NURSING RESEARCH 2- MIDTERM

NOTES
Chapter 4: Presentation, Analysis, 5
and Interpretation of data 4
12
 The culmination of your study and Calculation of Mean = (9+2+5+4+12)/5 =
represents your best thinking and how you 32/5 = 6.4
answered the research question you had
formulated; this chapter should provide the
Mean is the average of the given numbers
product of your analytic process.
and is calculated by dividing the sum of
 In a qualitative study you will restate the given numbers by the total number of
research questions and the information to numbers.
be reported is called findings.

o Findings are those themes that have

DATA INTERPRETATION
emerged from or have been found in
the data you collected. They are the  Refers to the process of using diverse
product of your analysis. analytical methods to review data and arrive
at relevant conclusions or making
 In a quantitative study presents
meaning of data produced in a research
o The results of the study; attaching meaning of the data
quantitative analyses  This is the establishment of explanatory
are presented in order to explain the concepts. The interpretation of data helps
meaning. researchers to categorize, manipulate, and
summarize the information in order to
DATA ANALYSIS answer critical questions
 Is the process of systematically applying
statistical techniques. STATISTICS

 In the analysis of statistical data the text  Body of mathematical processes or

is given first followed by the statistical techniques for gathering, organizing
table it is evaluating data by employing and interpreting numerical data.
numerical analysis.
 Statistics is the science concerned with
developing and studying methods for
Statistical Analysis Examples collecting, analyzing, interpreting and
presenting empirical data.
Look at the standard deviation sample
calculation given below to understand more Commonly used statistical tests in
about statistical analysis. analyzing research data
The weights of 5 pizza bases in cms are as
follows:
9 Chi-square test
2
  A chi-square test is used when you  used to compare differences
want to see if there is a relationship between 2 independent
between two categorical variables groups when the dependent variable
is either ordinal or continuous

One-Way ANOVA (analysis of  For example, you could use the Mann-
variance) Whitney U test to understand whether
attitudes towards pay discrimination,
 compares the means of 2 or more where attitudes are measured differ based
independent groups in order on gender (i.e., your dependent variable
to determine whether there would be "attitudes towards
is statistical evidence that the pay discrimination" and your independent
variable would be "gender", which has 2
associated population means
groups: "male" and "female").
are significantly different.
.
 Determine whether or not there is  Mann-Whitney U test is the non-
difference among means of three or parametric alternative test to the
more group. independent sample t-test. It is a
non-parametric test that is used to
Mean
compare two sample means that
 The arithmetic mean, more come from the same population, and
commonly known as ―the used to test whether two sample
average, is the sum of a list of means are equal or not.
numbers divided by the number of
items on the list. Chapter 5
What to Write in Chapter 5?
Pearson correlation
 coefficient (also known as Pearson 1. Write the Summary
product-moment correlation 2. Write the Conclusions
coefficient) r, is a measure to 3. Write the Recommendations- must
determine the relationship contain practical suggestions that
will improve the situation or solve the
Kruskal Wallis test problem investigated in the study.

 used when you have one  The final section of the research report
independent variable with two which contains the summary, conclusions
or more levels and dependent and recommendations
variable. The non-parametric version
of ANOVA  Write the summary of the findings, then
 Ordinal meaning the order or conclusion are abstraction of summary of
succession ex. 1. a number such as the findings and recommendations based
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, that shows the on the findings.
position of something in a list of
things Recommendations
These can take two forms:
recommendations for further study, or
recommendations for change, or both. Each
recommendation should be traced directly
The Mann-Whitney U test to a conclusion.
 journal title, or DOI (Digital
Object Identifier).
REFERENCES  A citation style dictates the information
necessary for a citation and how the
 Described as giving credit, with citation,
information is ordered, as well as
to the source of information used in one's
work. punctuation and other formatting.

 Referencing helps to relate your own

work to previous work.

 These will follow the specific format

of style guide, such as APA, Chicago, or
other. Every name and year in the body of
the text should be repeated in the list of
references with no exceptions.
 Is a detailed description of the source of
information that you want to give credit to
via a citation.

 The references in research papers

are usually in the form of a list at the end of
the paper Narrative In-text APA Citation Example:
What is a citation and citation style.
Tyson, Strauss, and Gott (2016) encourage
the use of simplified terms when it comes to
discussing and defining the universe.

Parenthetical Citation Example:

Use simplified terms when discussing and
defining the universe. For example, a
small white star is simply called a white
dwarf. Keep it short and sweet because
the universe is confusing enough (Tyson,
Strauss, & Gott, 2016, p. 22).

Parenthetical- the author’s name(s) are in

parentheses, usually at the end of the fact.

What is a citation and citation style?

 A citation is a way of giving credit to
individuals for their creative and intellectual
works that you utilized to support your
research. It can also be used to
locate particular sources and combat
plagiarism. Can include the author's name,
date, location of the publishing company,
 Modern Language Association
 MLA- Modern Language Association
format is a style of crediting sources you
use to write a paper.

 This style is typically used for research

American Psychological Association papers for English Composition and other
communication classes. The second most
 APA stands for the "American
popular, used mainly in the humanities.
Psychological Association" but when you
are instructed to write a paper or
assignment "in APA" this means you should Chicago notes and bibliography
format your writing according to the style
guidelines in the Publication Manual of
 Is also popular in the humanities,
the American Psychological Association, 7th
especially history. Chicago author-date style
edition. The most popular citation style,
tends to be used in the sciences.
widely used in the social and behavioral
sciences.

 APA in-text citation style uses the

author's last name and the year of
publication, for example: (Field, 2005).
For direct quotations, include the page
number as well, for example: (Field, 2005,
p. 14). For sources such as websites and e-
books that have no page numbers, use a
paragraph number.
 Institute of Electrical and appendix in your paper, it should be at the
Electronics Engineers end of your paper after the References
page.
 IEEE style is based on the Chicago Style.
Citations are numbered, but  Appendices can consist of figures, tables,
citation numbers are included in the text in maps, photographs, raw data, computer
square brackets rather than as superscripts. programs, musical examples, interview
questions, sample questionnaires, etc.
Include a scan of your IRB approval letter
on this page. We recommend you include a
copy or scan of your IRB approval letter as
an appendix.

Preliminary pages
 are those write ups that come before the
chapter one of every project or research
work.

 The cover page of a research page is the

first page of the work which contains: The
full topic of the project work.
Council of Science Editors (CSE)
 CSE style is a standard citation style
used across many disciplines in the physical LITERATURE REVIEW
and life sciences.
 A literature review is a
comprehensive summary of previous
research on a topic. The literature review
surveys scholarly articles, books, and other
sources relevant to a particular area of
research. It provides an overview of current
knowledge, allowing you to identify gaps in
the existing research.
 In writing the literature review
the purpose is to convey to the reader
what knowledge and ideas have been
established on a topic, and what their
strengths and weaknesses. It must be
defined by a guiding concept (e.g. your
research objective, the problem or issue you
are discussing).

Appendix
 Is supplemental material added to a Steps in writing a literature review:
paper to aid the reader in understanding  Search for relevant literature
your points, but can't easily be worked into  Evaluate sources
the text. If you choose to include an  Identify themes, debates, and gaps
  Outline the structure Example
 Write your literature review  According to Shavers (2007),
limitations of studying
A literature review doesn’t just summarize socioeconomic status in research on
sources—it analyzes, synthesizes, health disparities include difficulties
and evaluates to give a clear picture of in collecting data on socioeconomic
knowledge on the subject. Outline the status and the complications of
structure – meaning shows the order of the classifying women, children,
various topics. and employment status.

 In text citation placed before the

statement. Always include the last name of
the author(s) and the year of the article, so
your reader can find the full citation in the
reference list.

Parenthetical citations
American Psychological Association
(APA) Style for references and  the author name and publication
citations. date appear in parentheses.
 Three or more authors
In-text Citations  Parenthetical- the author name and
 When you reference another source publication date appear in
use an in-text citation in the body of Parenthesis (Martin et al., 2020)
your paper.  In a narrative citation, the author's
name appears in the sentence and
Basic Format: not in parentheses. Example:
 (Author's Last Name(s) or Walters (2003) wrote that most
Organization, Year). people tend to follow the path of
 The APA (American Psychological least resistance
Association) style requires two Ex. Narrative -Martin et al. (2020) –the
elements: in-text citations year is inside the parentheses
throughout, and a reference list at
the end.

 APA in-text citation style uses the

author's last name and the year of
publication, for example: (Field, 2005).

 For direct quotations, include the page

number as well, for example: (Field, 2005,
p. 14).
.
 Paraphrasing or summarizing the  Online News or Magazines
findings from a research article
EXAMPLE:
 Rogers, O. (2021, July 9). Why naming
race is necessary to undo racism.
Psychology Today. https://www.psychologyt BOOKS
oday.com/us/blog/who-am-i-who-are-
we/202107/. EXAMPLE: Schmidt, N. A., & Brown, J. M.
(2017). Evidence-based practice for nurses:
 Author (List each author's last name and Appraisal and application of research (4th
initials a, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC.
C. Use an ampersand (&) before the final
author's name (Year, Month Date).  Author(s). List each author's last name
and initials, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author,
Note: You do not need to abbreviate the C. C. Use an ampersand (&) before the final
month. author's name (Year).

 Title of the article.  Title of the book

Note: For works that stand alone (e.g.
Note: For works that are part of a greater books, reports), italicize the title. Only
whole (e.g. articles, chapter), use sentence capitalize the first word of the title and
case. Only the first word of the title and subtitle and any proper nouns.
subtitle and proper nouns are capitalized.
 Edition
 Title of the online newspaper or Note: If there is an edition or volume,
publication. include it in parentheses and use
abbreviations of ed. or vol.
Note: Capitalize each word in the
publication and italicize. If the publication  Publisher
has an associated newly newspaper in print, Note: You do not need to include the
use the newspaper article reference publisher location or databases where you
retrieved it.
Example: URL

Why cite sources?

 Adds to your credibility & supports

your ideas.
 Helps your reader find the sources
you reference to read for
themselves.
 Ensures the accuracy of scientific
& scholarly knowledge.
 Protects & acknowledges
intellectual property rights
References
When should you cite?
 References are organized by the author's
last name in alphabetic (A-Z) order. Use a  Direct Quotations: When you use
hanging indent to separate each list item. the author’s exact words.
Include the complete citation at the end of  Paraphrasing: When you
your paper in a references section. summarize someone else’s words or
ideas.
 Facts: When you mention
something that is not common
knowledge.
  Images: When you use pictures, Majority of senior high school students of
charts, and graphics that someone De La Salle Araneta University for the
else created in a presentation second term of the academic year are
females with the Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics
CHAPTER 4 track accounting for the highest number of
enrollees. On the average, SHS students
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS receive Php allowance per week.
AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
APPENDIX
 This chapter presents the data
gathered, the results of the statistical  Is supplemental material added to a
analysis done and interpretation of findings. paper to aid the reader in understanding
These are presented in tables following the your points, if you choose to include an
sequence of the specific research problem appendix in your paper, it should be at the
regarding the Effectiveness of Patrol system end of your paper after the References
in Pangasinan. page.

EXAMPLE: This chapter of the paper  Page numbers should continue on

presents the data gathered from the 110 through the Curriculum Vitae.
senior high school students of De La Salle
Araneta University who served as  Appendices- can consist
respondents of this research. It of figures, maps, photographs, raw data,
also provides the analysis and interpretation computer programs, interview questions,
of data that has been organized according
sample questionnaires, etc.
to the research questions enumerated.

 Chapter 4 Comprised of the results or

findings on the data collected and analyzed. PRELIMINARY PAGES
 The Results (also sometimes called  Are those write ups that come before the
Findings). Data analysis is the science of chapter one of every project or research
analyzing raw data to make conclusions work. The cover page of a research page is
about that information. the first page of the work which contains:
The full topic of the project work.
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

 This chapter contains the

conclusions drawn from the analysis and
interpretation of the data discussed in the
preceding chapter and the
recommendations of the researchers based
on the conclusions.

EXAMPLE:

Conclusions
Based on the findings of the study, the
following conclusions were drawn: 1.
 1. It gives the most exact kind of
STATISTICS FOR description.
2. It provides the most definite and
RESEARCH exact procedures in analyzing data.
3. It summarizes results in a
 This chapter presents the data meaningful and convenient form.
gathered, the results of the statistical 4. It draws a general conclusion.
analysis done and interpretation of 5. It predicts possible outcomes under
findings. These are presented in certain conditions.
tables following the sequence of the
specific research problem regarding APPLICATION OF STATISTICS
the Effectiveness of Patrol system
in Pangasinan. In Medicine
 The word statistic comes from the  Statistics is also used in determining the
Italian word statista which means effectiveness of new drug products in
“statesman”. The word was first treating a particular type of disease. To
used by Gottfried Achenwall (1719- illustrate, a drug company wants to test the
1772), a professor at Marlborough effectiveness of its new drug product in
and Gottingen, while Dr. E.A.W. treating tuberculosis. An experiment or a
Zimmerman introced it in England. clinical trial is conducted. Ten tuberculosis
It’s used was popularized by Sir patients are treated using the new drug
John Sinclair in his work, statistical product and another are treated using the
Account of Scotland (1791-1799), existing drug. The results are analyzed
however people had been recording statistically to find out if the new product is
and using data long before the 18th more effective in treating tuberculosis.
century. Presently, statistics is
defined as the branch of scientific Branches of Statistics
methodology which deals with the
collection, classification, description Descriptive
and interpretation of data obtained – aims in summarizing and presenting data
through survey or experiment. in the form which will make them easier to
analyze and interpret.
“Science that deals with the
collection, organization, Inferential
summarization, presentation and – aims at drawing and making decision on
analysis of data.” the population based on evidence obtained
from a sample.
1. Collection refers to the gathering of
information or data. Descriptive Statistics
2. Organization or presentation
involves summarizing data or For example, we may describe a collection
information in textual, graphical or of persons by stating how many are poor
tabular forms. and how many are rich, how many are
3. Analysis involves describing the data literate and how many are illiterate, how
by using statistical methods and many fall into various categories of
procedures. age, height, civil status, IQ, and many more.
4. Interpretation refers to the process We may also describe a particular barangay
of making conclusions based on the in terms of the number of families it has, the
analyzed data. number of grade-schoolers, the number of
professionals, the number of households
Importance of Statistics to Research with certain kinds of appliances, the number
of siblings in each household, or the rate of population. It is a value or
unemployment. Generally, descriptive measurement obtained from a
statistics involve gathering, organizing, population. It is usually referred to as
presenting and describing data. the true or actual value. If in the
preceding illustration, the researcher
Inferential Statistics uses the whole population (N=1500),
Is a statistical procedure that is used to then the average income obtained is
draw inferences or information about the called a parameter.
properties or characteristics by a large 4. Statistic is an estimate of a
group of people, places, or things or the parameter. It is a value or
basis of the information obtained from a measurement obtained from the
small portion of a large group. Suppose we sample. If the researcher in the
want to know the most favorite brand of preceding illustration makes use of
toothpaste of a certain barangay and we do the sample (n=200), then the
not have enough time and money to average income obtained is called
interview all the residents of that barangay, statistic.
we may just ask selected residents. With 5. Data (singular form is datum) are
the data obtained from the interviews, we facts, or a set of information or
shall draw or make conclusions as to observation under study. More
barangay’s favorite brand of toothpaste. specifically, data are gathered by the
This example involves the use of inferential researcher from a population or from
statistics. a sample. Data may be classified
into two categories, qualitative or
quantitative.
TERMINOLOGIES IN STATISTICS

1. Population refers to a large

collection of objects, places or TYPES OF DATA
things. To illustrate this, suppose a a) Qualitative data are data which can
researcher wants to determine the
assume values that manifest the
average income of the residents of a
concepts of attributes. These are
certain barangay and there are 1500
residents in the barangay. Then all sometimes called categorical data.
of these residents comprise the Data falling in this category cannot
population. A population is usually be subjected to meaningful
denoted or represented by N. arithmetic. They cannot be added,
Hence, this case, N = 1500. subtracted or divided. Gender and
2. Sample is a small portion or part of nationality are qualitative data.
a population. It could also be
defining as a sub-group, subset, or Gender is a qualitative dichotomous
representative of a population. For variable since an individual may take
instance, suppose the above- one of the two values “male or female”.
mentioned researcher does not have In an opinion poll, the response of an
enough time and money to conduct individual towards an issue whether to
the study using the whole population “go” for it, “against” it or “undecided” is
and he wants to use only 200 an example of qualitative trichotomous
residents. These 200 residents variable. Smoking habits of an individual
comprise the sample. A sample is in different situations may be classified
usually denoted by n, thus n = 200. as “Always/Very Often”, “often”,
3. Parameter is any numerical or
“Seldom”, “Very Seldom”, or “Never”.
nominal characteristics of a
 This set of qualitative values is called – result from infinitely any possible
multinomous variable. quantitative values, where the collection of
values is not countable.

 Body mass index

b) Quantitative Data are data which are
 Blood pressure
numerical in nature. These are data
 Cholesterol levels
obtained from counting or
 Height
measuring. In addition, meaningful
arithmetic operations can be done
Classification of Statistics
with this type of data. Test scores
and height are Parametric Statistic
– is a statistical approach that assumes
6. A Variable is a characteristic or random sample from a normal distribution
property of a population or sample and involves testing of hypothesis about the
which makes the members different population.
from each other. If a class consists
of boys and girls, then gender is a Nonparametric Statistic
variable in this class. Height is also a
variable because different people – is a statistical approach with no underlying
have different heights. Variables data distribution assumed and involves
may be classified on the basis of hypothesis testing about a population
whether they are discrete or median.
continuous and whether they are
dependent or independent. Scale Measurement

Nominal
Variables – categories only. Data cannot be arranged
in order.
Qualitative Variable (categorical)
– consists of names or labels. Ordinal
– data can be arranged in order, but
Quantitative Variable (numerical) differences either can’t be found or are
– consists of numbers representing counts meaningless.
or measurements
Interval
 Discrete (countable) – differences are meaningful, but there is no
 Continuous (measurable) natural zero starting point and ratios are
meaningless.
Discrete (countable)
Ratio
– result when the data values quantitative – there is a natural zero starting point and
and the number of values is finite or ratios make sense.
“countable”.
Sample Size
 Number of missing teeth
 Number of household members Slovin’s Formula
 Number of patients at hospital X

Continuous (measurable)
 lottery sampling. This is done by assigning a
number of paper to each student and then
writing these numbers on pieces of paper.
Then, these pieces of paper will be rolled or
folded and placed in a box called lottery
box. The lottery box should be thoroughly
shaken and then five pieces of paper will be
picked or drawn from the box. The students
Sampling Techniques
who were assigned to the numbers chosen
Probability Sampling will be sent to the training. In this case, the
selection of the students is done without
– refers to a sampling method that uses bias. Note that we can simply assign1 to the
some form of random selection. first student, 2 to the second student and so
 Simple Random Sampling on.
 Stratified Random Sampling  Systematic Random Sampling – select
 Systematic some starting point and then select every
 Cluster kth term.
 Multistage

Nonprobability Sampling
– refers to a sampling method which does
not involve random selection.

 Accidental (or haphazard) sampling Where:

 Judgmental (or purposive) sampling k = sampling interval
 Convenience sampling N = population size
 Quota n = sample size
 Snowball Let us use the example wherein Mrs. Cruz
wants to select 5 students from her 40
Probability
students. First, we select a random starting
 Simple Random Sampling – the point. This is done by dividing the number of
simplest form of random sampling. Consists members in the population by the number of
of choosing a sample from a set of all the members in the sample. Hence, in our
possible samples, giving each individual an case we shall have i = 8. The next step is to
write the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8
equally likely chance of being the selected
on pieces of paper and draw one number by
one. lottery. If we were able to get 5, this means
 Lottery that we will select every 5th student in the
population as members of the sample.
 RAN function of a calculator
Therefore, the 5th, 10th, 15th, 20th, and
 Software 25th student shall be the members of the
Suppose Mrs. Cruz wants to send five sample. If, for instance, we were able to
students to attend a 2-day training or obtain the number 6, then the members of
the sample will be the 6th, 12th, 18th, 24th
seminar in basic computer programming. To
and 30th students.
avoid bias in selecting these five students
from her 40 students, she can use the
 Stratified Random Sampling – 250 barangay in Manila. We can draw a
probability sampling in which the population random sample of 20 barangays using
is divided into a number of non-overlapping simple random sampling, and then a
strata. certain number of families from each of the
20 barangays may be chosen.
To do this, we will use the stratified random
sampling. The word stratified comes from  Multistage Sampling – in this method,
the root word strata which means group or the population is first divided into a number
categories (singular form is stratum). When of first-stage from which a sample drawn.
we use this method, we are actually dividing It may be two-stage, three-stage, four-
the elements of the population into different stage, and the like, depending on the
categories or subpopulation and then the number of stages of sampling used.
members of the sample are drawn or
selected proportionally from each This method is usually used by the
subpopulation. researchers who are interested in
studying a very large population, say the
Example: Suppose a community consists of whole island of Luzon or even the
5000 families belonging to different income Philippines. This is done by starting the
brackets. We will draw 200 families as our selection of the members of the sample
random sample using stratified random using cluster sampling and then dividing
sampling. Below are the subpopulations and each number or group into strata. Then,
corresponding. from each stratum individuals are drawn
using simple random sampling.

Nonprobability
 Accidental (or haphazard) sampling –
samples are selected by chance or
availability.

 Judgmental (or purposive) sampling –

samples are chosen based on an expert’s
opinion.

 Convenience sampling – samples are

readily or easily accessible.

 Quota sampling – samples are chosen

according to some fixed quota, whereby the
concerned is to come up with the required
number of samples no matter how they are
 Cluster Sampling – this is used when selected.
the population is very large and widely
spread out over a wide range of  Snowball sampling – samples are
geographical area. obtained by a way that an individual to be
included was identified by an individual who
To illustrate the use of this sampling was previously included.
method, let’s suppose that we want to
determine the average income of the STATISTICAL TOOLS
families in Manila. Let us assume there are
 Advertising Agency spends $250,000
T- Test across a number of TV networks, it wants to
make sure that the TV advert created by the
Independent sample t-test is a statistical Advertising Agency appeals equally to men
technique that is used to analyze the mean and women. More specifically, the company
comparison of two independent groups. In wants to know whether the way that men
independent samples t-test, when we take and women engage with the TV advert is
two samples from the same population, then the same. To achieve this, the TV advert is
the mean of the two samples may be shown to 20 men and 20 women, who are
identical. But when samples are taken from then asked to fill in a questionnaire that
two different populations, then the mean measures their engagement with the
of the sample may differ. In this case, it is advertisement. The questionnaire provides
used to draw conclusions about the means an overall engagement score.
of two populations, and used to tell whether
or not they are similar.

Independent Sample T- Test

(Assumptions)
Assumption #1: You have one dependent
variable that is measured at the continuous
(i.e., ratio or interval) level.
Assumption #2: Your independent variable
is categorical with two separate groups of
participants. Paired T-Test
 The paired sample t-test, sometimes
Assumption #3: You have independence called the dependent sample t-test, is a
of observations, which means that each statistical procedure used to determine
person’s score is not related to (or whether the mean difference between two
independent) from every other person’s sets of observations is zero. In a paired
score. sample t-test, each subject or entity is
measured twice, resulting in pairs of
Assumption #4: There should be no observations
significant outliers in the two groups of your
independent variable in terms of the  The dependent variable must be
dependent variable. continuous (interval/ratio).
 The observations are independent of
Assumption #5: Assumes that the one another.
dependent variable is normally distributed  The dependent variable should be
and assumes that the variance of the two approximately normally distributed.
groups are the same as the dependent  The dependent variable should not
variable. contain any outliers.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Example:
An Advertising Agency is commissioned to
A drug company may want to test a new
create a TV advert to promote a new cancer drug to find out if it improves life
product. Since the product is designed for
expectancy
men and women, the TV advert has to
appeal to men and women equally. Before
the company that commissioned the
 ONE-WAY ANOVA (Analysis of Barangay Tangub when grouped according
Variance) to Educational Attainment?

 The one-way analysis of variance

(ANOVA) is used to determine whether Mann Whitney U-Test
there are any statistically significant
Assumption #1: You have one dependent
differences between the means of two or
more independent (unrelated) groups variable that is measured at the continuous
(although you tend to only see it used when or ordinal level.
there are a minimum of three, rather than Assumption #2: You have one independent
two groups).
variable that consists of two categorical,
independent groups (i.e., a dichotomous
Assumption #1: Your dependent variable
should be measured at the interval or ratio variable).
level Assumption #3: You should have
independence of observations.
Assumption #2: Your independent variable
should consist of two or more categorical, Assumption #4: You must determine
independent groups. whether the distribution of scores for both
groups of your independent variable.
Assumption #3: You should have
independence of observations Example 1:
A social scientist wants to determine
Assumption #4: There should be no whether university theology professors are
significant outliers. more conservative in political orientation
than their colleagues in psychology. A
Assumption #5: Your dependent variable sample of 30 professors from the
should be approximately normally psychology department at a local university
distributed for each category of the were conveniently chosen. They were given
independent variable. a 5-point scale Likert-type questionnaire
consisting of 50 items that measures
the degree of political conservatism.
Assumption #6: There needs to be
homogeneity of variances. Example 2:
Sampling Technique: Purposive Sampling
Example 1: SOP: What is the level of knowledge in
health education of the residents in
SOP: What is the extent of influence of
Barangay Tangub when grouped according
choosing nursing as career of BSN students to Sex?
in terms of:
a. Influence of family KRUSKAL -WALLIS H-TEST

b. Personal choice
c. Influence of peers
d. Financial reasons
Example 2:

SOP: What is the level of knowledge in

health education of the residents in
  This test is used to compare 3 or participant being in more than one group.
more independent groups. This is a This is more of a study design issue than
nonparametric test which does not something you can test for, but it is an
require normal distribution. This is important assumption of the Kruskal-Wallis
an alternative for the F-test H test. If your study fails this assumption,
(ANOVA) in parametric tests. you will need to use another statistical test
instead of the Kruskal-Wallis H test (e.g., a
Friedman test).
Basic requirements of the Kruskal-Wallis
H test Assumption #4: In order to know how to
interpret the results from a Kruskal-Wallis H
Assumption #1: Your dependent variable test, you have to determine whether the
should be measured at the ordinal or distributions in each group (i.e., the
continuous level (i.e., interval or ratio). distribution of scores for each group of the
Examples of ordinal variables include Likert independent variable) have the same shape
scales (e.g., a 7-point scale from "strongly (which also means the same variability)
agree" through to "strongly disagree"),
amongst other ways of ranking categories Example:
(e.g., a 3-pont scale explaining how much a
Respondents: Total Enumeration
customer liked a product, ranging from "Not
very much", to "It is OK", to "Yes, a lot"). SOP: What is the level of knowledge in
Examples of continuous variables include health education of the residents in
revision time (measured in hours), Barangay Tangub when grouped according
intelligence (measured using IQ score), to Eduational Attainment?
exam performance (measured from 0 to
100), weight (measured in kg), and so forth.
THE PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT
Assumption #2: Your independent variable
should consist of two or more categorical, COEFFICENT OF CORRELATION (r)
independent groups. Typically, a Kruskal-
Wallis H test is used when you have three CORRELATION ANALYSIS
or more categorical, independent groups,  Correlation Analysis is a method used to
but it can be used for just two groups (i.e., a measure the strength of relationship
Mann-Whitney U test is more commonly between two or more variables. Correlation
used for two groups). Example independent Coefficient may be positive or negative. A
variables that meet this criterion include positive correlation is present when high
ethnicity (e.g., three groups: Caucasian, values in one variable is associated with
African American and Hispanic), physical high values of another variable or vice
activity level (e.g., four groups: sedentary, versa. On the other hand, when high values
low, moderate and high), profession (e.g., is associated with low values of the other
five groups: surgeon, doctor, nurse, dentist, variable or vice versa, a negative correlation
therapist), and so forth. is present. A perfect positive correlation is
represented by a +1.00 value while a
Assumption #3: You should have perfect negative correlation is represented
independence of observations, which by a -1.00 value.
means that there is no relationship
between the observations in each group or THE PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT
between the groups themselves. For COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION, r
example, there must be different  The Pearson Product Moment Coefficient
participants in each group with no of Correlation r is an index of relationship
between two variables. The independent
variable can be represented by x while the Assumptions
dependent variable can also be represented
by y. The value of r is +1, zero to -1. If the ASSUMPTION #1: YOUR TWO
value of r is +1 or -1, there is a perfect VARIABLES SHOULD BE MEASURED AT
correlation between x and y. It can be said THE INTERVAL OR RATIO LEVEL.
that x influences y or y depends on x.
However, if r equals zero then x and y are ASSUMPTION #2: THERE IS A LINEAR
independent of each other. Consider the x RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN YOUR TWO
and y coordinates in the graph below. VARIABLES.

ASSUMPTION #3: THERE SHOULD BE

 If the trend of the line graph is going NO SIGNIFICANT OUTLIERS.
upward, the value of r is positive.
This indicates that as the value of x ASSUMPTION #4: YOUR VARIABLES
increases the value of y also SHOULD BE APPROXIMATELY
increases. Likewise, if the value of x NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED.
decreases, the value of y also
decreases, the x and y being
positively correlated.
 If the trend of the line graph cannot
be established either upward or
downward, then r = 0, indicating that
there is no correlation between the x
and y variables.
A RESEARCHER WANTS TO KNOW
 If the trend of the line graph is going
WHETHER A PERSON'S HEIGHT IS
downward, the value of r is negative.
RELATED TO HOW WELL THEY
It indicates that as the value of x
PERFORM IN A LONG JUMP. THE
increases the corresponding value of
RESEARCHER RECRUITED UNTRAINED
y decreases, x and y being
INDIVIDUALS FROM THE GENERAL
negatively correlated.
POPULATION, MEASURED THEIR
HEIGHT AND HAD THEM PERFORM A
LONG JUMP. THE RESEARCHER THEN
INVESTIGATED WHETHER THERE WAS
AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN HEIGHT
AND LONG JUMP PERFORMANCE BY
RUNNING A PEARSON'S CORRELATION.
 SPSS RESULT
A TEACHER IS INTERESTED IN
WHETHER THOSE WHO DO BETTER AT
WE CAN SEE THAT THE PEARSON ENGLISH ALSO DO BETTER IN MATHS.
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT, R, IS TO TEST WHETHER THIS IS THE CASE,
0.706, AND THAT IT IS STATISTICALLY THE TEACHER RECORDS THE SCORES
SIGNIFICANT (P = 0.005) OF HER 10 STUDENTS IN THEIR END
OF-YEAR EXAMINATIONS FOR BOTH
ENGLISH AND MATHS. THEREFORE,
THE SPEARMAN RANK ORDER
ONE VARIABLE RECORDS THE ENGLISH
COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION SCORES AND THE SECOND VARIABLE
CORRELATION ANALYSIS RECORDS THE MATHS SCORES FOR
THE 10 PUPILS.
 The Spearman rank-order correlation
coefficient (Spearman’s correlation, for
short) is a nonparametric measure of the
strength and direction of association that
exists between two variables measured on
at least an ordinal scale. It is denoted by the
symbol rs (or the Greek letter ρ, pronounced
rho). The test is used for either ordinal
variables or for continuous data that has
failed the assumptions necessary for
conducting the Pearson's product moment
WE CAN SEE THAT SPEARMAN'S
correlation.
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT, RS, IS
Assumptions 0.669, AND THAT THIS IS
STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT (P = .035).
ASSUMPTION #1: YOUR TWO
VARIABLES SHOULD BE MEASURED ON
AN ORDINAL, INTERVAL OR RATIO
SCALE.

ASSUMPTION #2: YOUR TWO

VARIABLES REPRESENT PAIRED
OBSERVATIONS.

ASSUMPTION #3: THERE IS A

MONOTONIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THE TWO VARIABLES.