters. If not sure about their strength and always
there was a burning issue, meeting with seek help from FOs. It appeared that
the MU of each TRSs was taken under reasonably independent TRSs were quite
FOs purview. RRISL gets direct support rare and even not common among TRSs.
from the TRSs for their technology However, two TRSs were identified with
transfer programmes and research acceptable qualities as stated below.
purposes. There were a few active TRSs
that effectively utilized RDD and “TRSs were mostly independent of the
RRISL to bridge their knowledge gap. FOs. They conducted monthly
On the other hand, TRSs gave their meetings on their wish. FOs
reasonable support for RRISL and RDD participate when a serious issue has
in every aspect as evident from occurred and in annual general
respondents according to the following meeting only” (P8D2).
quote.
The majority of the FOs had expressed
“I had only one active society under that they would like to see TRSs running
my purview, and they come up with as independent societies. All FOs had
some topics and requested me to accepted that they need the support of
conduct training programmes such as TRSs in their extension and development
agronomy, tapping and processing of activities in the rubber sector as they
rubber. Not only that, one training cannot reach many rubber smallholders.
programme on tapping skill
development was arranged by Organizational development of
themselves by directly contacting Thurusaviya rubber societies
RRISL” (P2D2). The various drawbacks with regard to the
TRSs had been explored previously
under different categories. This section
65
Thurusaviya Rubber Societies in the smallholder rubber

attempted to gather the FOs suggestions transparency and attitudes of the

and views to overcome those weaknesses members, while external factors were
and organizational development. Most Government assistance, the role of the
FOs (96%) were of the view that the extension agent, changes in the external
present framework as a voluntary environment, the effect of other
organisation had to be changed. They organisations and politics. TRSs were
argued that these TRSs could not be poor as they mainly depend on FOs and
survive in the current competitive world are highly sensitive to government aids.
as an entirely voluntary organisation. The majority of TRSs were not goal-
However, most of them express that it oriented. From the extension and
was necessary to study the structure of a business perspectives, the majority of
similar organisation operating in TRSs were not dynamic in
different sectors in Sri Lanka and the organisational performances. The study
world. Then the best model should be suggests the necessity of interventions to
developed and adopted. Most of them address the above weaknesses under the
have expressed that; organizational development perspective.
1. It was also necessary to change the
mindset of rubber smallholders as Limitation and direction for future
they have lost their faith on TRSs, research work
2. Right people should be appointed to Only the FOs were used to collect the
the leadership of the society, data on the assumption that they were
3. To offer an allowance for the members impartial and none of the TRSs members
of MUs to recognize their service and were considered. Therefore, the findings
compensate for their time of the study may be subjected to
involvement, confirmation by another study.
4. Improving the physical resource pool
(instruments of land preparation and Acknowledgement
equipment for tapping panel marking, The authors are grateful to the District
ICTs facilities), Coordinating Officers of Thurusaviya
5. TRSs should be developed as a Fund and Rubber Development Officers
business entity by manufacturing of Rubber Development Department in
various rubber-based products such as Moneragala District for their valuable
rubber bands and automotive support.
accessories.
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Conclusion Arnold, S and Fischer, E (1994).
The study revealed that the majority of Hermeneutics and consumer research.
TRSs were not performing well due to Journal of Consumer Research 21(1),
certain internal and external factors. pp.55-70.
Bohlander, G and Snell, S (2004). Managing
Internal factors were identified as poor
Human Resources. 13th edition. pp.232-
leadership, lack of enthusiasm of 274, Thomson Corporation, USA.
members, issues in trustworthiness,
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Bryman, A (2012). Social Research Goulding, C (2005). Grounded theory,

Methods. pp.416-428. Oxford University ethnography and phenomenology: a
Press. comparative analysis of three qualitative
Chamala, S and Shingi, P M (1997). strategies for marketing research.
Establishing and Strengthening Farmer European Journal of Marketing 39(3/4),
Organizations: A Reference Manual FAO pp.294-308.
(Eds. B E Swanson), pp. 212. Daya Krueger, R A and Casey, M A (2015). Focus
Publishing House New Delhi. Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied
Colaizzi, P (1978). Psychological research as Research, 5th ed.; SAGE Publications,
the phenomenologists views it. In: Inc.: Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 2015;
Existential Phenomenological ISBN 9781412969475, pp 127-138.
Alternatives for Psychology. pp.48-71. Mahindapala, K G J P, Jayathilaka, M W A
(Eds. R S Valle and M King) New York P, Jayawardane, L N A C,
Oxford University Press. Kopiyawattage, K P P and De Mel, M P
Dissanayake, D M A P, Wijesuriya, Wasana, M (2020). Role and capacity of Tea
Herath, H M L K, Wijeratne, Mahinda, Societies in the smallholding sector in Sri
Edirisinghe, J C and Abeywardene, Lanka: An assessment based on the
Vidura (2003). Development of the perceptions of Extension Officers.
rubber sector through participatory Tropical Agricultural Research 31(1),
interactions: smallholders’ perception on 43-55. DOI: http://doi.org/10.4038/tar.
the Thurusaviya programme and v31i1.8343.
suggestions for improvement. Interaction Mahindapala, K G J P, Jayathilaka, M W A
between the Environment, Society and P, Jayawardana, L N A C and
Technology (INTEREST), Partner 5: Sivananthawerl, T (2021). Developing an
Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka. assessment frame for Tea Sector farmer
pp.113.Rothamsted Research, organizations based on opinions of
Harpenden, UK. agriculture extension personnel. Tropical
Esham, M (2012). Lesson for Farmer base Agricultural Research 32(2), 135-145.
Organizations (FBO) in Sri Lanka DOI: http://doi.org/10.4038/tar.v32i2.84
experiences from agriculture cooperative 61.
(JA) in Japan. A Journey in harmony Ministry of Plantation Industries. (2019).
sixty years of Japan – Sri Lanka Relations Plantation Sector Statistical Pocket Book,
(Ed. H D Karunaratne).pp 415. Sri Lanka. pp100-150.
Farooqa, S and O’Brien, C (2015). An action Morgan, D, Krueger, R (1997). The Focus
research methodology for manufacturing Group Kit. SAGE Publications, Inc.:
technology selection: a supply chain Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, 1997; ISBN
perspective. Production Planning & 9780761907602.pp 278.
Control 26(6), pp. 467-488. Morgan, J F and Arcelus, J (2009). Body
Giragama,W M G B, Sanker, S G and image in gay and straight men: A
Samarakoon, S M A (1999). qualitative study. European Eating
Development and Strengthening of Disorders Review 17(6), 435-443. doi:
Farmer Organizations through Farmer 10.1002/erv.955.
Convention. Final Evaluation Report, Pernecky, T and Jamal, T (2010).
Hector Kobbekaduwa Agrarian and (Hermeneutic) phenomenology in
Research and Training Institute, pp 103. tourism studies. Annals of Tourism
Research 37(4), 1055-1075.
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Petrovici, I (2013). Philosophy as Thompson, C J, Locander, W B and Pollio,

hermeneutics. The world of the text H R (1989). Putting consumer research
concept in Paul Ricoeur’s hermeneutics. back into consumer behaviour: The
Social and Behavioral Sciences 71, philosophy and method of existential
pp.21-27. phenomenology. Journal of Consumer
Sandberg, J (2005). How do we justify Research 16(2), 133-146.
knowledge produced within interpretive Wijesuriya,W, Dissanayake, D M A P,
paradigms? Organisational Research Herath, H M L K and Gunarathne, P K K
Methods 8(1), pp.41-68. S (2011). Constraints in sustainable
Smith, J A and Osborn, M (2003) smallholder rubber farming in the
Interpretative phenomenological analysis. Moneragala district: Journal of the
In: Qualitative Psychology: A Practical Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka
Guide to Research Methods. (Ed. J.A. 91, 61-73.
Smith), London, Sage.pages
Strauss, A and Corbin, J M (1997). Grounded Address for correspondence: Mr P K K S
theory in practice, Thousand Oaks, CA: Gunarathne, Advisory Officer, Advisory
Sage. pp 108-213. Services Dept., Rubber Research Institute of
Szarycz, G S (2009). Some issues in tourism Sri Lanka, Telewala Road, Ratmalana, Sri
research phenomenology: A Lanka.
commentary. Current Issues in Tourism e-mail: [email protected]
12(1), 47-58.

68
 Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (2020) 100, 69-77

SHORT COMMUNICATION

An attempt to validate molecular and field level screening

results for the Corynospora leaf fall disease in rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis)
W A D R Tharanaga*, S P Withanage** and K L Wasantha Kumara*
* Department of Agricultural Biology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna,
Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri Lanka
** Genetics and Plant Breeding Department, Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka,
Dartonfield, Agalawatta, Sri Lanka

Abstract
Corynespora Leaf Fall (CLF) disease is one of the serious diseases, caused by
Corynespora cassiicola, affecting rubber (Hevea brasiliensis L) plantations. Clones
rated as resistant to the disease under the polybag nurseries became susceptible at the
field level causing major problems in clone recommendations. Therefore, it is of utmost
importance to add new CLF resistant genotypes to the breeding pool. Therefore, the
present study was carried out to attempt to validate the molecular screening by field
screening results. The molecular screening was carried out using 35 genotypes from
2005 hand-pollinated progeny, their grandparents (RRIC 100 and RRIC 103), grate
grandparents (RRIC 52 and PB 86), and two check clones (RRISL 201 and RRISL 208).
The 2005 hand-pollinated progeny which has comprised with self progenies, raised at
1978 hand pollination by selfing at CLF susceptible clone RRIC 103 and CLF resistant
clone RRIC 100. Four SSR Primers (HB 1, HB 11, HB 29, hmct 5) were selected based
on polymorphism between the CLF free clone RRIC 100 and susceptible clone RRIC
103 for molecular screening. Field screening was done at polybag nursery, budwood
nursery, and at field level in three locations viz., Nivithigalakale, Monaragala, and
Gallewatta. Completely randomized design (CRD) was used with five to ten replicates.
Disease assessment was carried out allowing plants for the natural infection based on
the index developed for scoring of disease severity. Observations were taken three
times during peak and off seasons of CLF disease occurrence and were assessed along
with control clones. All primers generated two fragments for Hevea and built the
genetic distance matrix using a power maker (V 3.0) computer program and a tree
diagram was drawn using the Tree view computer program. Cluster analyses revealed
four distinct clusters. Two primary clones, PB 86 and RRIC 52, and the clones RRIC
103 and RRIC 201 were grouped and another cluster was again grouped into three
main sub-clusters. Around 40% of field screening results obtained agreed with
molecular grouping whereas, 57% were not agreed and around 3% of genotypes did
not show a clear correlation. However, further screening at the field level and
molecular screening is needed.

Key words: Corynespora leaf fall disease, Hevea breeding, molecular markers, resistance, SSR
69
Screening for CLFD resistance in rubber

Introduction high yield and vigor is a great challenge

Natural rubber from Hevea brasiliensis in Hevea breeding. The laboratory-based
is one of the most versatile industrial raw in vitro screening methods are not
materials. Corynespora leaf fall (CLF) dependable and in vitro screening
disease caused by Corynespora methods should be used only to obtain
cassiicola, is a serious disease affecting preliminary data. This also consumes
rubber yield with relatively a recent considerable time under field
origin. The disease now has become a experiments. And also field evaluation
serious threat to the natural rubber through visual observation and
industry affecting several outstanding laboratory assays through excised leaf
clones in Sri Lanka as well as in South inoculation have led to the screening of
and South East Asia, and Central Africa putatively resistant Wickham clones and
(Jayasinghe, 2000). wild germplasm. However, laboratory
The clones identified as highly bioassays are preliminary and may not
susceptible in Sri Lanka during the first ensure actual field-level resistance as
epidemic in 1985-1986 are RRIC 103, observed for the disease of other forest
RRIC 104, RRIM 600, Tjir 1, RRIM 725, trees. Many man-hours of labor and
IAN 873, and FX 25 (Jayasinghe and enormous quantities of fungicidal
Silva, 1996). The use of chemicals to chemicals have been reported to be
control CLF disease in mature fields is required every year for the management
not an economically feasible method and of the above disease in a vast area of
also creates environmental and health rubber plantations in India and other
hazards where it is not recommended by rubber growing countries. The cost of
the Rubber Research Institute (RRI) of fungicides and their long-term effect on
Sri Lanka, at present. the environment justify the need for
The sudden susceptibility of the resistant breeding disease-resistant trees.
high-yielding clones, which came Molecular markers have now been
through laborious evaluation procedures, proved very useful in selecting disease
has raised a big problem for rubber resistant clones (Collard et. al., 2004).
breeders and makes it difficult to SSR (Simple Sequence Repeats) is a
recommend a clone for growers with newly selected molecular marker to
confidence. Clones which showed detect the resistant gene of different plant
resistance to Corynespora leaf fall during species due to its numerous advantages
the evaluation were susceptible at field like hypervariability, displaying high
level after some time and disturb the levels of polymorphism, and ease of
clone recommendations. Therefore, it is detection by PCR (Mantello et al., 2012).
very important to add precise Four SSR Primers (HB 1, HB 11, HB 29,
Corynespora leaf fall-resistant genotypes hmct 5) were selected based on
to the breeding pool. The development of polymorphism between the CLF disease
Corynespora leaf fall-resistant clones free clone RRIC 100 and the complete
along with other performances such as susceptible clone RRIC 103 (Tharanga et
70
 W A D R Tharanga et al.
al., 2018). Hand pollinated progeny Hevea genotypes that 1978 HP 375,
developed in the year 2005 showed a 1978 HP 377 and 1978 HP 878 raised at
wide range of CLF disease responses, as 1978 hand pollination. That three 1978
complete susceptible to free from the HP genotypes already CLF resistant. The
disease, is having second self progenies 1978 HP 375 and 1978 HP 377 were
of the clone RRIC 100 as well as the raised by selfing at CLF susceptible
clone RRIC 103. 2005 hand pollinated clone RRIC 103. 1978 HP 878 was
progeny which has comprised with self raised by selfing with CLF resistant
progenies, was raised at 1978 hand clone RRIC 100.
pollination by selfing at CLF susceptible
clone RRIC 103 and CLF resistant clone Molecular screening
RRIC 100. The resistance screening DNA extraction
using SSR marker to select high The genomic DNA extraction from
performing CLF resistant rubber clones leaves at the immature apple green stage
and correlation between molecular and was done according to the mini
field screenings have not yet been preparation method developed at RRISL
undertaken. Therefore, the current study (Withanage, 2013). The Purity and the
was carried out with the objective of the concentration of extracted DNA samples
attempt to validating the results of were checked using agarose gel
Microsatellite based molecular markers electrophoresis and visualized under gel
during molecular screening for CLF documentation. Initially, thirty SSR
resistance with field level screening for primers were supplied by AVON
the disease resistance. PHARMO CHEM Private Ltd., USA,
(i.e. HB1 to HB4, HB6 to HB12, HB14
Methodology to HB22, HB24 to HB30, hmct 5, hmac4,
The experiment was carried out at the and hmtc1) were used.
Department of Genetics and Plant
breeding of Rubber Research Institute, PCR amplification
Nivithigalakale substation, Matugama, PCR optimization was performed with
Monaragala Substations, and Gallewatta minor changes with a standard protocol
estate. developed at RRISL to obtain clear and
Thirty five genotypes from the 2005 precise repeatable fragments. PCR
hand pollinated progeny program, with amplification was done in 20 µl reaction
their grandparents (RRIC 100 and RRIC volume containing 50-100 ng template
103), great grandparents (RRIC 52 and DNA with 1× PCR buffer, 2mM dNTPs,
PB 86) and with two check clones as and one unit of Taq polymerase (Gene
RRISL 201 and RRISL, 208 were Tech, Sri Lanka) and 5mM of primer.
selected for the study. Amplification was performed in
Thirty five genotypes from the 2005 Multigene DNA thermal cycler (Multi
hand pollinated progeny which has gene, Lab Net international Inc.) and the
comprised with self progenies of three program consists of an initial denaturing
71
Screening for CLFD resistance in rubber

step at 94 oC for, 4 minutes, 35 cycles of clone as RRISL 201 used were

1 minute at 94 oC, 1 minute at the specific established at the RRISL substations in
annealing temperature of each primer Nivithigalakelle, Gallewaththa estate (a
pair, and 2 min at 72 0C, followed by a traditional rubber growing area) and
final extension reaction. The amplified Monaragala (a non-traditional rubber
PCR products were resolved in 1.5% growing area).
Agarose containing gel. The banding
pattern was visualized in gel Screening of genotypes and their
documentation. control clones in polybag and
budwood nurseries at Nivithigalakele
Data analysis and in field establishments at
Power marker software program, version Galewatta estate and Monaragala
3.0 (Liu, 2004) was used to develop a Substation
phylogenetic tree and genetic distance A completely randomized design (CRD)
matrix for the analysis. The construction was used with five to ten replicates per
of the phylogenetic tree was based on the genotype. Plants were screened for CLF
Unweighted Pair Group Method disease resistance under natural infection
(Koichiro Tamura et al., 2013) with and three observations were taken in the
Arithmetic Averages (UPGMA) one-year-old plants. Five to ten plants
embedded in the MEGA6 software. were demarcated for the observations
and the disease severity assessment was
Field screening carried out based on the index for scoring
All experimental materials, thirty five of disease severity (score index) as
genotypes from 2005 hand pollination shown in Table1. The results of the field
progeny, with their grandparents (RRIC experiment mean score index were
100 and RRIC 103), great grandparents subjected to cluster analysis to
(RRIC 52 and PB 86), and with check distinguish resistance of CLFD.

Table 1. Score index for the assessment of CLF disease severity

Index for scoring of Description

disease severity (score
index)
0 No disease
1 Mild (0-25% of the leaf area is covered by the disease)
2 Moderate (25-50% of the leaf area is covered by the disease)
3 Severe (50-75% of the leaf area is covered by the disease)
4 Very severe (> 75% of the leaf area is covered by the disease)
(Fernando et al., 2010)

72
 W A D R Tharanga et al.
Results and Discussion the second main cluster named B, which
In molecular screening, a pairwise was again divided into three clusters as
genetic distance matrix was developed, B1, B2, and B3 (Fig. 1b). Cluster B1
based on two amplified DNA fragments comprised of the clone RRISL 208 and
of four primers, using Power marker few genotypes. Cluster B2 was
program V 3.25. According to the comprised of 20 genotypes and cluster
dendrogram constructed using the B3 was grouped with the clone RRIC
"MEGA 6.06" computer program (V 100. The CLF moderately susceptible
3.25), two primary clones PB 86 and clone RRISL208 was grouped with HP
RRIC 52, and also the clones RRIC 103 09, HP 05, HP 03, and HP 04 (group B1)
and RRIC 201 were grouped together and those genotypes were the products of
and the other cluster was again grouped CLF resistant genotype 1978 HP which
into three sub-clusters. When considered showed moderately susceptible CLF
the clustering pattern along with their response at field screening. The cluster
pedigree, it is showed their close genetic B2 comprised with genotypes HP 1, HP
relationship, by grouping genotypes that 11, HP 13, HP 19, HP 23, HP 32, HP 58,
shared the same parentage (Fig.1a and HP 26, HP 10, HP 46, HP 50, HP 52, HP
1b). 21, HP 22, HP 06, HP 07, HP 15, HP 17,
All thirty five genotypes of 2005 hand HP 2 and HP 49.
pollination progeny were grouped into
RRIC103
RRISL201
PB86
RRIC52
A
a. RRISL208
HP9
HP5
HP3
HP4
HP1
B1
HP11
HP13
HP19
HP23
HP32
HP58
HP26
HP10
HP46

B2
HP50
HP52
HP21
HP22
HP6

B
HP7
HP15
HP17
HP2
HP49
HP27
HP51
HP60
HP29
HP30
HP31
HP45
HP48
HP56
B3
b. RRIC100
HP40
HP61

0.02

Fig. 1. Cluster analysis of the molecular screening and field screening to identify CLFD
resistance a. Microsatellite profile of HB 11 primer for 35 genotypes in 2005 Hand
pollination progeny b. Dendrogram of recommended clones including grand
grandparents, grandparents of 2005 Hand pollination progeny, moderate susceptible
recommend clones and 35 genotypes of 2005 hand pollination progeny in molecular
screening
73
Screening for CLFD resistance in rubber

Variation between genotypes and clones Monaragala during the field screening
was observed, however, it is unable to where two genotypes (2005 HP1 and
explain this situation clearly by looking 2005 HP2) were free from the disease
at the relationship between field while the rest of 19 genotypes showed
screening and molecular variation. very low disease severity. The second
Therefore, further studies are needed to cluster had 10 genotypes with the
carry out to confirm the molecular moderately susceptible clone RRISL
relationship for the field level, CLF 201. The third cluster comprised of the
disease response in Hevea. susceptible clones RRIC 52 and RRIC
103, and six genotypes.
Field screening In the field screening at Galewatta,
In Nivithigalakale polybag screening, cluster number one consisted of 24
cluster number one consisted of ten genotypes along with two CLF disease
genotypes along with disease free clones resistant clones RRIC 100 and PB 86.
RRIC 100 and PB 86. Out of these 10 Out of those, 2005 HP1 and 2005 HP3
genotypes, two genotypes (2005 HP 5 were free from the disease and the rest of
and 2005 HP 1) were free from the the genotypes were also showed very
disease while the rest of the eight low disease severity (Mean score 213).
genotypes showed very low disease The second cluster had five genotypes
intensity. The second cluster was and the moderate susceptible clone,
grouped with 15 genotypes which were RRISL 201. The third cluster compared
moderately susceptible to the CLF with the susceptible clones RRIC 52 and
disease along with susceptible clone RRIC 103 and four other genotypes.
RRIC 103 and moderately susceptible Fernando et al. (2010) found the
clone RRISL 201. The third cluster was different methods to evaluate the
comprised of nine susceptible genotypes susceptibility and resistance of genotype
along with susceptible clone RRIC 52. screening methods and are not
In Nivithigalakale, budwood nursery dependable and should be used only to
screening, cluster number one consisted obtain preliminary data.
of seven genotypes, along with The studies of Manju and coworkers
moderately susceptible clone RRISL 201 (2010) showed a differential behavior for
and severely susceptible clone RRIC CLF disease infection in the field and
103. The second cluster had 14 nursery experiments. It would be
genotypes with disease free resistance worthwhile to look for genes conferring
clone RRIC 100 and resistance clone PB resistance in the first cluster as its genetic
86. The third cluster comprised the base is much wider than the remaining
susceptible clone RRIC 52 and 10 other two clusters. The continuous
genotypes. distributions of resistance patterns within
Cluster number one was grouped with a population of 62 clones suggest
nineteen genotypes along with disease involvement of quantitative inheritance
free clones RRIC 100 and PB 86 at
74
 W A D R Tharanga et al.
to the resistance of Corynespora both field level response and molecular
cassicola. grouping and around 57% [(20/35)*100
A comprehensive review of the clonal did not show similar results. Around 3%
susceptibility to CLF disease in various [(1/35)*100 showed varied results and
rubber growing countries (Mathew, could not be concluded (Table 2).
2006) suggested that the tolerance level In general, Hevea clones and genotypes
of widely cultivated clones is declining studied in this experiment showed a
and also the creditability of the resistance differential behavior for CLF disease
level of a cultivated clone is lost due to infection in the field, nursery, and
breaking down of previously known molecular screening. It would be
resistance. According to the findings of worthwhile to look for genes conferring
Othman et al. (1996), the clone RRIM resistance in the first cluster as its genetic
600 and GT1 earlier reported susceptible constituents distributions resistance
as a result of the development of newer pattern within a population.
races of pathogen favored by the According to dendrogram, molecular
exposure to a long period of screening was grouped resistant,
monoculture. susceptible and moderate susceptible for
control clones. As when grouped with
Verification of molecular screening RRIC 100 it has assumed having
results by field screening resistance), groped with RRISL 208
When, developing a relationship (assumed moderate susceptible) and
between field screening and molecular grouped without RRIC 100 and RRISL
screening, around 40% [(14/35)*100] of 208 (assume susceptible) in their nursery
the genotypes screened were agreed in and field screening (Table 2).

Table 2. Verification of field screening results through molecular screening

Confirmed the field Unconfirmed the field screening Vary in result with
screening by the molecular by the molecular result molecular results
result
05 HP 27 2005 HP 29 2005 HP 48
2005 HP 30 2005 HP 31
2005 HP 40 2005 HP 56
2005 HP 45 2005 HP 61
2005 HP 51 2005 HP 1
2005 HP 60 2005 HP 2
2005 HP 4 2005 HP 10
2005 HP 5 2005 HP 11
2005 HP 9 2005 HP 13
2005 HP 6 2005 HP 17
2005 HP 7 2005 HP 19

75
Screening for CLFD resistance in rubber

Confirmed the field Unconfirmed the field screening Vary in result with
screening by the molecular by the molecular result molecular results
result
2005 HP 15 2005 HP 21
2005 HP 46 2005 HP 22
2005 HP 3 2005 HP 23
2005 HP 26
2005 HP 32
2005 HP 49
2005 HP 50
2005 HP 52
2005 HP 58
[The results were obtained based on cluster groups (resistance, moderate resistance, and
susceptibility) produced in molecular screening at the poly bag and budwood nurseries and field
establishments at Galewatta estate and Monaragala substation]

Conclusion support given us for field screening of

The 2005 hand pollination progeny CLF disease, Dr (Mrs) B W Wijesuriya,
showed a range of CLF disease Head of Biometry Section for statistical
responses i.e. free from the disease to analysis and all the staff members
severe susceptibility. Genetics and Plant Breeding Department
Hevea clones and genotypes studied for their support given in every possible
showed a differential behavior for CLF way for this study.
disease infection in the field, nursery,
and molecular screening. Forty percent References
of the studied genotypes confirmed the Collard, B C Y, Jahufer, M Z Z, Brouwer, J
molecular grouping by field screening B and Pang, E C K (2004). An introduction
and around 57% of genotypes did not to markers, quantitative trait loci (QTL)
develop the correlation. Around 3% of mapping and marker assisted selection for
crop improvement: The basic concepts.
genotypes did not produce a clear
Euphytica 142, 169-196.
relationship. It would be worthwhile to Fernando, T H P S, Jayasinghe, C K,
look for genes conferring resistance to Wijesundera, R L C, Silva, W P K and
CLF in the first cluster as its genetics Nishantha, E A D N (2010). Evaluation of
continuous resistance distribution screening methods against Corynespora
pattern within a population. leaf fall disease of rubber (Hevea
brasiliensis). Journal of Plant Disease and
Acknowledgments Protection 117 (1) 24-29.
We wish to express our sincerest thanks Jayasinghe, C K (2000). Corynespora leaf
to Dr (Mrs) T H P S Fernando, Head of fall: The most challenging rubber disease
in Asian and African continents. Bulletin
Plant Pathology and Microbiology
of Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka
Department and her staff for their 44, 56-64.
76
 W A D R Tharanga et al.
Jayasinghe, C K, Silva, W P K, Wettasinghe, Othman, R, Benong, M, Ong, S H and
J L P C and Fernando, T H P S (1996). A Hashim, I (1996). Strategies and
decade of experience with Corynepora leaf development of resistant Hevea clones
fall disease in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of against Corynespora leaf fall. In:
the IRRDB Symposium, 5-6 November Proceedings of the Workshop on
1996, Beruwala, Sri Lanka, 94-96pp. Corynespora Leaf Fall Disease of Hevea
Koichiro Tamura, Glen Stecher, Daniel Rubber, 177-193pp. (Eds. A. Darussamin,
Peterson, Alan Filipski and Sudhir Kumar S. Pawirosoemardjo, Azwar, R. Basuki,
(2013). MEGA6: Molecular Biology and and Sadaruddin). Rubber Research
Evolution 30, 2725-2729. Institute, Indonesia.
Liu J (2004). Power Marker V 3.0 manual, Tharanga, W A D R, Withanage, S P and
http://www.powermaker.net. Wasantha Kumara, K L (2018). Screening
Manju, M J, Vinod, K K, Idicula, S P, of microsatellite markers for early
Kuruvilla Jacob, C, Nazeer, M A and detection of Corynespora leaf fall disease
Benagi, V I (2010). Susceptibility of resistance in rubber (Hevea brasilliensis
Hevea brasiliensis clones to Corynespora L.) clones. Proceeding of International
Leaf Fall disease. Journal Mycological Symposium on Agriculture and
Plant Pathology 40(4), 603-609. Environment (ISAE). Faculty of
Mantello, C C, Suzuki, F I, Souzal, L M, Agriculture, University of Ruhuna. P.78.
Goncalves, P S and Souza, A P (2012). Withange, S P (2013). Personal
Microsatellite marker development for the Communication. Department of Genetics
rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis): and Plant Breeding, Rubber Research
characterization and cross amplification in institute of Sri Lanka.
wild Hevea spices. BMC Research Notes
5, 325-33. Address for correspondence: Miss W A D R
Mathew, J (2006). Clonal resistance of Tharanga, Dept. of Agricultural Biology,
Hevea brasiliensis to Corynespora leaf fall Faculty of Agriculture, University of
disease. Corynespora leaf disease of Hevea Ruhuna, Mapalana, Kamburupitiya, Sri
brasiliensis strategies for Management Lanka.
(Ed. C K Jacob) Rubber Research Institute e-mail: [email protected]
of India. 88.

77
Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka
Instructions to authors

Aims and scope: The present policy of the Institute publications is research papers of very high standard are
generally published in the Journal whilst semi-technical, readable articles of topical interest will be considered
for the Bulletin. As a rule, all papers scheduled to be included in the Journal are reviewed by at least two
subject specialists in the Editorial Committee. The Director, Additional Director, Deputy Director (Biology) and
Deputy Director (Technology) who functions as the Editors have the discretion to decide ultimate suitability of
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Manuscript submission: Manuscripts must be typed on A4 size paper (8.27"x 11.29") with a margin of 1.5" on
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Title Page: A concise and informative title (authors should not underline titles unless certain words are desired
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Abstract: Abstract should not exceed 250 words. This should provide a clear and factual synopsis of the paper,
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Keywords: Keywords (a maximum of 6, in alphabetical order, suitable for indexing) should be placed after the
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References: References should be cited according to the Harvard system, in which the author's names and dates
are given in the text in brackets, eg. (Jones, 1948), except when the author's name is part of the sentence eg.
"Jones (1948) showed that .....". when a paper written by two authors is cited, both names are given, the
ampersand (&) being used in place of "and" eg. Jones & Smith (1948). If there are more than two authors give
the first name only, with the words et al., eg. Jones et al. (1948) or (Jones et al., 1948). When citing several
references by the same author, in one year, give them as (Jones 1948a), (Jones 1948b) and so on. There is
another class of references, which should be avoided as far as possible, eg (Jones, 1948 - Personal
communications).
Authors should ensure that all references given in the text are correctly listed at the end of the paper,
under the heading 'REFERENCES' in alphabetical order; serial numbering of references is not acceptable.

Articles from Journals:

1. Seneviratne, P., Flegman, A.W. and Wijesekera, G.A.S. (1995). The problem of surface sterilization of shoot
materials of Hevea. Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka 75, 51-60.
2. Saha, S., Singh, J.P., Verma, J.P. and Jayaraman, J. (2001). Population dynamics of cotton phylloplane
bacteria antagonistic towards Xanthomonas campestris pv. Malvacearum. Indian Phytopathology 54,
409-413.
Books:
1. Domsch, K.H., Gams, W. and Anderson, T.H. (1980). Compendium of Soil Fungi. Vol.1. Academic Press,
New York. 89 pp.
2. Kimball, J.W. (1970). Cell Biology. Addison Wesley Publishing Co., California. 199 pp.

Articles from Books/Collective Publications:

1. Yogaratnam, N. (1983). Weeds and weed control. In: Handbook of Rubber Culture and Processing, pp. 99-
102 (Eds. O.S. Peries and D.M. Fernando), Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Agalawatta, Sri
Lanka.
2. Butcher, D.N. (1983). The culture of isolated roots. In: Tissue Culture Methods for Plant Pathologists. pp.13-
17 (Eds. D.S. Ingram and J.P. Helgeson), Blackwell Scientific Publications. London.

Thesis/Dissertations
1. Mendis, M.H. (1981). Growth requirements of Hevea stem callus. MSc Thesis. University of Sri
Jayawardenapura, Sri Lanka.
2. Samaraweera, M.K.S.A. (1979). A study of the growth regulator N-dimethylaminosuccinamic acid. PhD
Thesis. Long Ashton Research Station.UK.

Tables: Tables should be typed on separate sheets, numbered consecutively in Arabic numerals and be designed
to fit the page dimensions and occupy no more than one printed page. Vertical rules should not be used. The
only lines appearing on a table should be horizontal. Headings should be provided for columns and the first
letter should be in capitals. The approximate location of the tables should be indicated on the right hand side
margin of the main text.

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Graphs done on Excel are acceptable and the Excel file with graphics shall be provided to the editorial office.
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It is the responsibility of the author to obtain written permission for all quotations from any work in
copyright, and for the reprinting of figures, tables or poems from unpublished or copyrighted material.
 The Journal of the Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka
reaches a golden milestone!
“Publish or Perish” is an aphorism describing today’s reality of the need for
publishing new research evidence. However, this need for publishing had been present for
centuries and had been well understood by the scientists who researched on rubber more 100
years ago as well.
The RRISL, as an institute dedicated to research on rubber, started off from very
humble beginnings in 1909 with one Scientist, an Analytical Chemist. It was followed by
the establishment of the Smallholding Advisory Department in later years to provide
advisory services. Thus research findings related to rubber had been disseminated through
publications right from the beginning.
With the gradual and methodical expansion of the research work over the 112
years, the publications of the Institute also expanded over its long history. Annual Review,
Journal, Bulletin and Rubber Puwath, are the main annual research publications of the
Institute. The Handbooks and Advisory Circulars are not regular publications but published
when the necessity arises.
Among the many publications of the Institute, “The Journal of the RRISL” is a
unique publication which provided a platform for the researchers to publish their findings
and also to share the knowledge with the rest of the world. The publication is exchanged
with many national and international institutes on an exchange basis and its popularity is
witnessed from the number of citations made by the researchers of the rubber growing world.
This publication dates back to 1924 and has been published every year and this volume is
the memorial 100th volume.
The development of this publication over the years is a fascinating story. The first
16 volumes, from 1924 until 1939, had been published as four numbers quarterly under the
title “Rubber Research Scheme (Ceylon) Quarterly Circulars”. The next five volumes (from
Volume 17 to 21), from 1940 to 1944 had been published as “Rubber Quarterly Circulars”.
Then from 1945 to 1958 (Volumes 22-34) it carried the title “Rubber Research Institute
Quarterly Circulars”. The 14 volumes from the year 1959 (Vol.35-49) had been published as”
Rubber Research Institute of Ceylon Quarterly Journal” until 1972. After Sri Lanka became a
republic in 1972, Ceylon was changed to Sri Lanka and the title of the Journal too changed
to “Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka Quarterly Journal” for the three volumes from 50 to
53. The title “Journal of Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka” has been started from 1977 with
Volume 54 and remains unchanged up to the Volume 100, published in 2020.
While appreciating all the contributors who devoted to publish it continuously
from volume 1 up to 100, the Library staff and the management of the Institute are
especially remembered with heartfelt gratitude. It is the hope and the wish of all Scientists
at RRISL for the Journal of the Rubber Research Institute to prosper for another 100 years
or more on the Institute’s path to a radiant future.