# 2011 University of South Africa

All rightsreserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa

Muckleneuk, Pretoria

COM 3704/1/2012

98762389

3B2

Although every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders, this has not been

possible. Should only infringement have occurred, the publisher apologises and undertakes

to amend the omission in the event of a reprint.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The New Media Technology Team would like to thank Mrs Marie
 No
È thling of the Bureau for

Learning and Teaching for her assistance with the pedagogical writing. We also thank Mr

David Wigston of the Department of Communication Science for his work on most graphics

and clippings in this study guide.

 (iii) COM3704/1/2012

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_ Contents

Page

ORIENTATION (vii)

A word of welcome (vii)

Purpose of the module (viii)

Outcomes of the module (ix)

How this module is organised for learning (x)

Reflective questions (x)

The purpose of reflective questions (xi)

Suggestions on how to approach reflective questions (xii)

Keeping record of your reflections (xii)

Helpful hints and suggestions when writing a journal (xiii)

Activities (xiii)

Study package (xiv)

References (xv)

PART 1: BEGINNINGS: CREATING CONTEXT 1

STUDY UNIT 1: NEW MEDIA: THEORIES AND APPLICATIONS 6

Overview 6

1.1 Introduction 6

1.2 What are social media? 9

1.3 New media as communication tools 10

1.4 Blogs 11

1.5 Traditional versus new media 15

1.6 Next generation networks 17

1.7 Theoretical frameworks about technology benefits 19

1.8 Reviewing and connecting the dots 20

1.9 Conclusion 20

References 20

STUDY UNIT 2: FORMS OF NEW MEDIA 23

2.1 Introduction 23

2.2 Analogue and digital media 23

2.3 The internet and media convergence 27

2.4 Social media and social networking 29

2.5 Virtual networking and the blogosphere 30

2.6 New media and the public sphere 33

2.7 Reviewing and connecting the dots 35

2.8 Resources for further enrichment 37

References 37
 (iv)

PART 2: POSITIVE USES AND CONSEQUENCES OF NEW MEDIA ON

SOCIETY 39

STUDY UNIT 3: THE INTERNET AND THE INFORMATION SOCIETY 45

3.1 Introduction 45

3.2 The internet and the information society 45

3.3 Interconnection and pricing issues in South Africa 52

3.4 Finding your own story: ICT prices and you 55

3.5 Regulating for cheaper communication costs 56

3.6 Reviewing and connecting the dots 56

3.7 Resources for further enrichment 57

Reference 57

STUDY UNIT 4: NEW MEDIA AND POSITIVE CONSEQUENCES 60

Overview 60

4.1 Introduction 60

4.2 Connecting to the internet 61

4.3 Uses of the internet 62

4.4 Reviewing and connecting the dots 65

References 66

STUDY UNIT 5: NEW MEDIA AND THE INDIVIDUAL 67

Overview 67

5.1 New media, business and economic development 67

5.2 Women, e-health and tele-working 73

5.3 Women and ICT: other issues 78

5.4 New media and education 84

5.5 Youth and new media 85

5.6 Regulation of new media 85

5.7 Other social, economic, political and cultural issues about new media 86

5.8 New media and journalism: offline and online newspapers and magazines 88

5.9 Online advertising 93

5.10 Conclusion 95

5.11 Reviewing and connecting the dots 95

References 96

STUDY UNIT 6: FIT FOR THE SMALL(ER) SCREEN: FILM, MOBILE TV AND THE

NEW INDIVIDUAL TELEVISION EXPERIENCE 98

Overview 98

6.1 Introduction 98

6.2 Digital media and new ways of producing content 99

6.3 Small screens, aesthetics and genre 102

6.4 Digital ecologies, economies and environments 104

6.5 Intellectual property rights, copyright, the internet and cellphones 106

6.6 Conclusion 109

6.7 Reviewing and connecting the dots 109

References 110
 (v) COM3704/1

STUDY UNIT 7: ELECTRONIC GOVERNMENT: MEANING, MODELS AND

APPLICATIONS 112

Overview 112

7.1 Introduction 113

7.2 Purposes of e-government 115

7.3 Applications of new media in political environments 120

7.4 Computer networks and the spread of politics 123

7.5 Citizens using technology to communicate with government 126

7.6 The digital divide and e-government 129

7.7 E-government theories 138

7.8 Conclusive reflections 139

7.9 Discussion points 139

7.10 Suggested readings and other relevant websites 140

References 141

STUDY UNIT 8: BROADCASTING DIGITAL MIGRATION 144

Overview 144

8.1 Introduction 144

8.2 Broadcasting digital migration 146

8.3 Visual radio and subscription television 152

8.4 Globalisation and the public broadcaster 153

8.5 Conclusion 154

8.6 Reviewing and connecting the dots 155

References 155

STUDY UNIT 9: NEW MEDIA AND DEVELOPMENT 157

9.1 Introduction 157

9.2 The role of technology in development 157

9.3 Technology use and impact in developing countries 159

9.4 Conclusion 160

9.5 Reviewing and connecting the dots 160

References 160

PART 3: NEGATIVE USES AND CONSEQUENCES OF NEW MEDIA ON

SOCIETY 163

STUDY UNIT 10: NEW MEDIA AND CYBERCRIME 167

Overview 167

10.1 Introduction 167

10.2 What is cybercrime? 168

10.3 Types of cybercrime 169

10.4 Cyberlaw 174

10.5 Reviewing and connecting the dots 175

10.6 Resources for further enrichment 175

References 176
 (vi)

STUDY UNIT 11: INTERNET ADDICTION DISORDER 178

Overview 178

11.1 Introduction 178

11.2 Types of IAD 179

11.3 Signs and symptoms of IAD 182

11.4 Why the internet is additive 184

11.5 Prevention and treatment of IAD 185

11.6 Reviewing and connecting the dots 185

11.7 Resources for further enrichment 186

References 186

PART 4: NEW MEDIA: PRESENT AND FUTURE POLICY PERSPECTIVES 189

STUDY UNIT 12: NEW MEDIA: PRESENT AND FUTURE POLICY PERSPECTIVES 192

12.1 Introduction 192

12.2 Regional and international perspectives on ICT or new media policy 192

12.3 Theories on telecommunications and new media policy formulation 194

12.4 Government's role in new media services and ICT provision 195

12.5 Evaluating universal service and universal access to new media services 197

12.6 Evaluating the effectiveness of ICT policy on society 197

12.7 Conclusion 198

12.8 Reviewing and connecting the dots 199

References 199

About endings and new beginnings 206

 (vii) COM3704/1

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_ Orientation
(Zandi Lesame & Sibongile Sindane)

A word of welcome

Welcome to the New Media Technology module (COM3704)! By

registering for this module, you have embarked on a journey that cannot

but influence you as a person along with what and how you think about new

media, and how you ultimately use new media technology.

In this module, we continuously implore you to look closely at what new

media are and how they intriguingly influence our lives as human beings, how

people negotiate relationships between themselves and technology in social

and business contexts, and how new media present themselves and artefacts

as well as cultural representations. You will be guided to identify potential

problems in the contexts in which new media are used inappropriately in

society and also learn about strategies and ways of curbing and eliminating

abuse of new media in society in a socially acceptable and ethical manner,

sensitive to other human beings and new media users. You will furthermore

be guided to understand the world as a set of related and interlinking

technological systems as a result of globalisation, and to recognise that

technology-induced problems and legal challenges together with their

problemsolving techniques (whether technical, self-regulatory, legal or a

combination of these) and contexts do not exist in isolation and can be linked

geographically. Countries cooperate by using policies and other regulatory

arrangements to deal with technology abuses to ensure that new media are

used for positive rather than negative consequences in society such as social

cohesion, digital inclusion of all members of society rather than exclusion.

This cooperation also entails ensuring democracy, education, business and

the promotion of health through the use of new media.

The module is designed to help you consider the various ways in which we

can develop a praxis that can respond sensibly and logically to the

technological challenges facing us as South Africans, within the continent

and the world at large. What then, you may ask, do we mean by PRAXIS? In

Praxis its simplest form, this term means translating an idea into action. We

prefer the much broader explanation provided by McLaren (2004) and

Foster (2004) which helps us see praxis as a complex activity where

individuals co-create realities about culture and society and become critically

conscious human beings. To us, this implies that to bring about social

transformation, both reflection and action are required. We hope that you

will be stimulated to engage rigorously with the learning material as you are
 (viii)

guided to develop a mindset about use and application of new media in

society.

We trust that this journey will be an enriching and memorable learning

experience for you. We hope this module also becomes a helpful and

engaging text that supports what promises to be a challenging yet

transforming intellectual journey as we move from agricultural and industrial

societies into information or knowledge societies.

Purpose of the module

Although successful completion of the module does not qualify you to be a

fully fledged new media specialist, this module will provide you with the

foundation towards a career in new media-based careers in fields such as

computing, telecommunications and broadcasting (print and online journal-

ism as well as television and radio work).

Potential gain At this point, you may probably be asking questions like: So then, what else is

in it for me? We believe that this module will have a major influence on your

personal life and growth, your professional life, as well as the services you

have to offer to your society. We will guide you in gaining the knowledge of

and understanding how new media can be more than just the acquisition and

mechanical execution of technical, strategic and digital skills. It is also a way of

being resourceful to others in cyberspaces and technological forums, thus

engaging purposefully and meaningfully with other people and other

organisations and institutions in electronic communications (or the online

world) and over computer networks, whether you are banking, shopping or

engaging in private conversations.

Society today is ever-changing when it comes to new media technology. The

world is rapidly moving to a Web-based society where time and space are no

longer constraints. Importantly, it is becoming more vital to be better

prepared for the information society.

Purpose The purpose of this module is to help you acquire and better enable you to

. function effectively in the information society and to be competent as well

as competitive in this

. understand reflexivity (awareness, adaptation) as a tool that can enhance

purposeful and meaningful engagement as well as self- and social

transformation

. understand the world as a set of related technology systems and

recognise that technological problems and related problemsolving

contexts do not exist in isolation and are globally interconnected

. understand the new media language and cyberprocesses and their

potential to influence people's daily lives including personal life, working

life and cyberlife (or ``other self '') in online communication environments

and processes

Once you have completed this module, you should be critical participants in
 (ix) COM3704/1

the new media environment and be able to live meaningfully as a citizen in a

democratic society through the use of new media in this technologically

vibrant and changing society.

The qualities gained from the module should in turn encourage you to be

employers and well as be employable in the information and commu-

nication technology (ICT) sector.

This module also creates an opportunity for you to gain a deeper

understanding of your own potential as a new media user and to make a

difference in your personal life by making use of new media to improve your

achievements and personal life in general.

Outcomes of the module

Like all Unisa modules, this module follows the outcomes-based (OBE)

approach to education. It has clearly stated outcomes and associated

assessment criteria so that you may understand in advance what you have to

do to achieve these outcomes.

Outcomes Outcomes are what you can do and what you understand once you have

completed this module. These are contextually demonstrated end-products

of the learning process. Outcomes are the results of learning processes

within a particular context that reflect knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.

As the knowledge is applied, the skills develop into competencies, attitudes

and values that harmonise with those of society and the workplace

(University of South Africa 2005).

When you have completed this module, you should be able to

. demonstrate your knowledge of historical developments of new media as

well as current new media innovations

. open a space in which negotiation for socially acceptable and ethical use

and application of new media at home and at work can happen by skilfully

establishing trust and applying responsible and socially uplifting use of

technology, with empathy and flexibility

. co-generate enhancing possibilities and connections and understand the

positive factors of new media that enhance the development of

individuals, groups and society in general

. discern the personal, social, economic, political and cultural impacts of

new media on individuals within cyberspaces and environments, and

practise ethical and constructive solutions to technologically induced

personal, organisational, business, political, cultural and social problems

. understand the cultural impact and applications of new media technology

and ensure that you have cognisance of other online cultures while

creating mutual understandings between these different cultures

. apply new media technology in international political and business systems

appropriately within set legal, technical and self-regulatory standards and

regulations

. differentiate between ICT regulation in South Africa, Europe, the United

 (x)

States of America (US), selected Asian countries and other countries in

Africa while discerning the important goals and aspects of these regional

ICT policies

. be sensitive to people you communicate with in electronic and cellphone

communications and interactions in online contexts or in communication

undertaken through the use of technology or computer networks and

establish appropriate relationships with others

. be creative enough and insightful to forecast future policy directions for

national new media regulation by considering current innovations and

policy

All of these outcomes will have an impact on your personal life as well as the

lives of those you encounter in the new media world. They are about

formulating relationships over communication networks and what it means

to be a responsible human being in online or electronic communication

contexts or the virtual world. We assume that by changing our under-

standings about self and personhood, we may be able to optimally respond

to human problems that we all face, including the artificial relationships we

form in networking environments. The essence lies in working towards

mutual transformative relationships that value the vision of a shared future of

human-technological co-existence.

And by changing ourselves, we change the world!

How this module is organised for learning

Our aim is to make your learning experience as practical as possible to give

you an opportunity to make the outcomes tangible.

We have developed this module to do exactly that ± to guide and support

you through the experiential learning process. The focus is on lifelong

learning, and attention is paid to facilitating enduring learning experiences

about new media. We therefore encourage you to make the best of the

opportunity to study; that is, not merely for the examination or to complete

assignments, but to use your newly acquired new media technology

knowledge and skills to make a difference and improve the conditions in your

immediate environment.

Reflective questions

You will be challenged to develop your own way of thinking about and an

appreciation for diverse social and relational issues. The study material is

meant to promote reflexive learning in which you are encouraged to ask

questions like

. What does taking this module mean for me?

. What does it mean for the community where I live and society in general

that I have digital skills about new media?

 (xi) COM3704/1

. In what way (even on a very small scale) can I contribute towards

improving the conditions in my own community and my country 's vision

of transformation and collective collaboration?

Your answers to these questions will contribute towards a communal and

even national understanding, use and practice of new media able to honour

the access, use and understanding of new media technology of ordinary

people (and others not so ordinary).

In this module, we acknowledge that in order to gain genuine knowledge

from experience, certain competencies are required. Firstly, you need to be

willing to be actively involved in the experience, and secondly, you must be

able to reflect on the experience.

You may be wondering

. How do I approach these key and reflective questions?

. Is it necessary for me to engage with these questions?

. Where and how do I keep record of my reflections?

. What do I do with my reflections afterwards?

How you deal with these reflective questions is entirely up to you. We do,

however, wish to give you some guidelines.

The purpose of reflective questions

We use reflective questions as a way to

. tap into your views and critical understanding of certain issues and

processes pertinent to the module and to the new media context

. open up opportunities for you to learn through use of new media

. enhance your learning experience through authentic encounters on web

applications

. integrate your learning with other theoretical voices and subsequently

create your own understandings in tailoring your journey as a

communicator

. enable you to create your baseline of learning about new media; in other

words, as you progress through other study units, you will be able to go

back and evaluate your growth and progress on the basis of your earlier

responses

Can you imagine how it would feel to read your responses afresh a few years

later and evaluate the difference in the quality of what you know by then, for

example if after those few years you have a wonderful job in an exciting new

media company and experience new media use daily? Or if you are already

working in such an environment, how information you have learnt in this

module has improved or changed your ways of using new media and

communicating with others when using communication networks?

 (xii)

Suggestions on how to approach reflective questions

Some students have the tendency to browse through the questions and just

reflect on them passively. The context here is different. To achieve maximum

benefit from your engagement with the course, we suggest that you become

fully and actively involved with the activities and questions as illustrated in the

study units.

To make approaching these questions more effective, you could consider

firstly reading the questions, then take time to think about them, do

something else and return to them when you feel ready or when you have

the energy to engage meaningfully. You could also consider discussing both

the questions and your responses with someone significant in your life, your

friends or study group mates, if and when you feel it is appropriate to do so.

You will be expected to submit evidence of your reflections in the form of

summaries or small study activities which also assist you in revising the work

or syllabus. Therefore, it is up to you how much time you would like to

spend on them or even how intense and thorough you will be in your

reflections. However, as indicated earlier, we urge you to become as

involved as possible. Remember that meaningful learning can only occur

when you are committed and motivated to learn!

Keeping record of your reflections

We suggest a reflective learning journal (or simply a rough workbook!) for

recording your reflections. It can be in the form of an ordinary exercise book

or a file with loose A4 pages whatever you prefer. Also, those of you who are

living in the information society or who are internet users and/or junkies may

be more comfortable capturing your reflections on computer. You are

welcome to use a mode that suits your style best.

Journal writing has been recognised by educators for many years as an

effective strategy to promote reflective thinking and learning. It is by making

connections between our experiences that we create meaning and

internalise our learning. Human beings, by nature, are connection-makers

and meaning-makers. Reflective learning journals will further enable you to

create a record of the connections and meanings you make as you engage in

learning experiences.

You may have questions about the length of each entry that you make in the

journal. We are looking for quality, not quantity. In most instances a

paragraph or two will suffice, rather than a page or more.

We are aware of the fact that your learning experiences are very personal

and that no two people will have exactly the same response to any one

experience ± something that is obvious when two people write the same

assignment. Each assignment is different from another person's assignments

because the assignments were written by two different people with different

styles of language and thought processes. If done conscientiously, your

 (xiii) COM3704/1

reflections in your personal learning journal will be among the most

important learning tools.

Helpful hints and suggestions when writing a journal

. Begin asking yourself these questions: What am I expected to do? How do

I experience the questions/activity? What do I still need to do to make

sense of what is expected of me? Listen as your mind makes connections.

. Make a few notes by capturing the ideas that flit across your mind as you

are busy interrogating your thoughts.

. Note the date and the time (if necessary) of each entry to provide a sense

of continuity and a reference point.

. The best time to make an entry in your journal is as soon as possible after

working on the activities.

. Try flow-writing ± that is, write down everything that comes to your mind

at that point and, if possible, avoid evaluating the quality of your

reflections (at least for the time being).

. Periodically reread your journal entries to surface connections that you

might have overlooked.

. To make your journal interesting to read, we invite you to be as creative,

imaginative and descriptive as possible. You are welcome to use anything

that represents who you are in innovative ways. You may, for instance,

prefer to incorporate colour, texture or designs.

Activities

Every section in the module challenges you to experience the subject matter

personally through activities. The activities are aimed at teasing out your

views and thinking about the themes pertinent to various study units. The

purpose of learning activities is also to help you maintain the momentum and

focus of discussion and to prepare you for assignments and examinations.

The reasoning here is that the better you work on the activities that you are

exposed to, the easier it will be for you to work on your assignments and

prepare for the examinations.

This is a semester-long module, so you will have to pace yourself in terms of

your time for studying. After reading this introduction, please work out a

study timetable that suits your lifestyle. You may find it helpful to consider the

timeline guidelines we suggest in Tutorial Letter 101, and you can also refer

to my Studies @Unisa in order to obtain this information, when working out

your study timetable. Bear in mind that you will not be able to hand in your

assignments if you only start studying a few days before the assignments are

due. Because you are a distance education student studying in an open

distance learning environment, you have the luxury of deciding when you

want to study and for how long. Exercising self-discipline is a requirement in

this case.
 (xiv)

You can expect the following types of activities, which are used in various

ways throughout the module:

. Engaging with audio-visual material

We will refer you to engage with material on the DVDs we produce for

the whole model when we have satellite (and in some instances

discussion) classes as a way of helping you to visualise all the important

concepts and aspects of new media technology.

. Hosting conversations about technology within your community

With this type of activity we will prompt you to engage with people in

your community and talk to them about new media-related matters. We

will encourage you to read the local newspapers to survey the type of

new media issues that people are confronted with daily. Listening to the

radio and watching television, more especially for the news bulletins

should also help to keep you up-to-date with current issues relating to

new media technology.

. Self-awareness
Some of the activities in the module draw your attention to other sources

of new media knowledge, such as what you already know. These activities

encourage you to analyse your actions, feelings, beliefs, ideas and thoughts

about new media.

. Mindful engagement
You may be required in some activities to read journal articles and to look

at other theoretical perspectives in various written texts. Engaging with

academic texts and literature is important if you are to acquire the

competencies needed to begin your profession in new media technology

and the communication sector in general.

This module is organised in such a way that the study units give a

chronological emergence of focus areas and are housed in concise parts, that

is, parts 1, 2, 3 and 4. Just like in everything we do in life, there is a beginning,

a middle and an end. However, also note that the study units interlink and

relate to one another, meaning that some later units require you to work

with elements of earlier study units. As such, the learning process is

progressive. It is therefore not ideal to deal with the study units in isolation;

strive to always tease out the linkages as you progress with your studying.

Study package

This module is made up of a study guide, a prescribed book (Lesame Z,

Mbatha BT & Sindane, S. 2011. New media in the information society. Pretoria:

Van Schaik), one DVD per semester (a satellite class DVD) and Tutorial
Letter 101. Much has been written about the theory and practice of new

media but in the prescribed book, we have included technological

perspectives mostly relevant to the geographical spaces that we live in and

the contents of the book chapters, articles and material included in the book

were chosen to enrich your learning process. These readings are most
 (xv) COM3704/1

relevant to our own communities and cities in the African context and/or

developing country context.

At the end of part 2 of the module, you are expected to negotiate your own

entry into authentic new media contexts, in which you will host meaningful

online conversations with people and organisations. This will require applying

electronic communication principles and microskills associated with

acceptable communication over computer and other telecommunication

networks.

You will need to supply and submit some basic information about these

contexts and the conversations you have hosted. Details of this experiential

learning task and the requirements for assignments are provided in Tutorial

Letter 101. The same applies to parts 3 and 4; you also have to

demonstrate your practical understanding and application of the crucial

aspects of these study units (and prescribed book chapters) in assignments

(01 and 02 per semester), examination tasks and other test-yourself

questions and study activities aimed at improving your critical analysis and

understanding of new media issues.

We hope that studying New Media Technology will be an enriching and

very exciting experience for you.

Your New Media Technology team

References

Foster, D. 2004. Liberation psychology. In Duncan, N, Ratele, K, Hook, D,

Mkhize, N, Kiguwa, P & Collins, A. Self, community and psychology: 1±44.

Cape Town: University of Cape Town Press.

McLaren, P. 2004. Life in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the

foundations of education. 4th ed. Boston MA: Pearson Education.

University of South Africa. 2005. Assessment policy.

www.unisa.ac.za/ungc/teaching%20tuition_p.html

[Accessed on 12 December 2009].

 1 COM3704/1

PART 1

Beginnings: creating context

(Zandi Lesame)

Everything must have a beginning. If you want to know an end, start from

the beginning. Beginning is not only a kind of action. It is also a way of

being, an attitude, and a consciousness. African proverb

 2

Contents

Overview

Critical questions

Key questions

Key concepts

STUDY UNIT 1: NEW MEDIA: THEORIES AND APPLICATIONS

Overview

1.1 Introduction

1.2 What are social media?

1.3 New media as communication tools

1.4 Blogs

1.5 Traditional versus new media

1.6 Next generation networks

1.7 Theoretical frameworks about technology benefits

1.8 Reviewing and connecting the dots

1.9 Conclusion

References

STUDY UNIT 2: FORMS OF NEW MEDIA

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Analogue and digital media

2.3 The internet and media convergence

2.4 Social media and social networking

2.5 Virtual networking and the blogosphere

2.6 New media and the public sphere

2.7 Reviewing and connecting the dots

2.8 Resources for further enrichment

References
 3 COM3704/1

Overview

Part 1 consists of two study units. In study unit 1 we define new media and

provide a historical overview of media, both old and new. Convergence of

media is also explained as it is the key to the development of new media and

the dramatic changes in which media operate today. Study unit 2 offers

insights into different new media operational in the information society and

what individuals and organisations use these media for. As you embark on a

journey to become a new media scholar, expert, employer and/or employee,

with new media knowledge and skills, we take a moment at this point to look

at the kind of context in which this module is set. This is done to help you

find ways of engaging optimally with the learning material you will be

exposed to.

This is our way of acknowledging that as people encounter others online and

in other communication networks, situations, events, or things for the first

time, a unique process of creation and shaping ensues from the interaction

that potentially alters ways of being, as well as ways of knowing which they

have become accustomed to. To us, this shows that there is a lot to be said

about how you enter a new space, and how you then value what is coming to

meet you.

Critical questions

In trying to position the New Media Technology module within the

broader context of an open distance learning environment, we asked a

number of questions that we found helpful in considering the nature of the

learning experience and the context in which it is embedded.

1. Firstly, we asked: What is the place of technology or new media and

experiential learning in a distance learning environment? This question

invited us to consider the importance of context (that is, all the things

that are implicit or presented in the setting) and how patterns of

participation flow from and into contexts.

We acknowledge context as a web of activity that involves an interplay of

things, for example language, people's intuitive systems, and dynamics of

culture and history. This idea of context is taken up in more detail in part

2 of the module: Positive uses and consequences of new media on society.

2. Then we wondered: How do people come into new technological

spaces and how do they value what is coming to meet them? This

question provided us with a basis to explore the idea of people as

relational beings who are continuously evolving and participating in

networked communities that are themselves evolving.

This notion of relatedness and of people as emerging systems helps us to

understand that people always engage in a process of working in joint action

with others to produce shared realities. These ideas are expanded in part 3

of the module: Negative uses and consequences of new media on society, where
 4

the art of engaging in negative behaviour over communication networks is

explored and counselling or advice on how to deal with these network

society challenges is provided for your day-to-day use.

Study unit 1 Study unit 1 is aimed at helping you engage reflexively with the module and

to consider how your motivations, personal life circumstances, social

environment and physical landscape can be potentially enabling through the

use of new media or disabling when new media are misused or abused. Also,

this study unit forms the introduction to the module and also sets the tone

for the whole module. We discuss in detail the differences between old and

new media and we explain which activities occur in new media, mostly online

media such as social networks and social media. We explain convergence,

digitisation and differences between analogue and digital media since they

form the basis of new media technology. The rest of study unit engages you

to do some online activities in new media forums such as social media.

Social media Social media are about individuals sharing content, for example blogs carrying

articles, insights and news from amateur and professional writers alike,

video-sharing sites such as YouTube and Zoopy, and photo-sharing sites like

Flickr. The focus of this study unit is to explore how social networking sites

like Facebook and LinkedIn connect people globally. In this study unit we also

describe new media and how they differ in meaning and function from old or

traditional media.

Study unit 2 Study units 1 and 2 also inform the discussion about historical developments

and theoretical perspectives of technology and its uses in society. We

consider in detail possible ways of creating opportunities to enhance

humanness and well-being in society through the use of new technology.

Although you will realise that some new and old media aspects and issues

mentioned in this study unit were briefly explained in study unit 1, in this

study unit we provide a much broader but simpler view of social media and

also discuss the consequences and implications of these media on old media

such as the press and television, and mainly newspapers and magazines. The

aim is to ensure that you thoroughly understand the main differences

between old (traditional) and new (digital) media so that you can have an in-

depth understanding of the forms of new media.

The broad and extensive discussions on all these media provide you with a

wealth of knowledge, enabling you to explain the functioning of these media

better and also use new media efficiently when you have to (ie if you are not

using new media at all).

Case studies New media are used in all the study units to explain the issues in simple

terms.

Key questions

Some of the questions study units 1 and 2 offer answers to are the following:

. What are new media?

 5 COM3704/1

. How do old media differ from new media and what communication

capacities do new media have that old media do not?

. What is digitisation and what is convergence?

. What are analogue media?

. What are digital media?

. What is the blogosphere and what should we do and not do in the

blogosphere?

. What are social media and what is the meaning of social networking?

. What is the internet?

. What are the important considerations and issues regarding streaming

content from the internet?

. What should we know about the economics of peer-to-peer networking?

Key concepts

Throughout the module, we introduce you to useful concepts and

terminology. Each unit or part provides key concepts that are salient to

the discussion in the unit/part. While working your way through this part, be

on the lookout for the following key concepts and make sure that you can

make connections with how they are used and what they refer to.

Key concepts are also included sometimes as marginal notes in study units

and are there to gradually introduce you to the perspectives that ground our

understanding of new media. By the time you get to study unit 3, you

should have some basic understanding of the following concepts:

. convergence

. digitisation

. blogs and blogging

. blogosphere

. traditional media

. virtual networking

. next generation networks

. social networking

. social media
 6

Study Unit 1

New media: theories and

applications
(Sibongile Sindane)

We shape our tools and thereafter our tools

shape us ± McLuhan

Overview

This is the introductory unit to New Media and Technology. We provide

explanations as well as case studies and activities to assist you in

understanding concepts such as new media, traditional media, social media,

technology, the role of technology, understanding the phenomenon of Web

2.0, blogs, the internet as a new medium as well as the characteristics of new

media, including new generation networks and the technology theories. We

recommend that you engage with the case studies and activities after all,

practice makes perfect. We also encourage you to find case studies of your

own to analyse.

1.1 Introduction

To determine what new media are it is vital to know what the concept of

media means first. According to Croteau and Hoynes (2003:302), the term

``media'' is derived from the Latin word meaning ``middle'' and this signifies

that ``the media are in the middle of a communication process, specifically, in-

between the sender and the receiver of a message'' (Croteau & Hoynes

2003:302). Although new media have no precise definition, they equal

information and communication technologies (ICTs) which have varied usage

and an emphasis on innovative technological features. New media are digital

in nature and are often employed by communicators or media institutions to

communicate to audiences via interactive means such as internet usage. ``But

the difference with the new media is that it blurs the distinction between

individual and mass audiences, as people use the medium for individual

communication (electronic mail or e-mail), small group communication

(listservs), and mass communication (Web sites)'' (Croteau & Hoynes

2003:303).
 7 COM3704/1

Communication In new media communication and technology are integrated in industrial

and technology production and information dissemination fields (Croteau & Hoynes 2003).

Flew (2003:1) states that to better understand new media ``newness'' should

be equated with what has been recently developed. For example, television

is a new form of media compared to newspapers; however, the internet is an

even better form of new media than the television as it has been recently

developed. ``More commonly, the Internet is seen as new when compared to

television because it is networked, interactive, enables two-way commu-

nication, and allows its users to be both producers as well as consumers of

content'' (Flew 2002:1). Meanwhile, like Flew, Youngs (2002) also argues that

``the Internet brings much more of the world into the home than television

ever has''. He points out that ``the diversity of the Internet offerings is

incomparable in its scope to the relatively limited output of television, even in

its continually expanding multi-channel forms of cable and satellite and, more

recently, digital terrestrial broadcasting'' (Young 2002:384). In this sense, new

media therefore mean digital technology used for communication purposes

(cf. Lievrouw & Livingstone 2002). New media also include social media.

Case study 1.1

What are new media and what are traditional media?

What happens when we compare some old world technologies to what is

available today? Is new technology better than the things we had as kids?

You might be a bit surprised at the results. See below or comparison of

new media versus old media as an example.

DVD vs. Video

Many people think that when it comes to picture quality, DVD wins hands

down. Well, not exactly. A one-hour video in digital format would use up

about 21GB of space. A DVD of the same length would be less than

4.7GB and any time you compress images, there was a loss of quality. In

other words, a 2-hour high quality video would actually look better than a

2-hour DVD. And when it came to durability, video wins here as well. You

had to be careful handling DVDs as they could be easily scratched and

rendered unplayable whereas a video tape was within a case, which

 8

provided a certain amount of protection it was usually the video player that

destroyed a video tape. However when it came to playing durability, a DVD

still wins hands down.

Mobile Phones vs Landlines

These days, leaving home without your mobile phone is almost like walking

out the front door without your pants on. And, you can't walk out of your

house with your landline ± unless it's connected to an endless length of

cable. The fact is, there is no contest between these two technologies.

Think of all the things you can do with a mobile that can't be done with a

landline, such as like blaming a bad signal or low battery when you want to

hang up; fooling your boss when you pull a sickie; getting the latest

information at your fingertips; and of course, you could never look cool in

a nightclub with a landline stuck to your ear.

E-mail vs. Snail Mail

About the only people that don't have e-mail are those that are in a coma

or on Death Row in some top security US penitentiary. E-mail is how we

communicate these days ± quickly, cheaply and at our own convenience.

Let's face it, e-mail is cheaper, faster and more user-friendly than the

posted letter. You can also send programs, pictures, games and other

downloadable items via this media. However, at the same time, it does limit

one's creativity and unless you are a lawyer or a celebrity stalker, most e-

mails tend to be relatively brief and therefore short on the emotional

intelligence. That said, going without e-mail is almost unthinkable

nowadays, and another technology that might be the victim of e-mail

could be the fax machine.

Paper Maps vs. GPS

Being a recent convert to the wonders of the in-car GPS, the thought of

having to use a paper-based map doesn't bear thinking about. Being

honest, a paper map will never update itself and you need to buy a new

map every time they are republished. And what better way to be lost in

some dodgy part of your home city than to have a soothing voice telling

you to turn left at the next burnt out car wreckage. Of course if you like to

walk, carrying a GPS unit is much easier than a paper map or book. And,

once you have found your destination, you can turn the GPS unit off and

put it in your glovebox, backpack or pocket. Try doing that with the latest

UBD directory.

Source: The Australian Women's Weekly (2009)

ACTIVITY 1.1 Old and new media

Read chapter 1 in your prescribed book on what new media are and

case study 1.1 and answer the following questions:

1. In your own words define new media.

2. What are traditional media and do you think that they are still
 9 COM3704/1

relevant in the age of new media? Give an explanation for your

answer and provide examples. (Your answers to this question

should also include the advantages and the disadvantages of

traditional media as well as the characteristics of new media.)

3. Which do you prefer, new media or old media? Give reasons for

your answer.

1.2 What are social media?

Social media are about individuals sharing content, for example blogs carrying

articles, insights and news from amateur and professional writers alike,

video-sharing sites such as YouTube and Zoopy, and photo-sharing sites like

Flickr (Shapshak 2009:4).

Facebook Facebook is a popular free social networking website that allows registered

users to create profiles, upload photos and video, send messages and keep in

touch with friends, family and colleagues (Whatis.com [sa]).

Twitter Twitter is the fastest growing social media service in the world, where people

post their views online to other people. Many people use it to publicise new

blog posts or link news stories. Like e-mail before them, Facebook and

Twitter have revolutionised how people communicate. These sites enable

also business people to get connected to other business owners and share

ideas and opportunities. What is also important for users to remember about

these sites is that they should be careful about the type of information they

post on them.

ACTIVITY 1.2 Social media

1. What are social media?

2. Give an in-depth explanation of how social media operate and

provide at least two examples of social media.

3. Visit a social networking site, for example Facebook, log onto it

and explain how it works by illustrating its characteristics.

4. What is the impact of social networking on the individual, business

and society?

5. Do you think social networking sites are relevant? Explain.

6. What is the difference between social media and a social

networking site? Give examples.

7. Give the advantages and disadvantages of social networking sites.

8. Do you think it is relevant to regulate media such as social

networks? Give an explanation for your answer. If you answered

yes to this question, explain how social networking sites can be

regulated.

9. Explain the phenomenon of globalisation and illustrate how

technology complements it.

10. When was Facebook started and by whom?

 10

11. Outline the benefits of participating in discussion forums of social

networking sites such as Facebook or Twitter.

12. Describe the impact of social networking sites and technology on

business.

13. Explain why social networking sites are thought of as a powerful

tool and describe how influential people such as politicians and

celebrities use them to educate people.

1.3 New media as communication tools

The question ``what is technology?'' can be answered in different ways,

depending on what field you are answering it from. Some of the ways in

which technology is defined are the following (Lister et al 2003:11; 297±298):

a. Technology can be viewed as a physical object. Viewed as an object,

``technology is a result of the work of physical scientists and innovators

who create technological physical objects by successfully exploiting a set

of physical laws''.

b. Technology as a ``cultural presence''. This means that technology can be

understood as being cultural artefacts. ``Cultural and media studies

mainly look at a medium as an instantiation of certain economic,

communicational, political, commercial, or artistic interests. On the

other hand, the physical sciences, even of the applied variety, do not

address technologies as `media' but only ever as an arrangement of

electrical circuits, functions, transmitters, patterns and noise. It is as if

what is fore-grounded in the physical or natural sciences becomes

background in the cultural or human sciences, and vice versa, thus

maintaining a blind spot between nature and culture.'' Therefore

technology is as much part of nature as it is part of culture.

c. Technology or new media as ``ideological connotations''. This view

supports that in (b) above, namely that technology comprises cultural

meanings or connotations as well as beliefs of people who develop that

technology. The ideological meaning of technology is explained from

several theoretical perspectives.

Read your prescribed book to find out about these theoretical perspectives.

Web 2.0 Web 2.0 is ``a phenomenon, a technological and human trend thrust by

technological evolution, people taking over of web technology capabilities;

changing the way that technology is developed and delivered; making a

platform of the web; empowering people and gathering them in new

communities over real communities, bound by certain interests, values, and

consciousness, through social media, and other web application, web

services or simply web compatible technologies, and finally fostering

collaboration, interaction, and sharing'' (Iaban 2009). Social networks are

therefore places where social capital can be leveraged and used as

instruments to get advocacy as well as other forms of capital like funds,

appliances or even estates (Iaban 2009).

 11 COM3704/1

Figure 1.1 Cellphone new media (El Paso-Teller 911 [sa])

ACTIVITY 1.3 Technology

Refer to section 1.3 above and answer the questions below:

1. Give a definition of technology.

2. What is the role of technology?

3. What is Web 2.0?

4. How can technology be used to improve livelihood and civil society?

1.4 Blogs

Blogs are online conversations and journals where information is posted

and read by Internet users. People should be careful about what they

post on blogs as information on these sites can be read by anyone.

Useful and constructive information should be posted onto blogs.

Information that is destructive, invades other people's privacy, false and

even distorts information about other people (libellous information)

should not be posted on blogs as one who puts it there could be in

serious trouble if the information is proven to be destructive in one way

or another and one could even be sued in courts of law. Also, do not

write about the boss you do not like on blogs either, as you could be

fired if the disliked boss happens to read that information or someone

else informs the boss about that information. You do not know who

may read the information you may put on blogs so do not post your
 12

private information on blogs either. The minimum requirement for a

Web site to be a blog is that it have content, and that it be sorted out in

reverse chronological order'' (TechCrunch 2009).

Social networking websites or blogs ``also bring forth the idea that new

media technology may promote changes in other media'' (Flew 2002:1). For

example, newspapers only contained the visual aspect of media and when

television was introduced it enhanced this aspect as it allowed both audio and

visual elements. However, the internet has promoted the changes in both the

previously mentioned forms of media as it allows for audio and visual as well

as interactivity whereby the audience can become both the receiver and the

sender or producer of content. For example, the introduction of blogs on the

internet has allowed the audience to be the producers of content, as blogs

are open to the audience. The term ``blog'' means more than an online

journal. ``I believe a blog is a conversation. People go to blogs to read and

write, not to consume'' (Arrington 2006). Although blogs now have a

potential to be commodified as many celebraties are now being paid to write

about certain issues on their blogs. Flew (2002:2) also points out that ``the

relationships across media are typically subtle, complex, and rarely linear, as

one medium never simply replaces another''. However, this is a debatable

issue as technology is evolving and moving at a very fast pace and so it is also

important to ask yourself whether new media present a significant threat to

old media.

Case study 1.2 What are blogs?

Source: Thoughts.com ([sa])

 13 COM3704/1

Welcome to our blog about online marketing. [Please note that this

is a blog thus language use was not tampered with and it was left as

it was written]

New Media vs Old Media

I was listening to a podcast NPR this morning called ``Good Riddance to

Mainstream Media.'' It's an hour long, so for those of you with better

things to do I'll summarize:

This exercise was structured as an ``Oxford-style debate'' with three old

media proponents arguing for the statement ``Good Riddance to Mainstream

Media'' and three new media advocates arguing against the statement.

The main positions for the statement ``Good Riddance to Mainstream

Media'':

. New media has injected new vitality and competition into news.

. Because of new media there is now a greater diversity of ideas and

viewpoints.

. As new media matures, it will take over the social responsibilities of old

media.

. You can't cover any news if you aren't in business and old media is

dying financially.

. The best fact checking has been done online.

. Old Media is slow, detached and monolithic.

. Journalism isn't going away in new media.

The main positions against the statement ``Good Riddance to Mainstream

Media'':

. Mainstream media is more effective at standing up to big institutions

like governments and corporations.

. Good thorough journalism requires deeper pockets.

. New media is just an aggregation of mainstream media.

. With new media people tend to isolate their news consumption to only

the views the want to hear.

Here are a few points made that weren't explicitly for or against the

statement:

. New and old media are converging.

. The editorial process is shifting to the consumers of news.

. The audience has shifted to the web and that audience is worth less (to

publishers) on the web.

While entertaining, it is silly to structure this discussion in the debate

format. Obviously, mainstream media (MMS) is changing and new media

is, well, new. This should be a conversation about the evolution of media,

not whether the inevitable change is good or bad.

What missing from this debate is a more thorough conversation of the

economics driving the change. MMS advertising revenue is coming down.

David Carr of the New York Times sums this up nicely when he says ``The

audience has switched to the web. The audience that is worth $1 in print is

worth a dime and sometimes a penny on the web.''

Why is MMS (Mainstream Media) advertising revenue in free fall?

 14

1. The monopoly of MMS as the sole news content providers has been

broken. The news is no longer controlled by a handful of players at the

world, regional and local levels. Anyone with a Facebook account is

publishing content. Now, content runs the gamut from great journalism

down to excruciating daily minutiae a la Twitter and Facebook. This

massive explosion of information has created a nearly infinite pool of

ad space, which drives down the value of a generic impression.

2. Advertising on MMS is a very poor way of reaching a targeted audience.

Sure advertisers can reach 3 million people by taking an ad out in Time

Magazine, but it's much better to reach 300,000 people who actually

care might be interested in the advertiser. Targeted advertising is

obviously far easier online.

3. Distribution costs and margins are often very close to zero online.

Some publishers are happy if their advertising revenue covers their

hosting cost. Often, advertising profit isn't the motive for small

publishers. That makes it tough for MMS, with huge overhead and

disgruntled shareholders, to compete.

Let's take a look at David Carr's statement:

``The audience that is worth $1 in print is worth a dime and sometimes a

penny on the web.''

While this is certainly true from the New York Times' perspective, it isn't

the whole story. An audience can actually worth more online, since data

allows for much better targeting. The problem for large publishers is that

the dollar they used to get from an audience is now split up into a hundred

pennies. Small publishers are picking up those pennies and new media

companies like Google and Facebook are amassing valuable data and

picking up the dimes. People aren't going to read the entire New York

Times on a Sunday afternoon anymore. People will gather news from a

hundred sources: RSS feeds, Facebook, Twitter, Google News etc.

Since I think that the new media folks' points were right on, I want to

address the points made by the proponents of MMS:

``MMS is more effective at standing up to powerful institutions''

Not really. The only reason MMS is effective at standing up to big

institutions is because of their ability to reach voters or consumers. The

collective megaphone of digital media is just as powerful and it has the

ability to cover a lot more stories.

``MMS has better journalism''

True, so far. But journalists aren't going to need MMS to get their paycheck

anymore. Anyone who generates an audience will be able to generate a

paycheck. The ones who get a bigger (or more valuable) audience will get a

bigger paycheck.

``New media is just an aggregation of mainstream media''

MMS was mostly an aggregation of MMS. One story is often syndicated

thousands of times in MMS. Aggregation and filtering are still going to be

important aspects of new media and new media will increasingly provide

original content in the future

Source: Rand Media Group (2010)

 15 COM3704/1

ACTIVITY 1.4 Blogs

By referring to case study 1.2 answer the following questions:

1. What are blogs?

2. Visit the internet and create your own blog. Explain all the steps you

took to do this.

3. How useful is a blog to you? Outline all the benefits.

4. By referring to the content of the second blog entitled ``Welcome to

our blog about online marketing'', say why MMS (mainstream

media) advertising is ``in free fall''?

1.5 Traditional versus new media

It is important to distinguish between new media and traditional media in

order to gain a better understanding. Grimes (2008) defines traditional media

as ``those companies which create, produce and distribute information and

entertainment content which pre-date the commercial business of the

Internet''. Grimes (2008) also views traditional media as newspapers,

magazines, yellow pages, outdoor advertising, radio and television stations as

well as broadcast network assets. However, traditional media can also be

defined by differentiating them from new media. Hence the older or

traditional media can be thought of as the old way of doing things. For

example, going all the way to the post office to send mail or reading the hard

copy of the newspaper is considered as using old media. Using the internet

to send an e-mail, reading the electronic copy of the newspaper on the

internet or listening to the radio via the internet or a cellphone are thought of

as using new media. (In South Africa the term ``cellphone'' is used more often

than ``mobile phone'' and we will therefore be using this term in this study

guide.) Therefore, to get a better understanding of what new media are,

think of the latest gadgets and you can also consider the different new forms

of technologies that these gadgets offer.

Internet as a The internet represents a news desk, most discussed, and perhaps most

new medium significant of the new manifestation of new media. When terms such as

``cyberspace'', the ``virtual world'', the ``network society '' and the

``information superhighway '' are used in relation to new media, they

typically refer to the possibilities arising from the development of the internet

(Flew 2002:12). ``The Internet constitutes the electronic network of

networks that link people and information through computers, and

increasingly through other digital media technologies, and allow for both

interpersonal communication and information retrieval'' (DiMaggio et al

2001, in Flew 2002:12). According to Flew (2002:12), it is essential to note

that the internet refers to both a technical infrastructure of computers and

other digital devices permanently connected through high-speed telecom-

munications networks, and to the forms of content, communication, and

information sharing that occur through these networks. ``Internet usage

involves person-to-person communication, group communication, and global

 16

publishing and information provision, through electronic mail (email), news

groups, chat rooms, mailing lists and the World Wide Web'' (Flew 2002:12).

New media The internet as a medium has most if the characteristics of new media, such

characteristics as interactivity, convergence and hypertextuality. Other characteristics of new

media are digitality, dispersal and virtuality (Lister et al 2003:14-34). Refer to

the prescribed book, chapter 1, to read about

. digitality

. convergence

. interactivity

. hypertextuality

. dispersal

. virtuality

Case study 1.3 New media versus traditional media

Huge Gap In New Vs Old Media News Channels

The growing popularity of the Internet, in general, and blogs and social

media, in particular, has resulted in new sources from which people now

collect their news. Apart from referring to traditional news sources such as

newspapers and television, people are now increasingly relying on blogs

and social networks to receive news.

In fact, news is fast becoming a shared social experience. However, the

type of news that is popular on these different sources varies widely. The

Pew Research Center has carried out a study on the top news stories

carried by different sources and analysed the data collected. The study was

carried out between 19 January 2009 and 15 January 2010 on blogs and

YouTube and from 15 June 2009 to 15 January 2010 on Twitter.

The study not only found that the lead stories on social media channels

varied widely from traditional news media, but it also varied substantially

from one channel to another. It was found that during the course of the

study the top story on blogs, YouTube and Twitter coincided only once,

during the Iranian Presidential elections held between June 15 2009, to

June 19 2009.

Bloggers, in general, were found to be more interested in emotional stories

or issues that related to individual or group rights or similar ideologies.

Stories that could be personalised and shared attracted a lot of attention.

Political news, however, tended to be both pro-liberal as well as pro-

conservative.

On Twitter, there was a very different tendency stories concerning

technology, in general, and Twitter, in particular, gained more prominence.

However, even here, the Iran elections were the most popular lead story

and topped the charts for 7 weeks in a row.

In contrast, on YouTube, the news is usually shared through videos and

often does not even contain any added comments. There is also a tendency

to pay more attention to international news.

One common factor among all the social platforms studied, was that the

stories did not stay on top of the charts for long.

 17 COM3704/1

Also it was not uncommon to find that the news stories on all these

sources, [differed] considerably from the top stories on the traditional news

channels.

Blogs are more likely to borrow information from the traditional media,

but the reverse trend rarely occurs. Bloggers might face a tough time once

their main sources, such as The New York Times and The Times go behind

pay walls. It has already been announced that the New York Times will start

charging for the use of some of their news content from January 2011.

Source: AccruCast (2010)

ACTIVITY 1.5 Traditional media vs new media

1. What are the characteristics of traditional media?

2. What are the characteristics of new media?

3. With the above questions in mind, do you think new media will

grow to replace traditional media? Why?

4. What is the importance of advertising in maintaining a newspaper or

a magazine?

5. What would be the main reason to influence newspapers and

magazines to move to an online version?

6. Refer to case study 1.3 and answer the following questions:

a. In what ways can people collect or receive news?

b. What types of stories are most the popular stories to be read on

new media news sources?

c. In what ways is the news on the new media news sources

different from the news on old media channels?

1.6 Next generation networks

In the last few years, the definition of the characteristics and elements that

make up next generation networks (NGNs) has become crystallised through

studies by regulators, manufacturers, operators and standards-setting bodies

(Kende & Ocholi 2006:4). For instance, the International Telecommunication

Union (ITU) defines an NGN as

a packet-based network able to provide telecommunications services

and able to make use of multiple broadband, QoS (quality of service)-

enabled transport technologies, and in which service-related functions

are independent from underlying transport-related technologies (Kende

& Ocholi 2006:4)

This definition is essentially the same as the one provided and used by the

Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in

discussions on the implications of NGNs in OECD countries. Additionally,

many definitions also include an adherence to the principle of open and

ubiquitous networks, although that is more likely to be influenced by

 18

regulatory and commercial decisions specific to any given country (Kende &

Ocholi 2006:4).

Case study 1.4 Next generation networks

With the Internet now deeply rooted across modern life and broadband

penetration continuing its steady ascent, the information and communica-

tions technology (ICT) industry continues its transformation and evolution

to converged next-generation networks (NGN). The term ``convergence''

is being used to refer to the advanced integration of communications and

computing functionalities, in particular the ability to offer voice, data,

video, and other increasingly intermingled multimedia services seamlessly

over single or multiple infrastructures and platforms ± as well as the

capability to access such services at any time, at any place, and with an

ever-expanding array of network agnostic and ``aware'' devices. This also

implies that competing infrastructure platforms will be able to provide

essentially similar multimedia experiences. These converging NGNs, and

the overall global NGN, are being driven by digitization, packetization,

high-speed transfer, Internet Protocol (IP)-related technology solutions,

network ``aware'' elements and other enhancements so any interconnected

network will be capable of providing user services accessible by any device,

across any accessible platform and with the needed degree of mobility or

nomadicy.

Like the telecommunications industry itself and the markets it covers, TIA

is faced with the dilemma of categorizing evolving technology convergence

at the network level (wired/wireless), the application level (personal

communications/business), and the communications device level. By

definition, such convergences will impact traditional market and deploy-

ment perspectives. Just as with technology providers and enterprise

customers, the telecommunications industry is migrating from separate

data and voice communications to converged, IP-based network

environments (i.e., NGNs). In fact, we think that the very term

``telecommunications'' needs to be redefined to more clearly include all

elements of non-voice ``communications application'' technologies and

services. Many specific TIA technical activities play a direct role within the

converging NGN.

Introduction and Scope of TIA Technical Committee Next-Generation

Networks Focus Group

The TIA Technical Committee established the Next-Generation Networks

Focus Group (TIA TC NGNFG) in March 2005 to, monitor, evaluate and

coordinate across TIA for mulating groups and make appropriate

recommendations or liaisons on the national and global technical

implications and capability solutions for converging NGN communica-

tions networks, devices and services. As such, the TIA TC NGNFG serves

as a TIA resource and focal point for internal 2 and external technical

NGN coordination and cooperation efforts. Each of TIA's formulating

groups or engineering committees is represented on the TIA TC NGNFG,

and TIA TC NGNFG coordination efforts are meant to enhance, not

supplant, existing communications or liaison channels established with

external organizations.
 19 COM3704/1

The TIA TC NGNFG identifies, coordinates and addresses TIA-related

technical NGN activities, published documents and issues affecting the

specific and overall converged NGN framework, including those that

support TIA-developed technical solutions, TIA's Convergence Policy

Agenda principles, and ongoing North American and global NGN techno-

policy related activities and industry advisory groups. TIA believes the term

NGN to also be closely linked to the terms convergence and fixed mobile

convergence (FMC).

Any liaisons from standards organizations to the TIA TC NGNFG can

utilize the contact information above.

Source: Telecommunications Industry Association (2010)

ACTIVITY 1.6 Next generation networks

1. What are next generation networks?

2. Read sections 1.3 and 1.4 in your prescribed book and then write

some brief notes in your journal about the characteristics of new

media, what NGNs are and what their purposes are in business.

3. Compare next generation networks in developed countries to next

generation networks in developing countries.

4. According to case study 1.4

a. What drives the converging NGNs or the overall global NGN?

b. What are the roles of the TIA Technical Committee?

1.7 Theoretical frameworks about technology benefits

We discuss these theories in the prescribed book and we invite you to read

about these different points of view, while adding your own views in this

debate. After all has been said and done, it appears that there is no consensus

about the benefits of new technologies. The debates about the benefits of

technology can be divided into two broad categories: the critics and the pro-

technology groups.

ACTIVITY 1.7 Technology and theory

1. Read your prescribed book to understand the theories explaining

how we benefit and also lose some things as a result of using

technology. After reading the prescribed book, state in your journal

what the theoretical benefits of technology are.

2. Also jot down some notes in your journal about the practical uses of

technology in your real life, as well the negative impact of

technology on your life.

3. Has technology benefited your community in any positive way? State

these benefits, if any, in your journal.

4. Has technology had negative impacts on your community? State

 20

these negative impacts, if any, in your journal and also provide some

advice on how they can be avoided in future.

1.8 Reviewing and connecting the dots

Reviewing what The teaching material in this study unit should enable you to

you have studied

. describe new media and how these media differ in meaning and function

from old or traditional media

. provide examples of new media and the types of services they offer new

media users around the world

. analyse uses and applications of new media so that you can make

comparisons about the potential of each medium for personal and

business communications (Note that at the centre of all new media is

digitisation, convergence as well as the internet, which is viewed as one of

the main new media employed today.)

. apply new media such as cellphones, social media and the internet as major

communication tools for different purposes, people and organisations

located in many countries used by millions of users for different types of

communication to send or receive different types of information including

text, graphics, online videos and data

1.9 Conclusion

In conclusion, both the online newspapers and the print version have their

advantages and disadvantages. The most prominent advantages are that the

online newspaper is digital, therefore the technology (digital and converged)

that incorporates it allows for interactivity, hypertextuality, virtuality (cyber-

space) and multimediality (converged media or multimedia offering different

services). But these benefits have their flaws as well in that the connection

may collapse because of too many users at the same time. Print newspapers

do not have these benefits but are capable of producing good in-depth

editorial that is objective and this is the essence of a newspaper for the

consumer. Therefore, although the online newspaper has more potential to

attract advertisers, it does not represent a significant threat to the print

version since it has not grasped the importance of producing good, in-depth

and accurate editorial content.

References

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vs-old-media-news-channels [Accessed on 12 July 2010].

Arrington, D. 2006. Decentralisation: the future of online social networking.

http://dig.csail.mit.edu/2008/Papers/MSNWS/ [Accessed on 20 July

2009].
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Brooks, D & Collins, G. 2010. In the conversation. http://opiniator.blogs.ny-

times.com/2010/06/30/old-media-v-new-media/ref=opinin [Accessed

on 2 July 2010].

Chun, WH-K. 2006. Did someone say new media? In Chun, WH-K &

Keenan, T. (eds). New media old media: a history and theory reader.

London: Routledge.

Croteau, D & Hoynes, W. 2003. Media in a changing global culture. In

Croteau, D & Hoynes, W. Media society. California: Pine Forge Press.

DiMaggio, P, Hargittai, E, Nueman, WR & Robinson, JP. 2001. Social

implication of the internet. Annual Review of Sociology: 27.

Doyle, G. 2002. Media concentrations and pluralism. In Doyle, G. (ed).

Understanding media economics. London: Arnold.

El Paso-Teller 911. [sa]. http://www.elpasoteller911.org/files/cell_phone.png.

Flew, T. 2002. New media: an introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Grimes, B. 2008. The inexorable decline of traditional media. www.charles

warner.us/articles/GrimesDeclineOfMedia.htm

[Accessed on 15 July 2009].

Iaban. 2009. Web 2.0: Read, write, web. Thought up. http://laban78.word-

press.com/page/2/.

Kende, M & Ocholi, O. 2006. Leap-frogging the divide: next-generation

networks in developing countries. http://web.si.umich.edu/tprc/papers/

2006/580/

Microsoft%20Word%20-%20Leap-frogging%20the%20divide.pdf.

Lievrouw, LA & Livingstone, S. (eds). 2002. Handbook of new media: social

shaping and consequences of ICTs. London: Sage.

Lister, M, Dovey, J, Giddings, S, Grant, I & Kelly, K. 2003. New media: a

critical introduction. New York: Routledge.

Neuberger, C, Tonnemacher, J, Biebl, M & Duck, A. 1998. Online - the future

of newspapers? Germany 's dailies on the World Wide Web. Journal of

Computer-mediated Communication, 4(1). http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol4/

issue1/neuberger.html.

Rand Media Group. 2010. Welcome to our blog about online marketing.

www.randmediagroup.com/new-media-vs-old-media [Accessed on 10

July 2010].

Salaverria, R. 2005. An immature medium: strengths and weaknesses of

online newspapers on September 11. The International Journal for

Communication Studies: 69±86.

Shapshak, T. 2009. Social media for SMEs. It's my business. Sunday Times, 30

August:4.

Sparks, C. 2000. From dead trees to live wires: the internet's challenge to

the traditional newspaper. In Curran, J & Gurevitch, M. (eds). Mass

media and society. London: Arnold.

TechCrunch. 2009. What is the definition of a blog? http://techcrunch.com

[Accessed on 31 August 2009].

Telecommunications Industry Association. 2010. Next-generation networks

(NGN). www.tiaonline.org/standards/technology/ngn [Accessed on 4

July 2010].

The Australian Women's Weekly. 2009. Old vs new world technology, 15

 22

October. www.ninemsn.com.au/876043/oldvsnew [Accessed on 12 July

2010].

Thoughts.com. [sa]. Blogs. http://www.thoughts.com [Accessed on 10 July

2010].

Van Dijk, JAGM. 2006. The network society: social aspects of new media. 2nd

edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Whatis.com. [sa]. What is Facebook? http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/

facebook.html

Youngs, G. (2002). Information and communication technologies. In New-

bold, C. (ed.) The media book. New York: Arnold.

 23 COM3704/1

Study unit 2

Forms of new media

(Zandi Lesame)

Social networking media as a technology is ``inspiring important changes in

the way people receive and use information and, indeed, in the very way

that people relate to each other'' (Harber 2009:68).

2.1 Introduction

While acknowledging that new technology has captured people's imagina-

tions and resources, the focus in this study unit is on what forms of new

media have captured people's focus and are used mostly daily in this era of

media development. Our intention is to assemble the uses of new media so

that you can distinguish old from new media and also comprehend what

technology users use new media for from a wider perspective.

This module aims to educate you about new media, how people and

institutions use it in society for different purposes and also how people and

organisations are influenced by new media.

This study unit consists of four sections:

. new (digital) media versus analogue (old) media

. the internet and convergence

. social media and social networking

. virtual networking, the blogosphere, streaming content and the

economics of peer-to-peer networking (P2P)

2.2 Analogue and digital media

The main difference between old and new media is that old media promote

one-way communication from one or more senders of one or more

messages to one or more receivers. New media are also digital media while

old media are usually analogue. New media are also characterised by

convergence, as discussed in chapters 1 and 2 of the prescribed book. You

can also read the section of chapter 2 of the textbook which deals with

analogue and digital media to know more about what convergence is, its
 24

different forms or levels and also how it has impacted on the communica-

tions industry.

ACTIVITY 2.1 New media and communication

1. What communication capacities do new media have that old media

d0 not have? Think of an old medium and a new medium that you

use on a daily basis and state the differences between these two

media for communication purposes, whatever your reasons of

communication are.

2. What are the technological characteristics and functions of analogue

and digital media? Think about an analogue and a digital medium in

your immediate environment and compare the communication

capacities of these two media. Dot down some brief notes on these

capacities in your own journal.

3. What is the impact of new media on old media in terms of

communication functions and capacities? This issue is also described

in study unit 1 so compare notes that you wrote about this issue in

that study unit and the notes that you are writing in your journal on

this unit about this issue.

4. How does packet switching occur in electronic communication?

Find out, and write a few lines in your journal describing packet

switching, eg consider how an e-mail message moves from one

computer overseas to another computer located in an office here in

South Africa or wherever you are.

5. How has internet communication changed since it began (from 1969

to the present)? Consider how social media and social networking

have changed how people communicate from all parts of the

world.

New media The capacities of new media include allowing immediate and delayed

interactivity between communicators near and far from each other, high

speed and high bandwidth, huge storage capacity, wide geographic reach and

artificial use of the human senses. There are problems or challenges when it

comes to protecting users' personal and business privacy; new media also

have less room for face-to-face communication or human communication as

people spend hours sending SMSs or playing games on computers and hand-

held devices rather than speaking or socialising with other humans. This

condition is known as anthromorphosis of technology which means that

people tend to communicate less with other human beings but interact more

often with technology (Van Dijk 2006).

Multifunctional Examples of multifunctional media are new media such as 3G (see figure 2.1),

media cellphones, WebTV, satellite TV applications, the internet and mobile

television. These all facilitate immediate interactivity between communica-

tors and also carry different types of messages including voice, data, pictures,

numbers, video and so on. Most of these new media are characterised by

technology convergence.
 25 COM3704/1

Figure 2.1: Example of a service-oriented digital cellphone (Sunday Times

2009:7)

With this kind of phone you can make telephone calls, play games, store

photographs of your children, find directions to where you are going if you

are lost and carry out several other functions that old cellphones are

incapable of doing.

Figure 2.1 is a digital phone characterised by convergence. Phones such as

this are very much in demand and offer consumers or users broadband and

other new media facilities such as information production (eg sending

information to others such as messages and movies), information capturing

(taking lovely photographs of your children and sending them to friends and

other people, or making movies from the photographs, or capturing

interesting stories in your country or area for yourself or others), storage of

information and personal documents as well as business items, and sharing

and distributing of information of different types (from voice to pictures as

well as business data). In some countries such phones don't come cheap and

some people can't afford them. They are often stolen but legislation in some

countries can prohibit stolen phones from being used as each cellphone user

has to register their ownership of each cellphone with vendors, service

operators and other legal cellphone sellers.

Case study 2.1 describes some qualities and services of old and new media to

give you more ideas of how new and old media offer different media
 26

services. Read through it and make sure you understand what these services

are.

Case study 2.1 Can the Web save financially strapped

newspapers and magazines?

In the past couple of years the print media (mainly newspapers and

magazines), globally, have been under pressure to adapt and survive as the

global financial crisis or credit crunch hit the publishing industry. Owing to

financial or budgetary constraints, newspapers and magazines globally

considered doing business online as advertising revenue decreased and

newspaper and magazine printing costs escalated (Louw 2009. Four

owners of 33 US daily newspapers required bankruptcy protection in late

2008 to early 2009 (Mail&Guardian Online 2009). Industry analysts

doubted whether these newspapers would emerge from bankruptcy

protection without agreeing to lenders' demands for radical changes, such

as switching to online delivery. The newspapers were advised by

bankruptcy lawyers to change their business models from producing

ordinary newspapers to producing online newspapers because newspaper

advertising revenues had dropped and the global financial crisis had hit

newspapers hard. It was thought, therefore, by analysts, that production

costs were less online as costs such as printing the newspapers and

distributing them nationally would be reduced. The bankruptcy filings were

undertaken by Journal Register, which publishes the New Haven Register in

Connecticut, and by the owners of The Philadelphia Inquirer and the

Philadelphia Daily News (Mail&Guardian Online 2009). In December 2008,

a filing was also undertaken by Tribune, whose media stable includes the

Los Angeles Times and the Chicago Tribune, and also by the owner of the Star

Tribune in Minneapolis. All these newspapers turned to the courts as their

debts became unbearable because of reduced advertising revenue.

Meanwhile, at about the same time the US newspapers faced financial

crises in 2009, in South Africa some magazines also faced similar problems

arising from financial constraints brought about by the effects of the global

financial crisis on the local economy. Magazine circulation figures indicated

that ``innovation was the key to survival'' (Louw 2009:4). ``The iconic youth

magazine, Ymag, and the magazine, Blaque, seemed to have listened to

advice to publish magazines online to get new online customers and also to

reduce printing and distribution costs. Blaque owner and publisher Vuyo

Jack preferred the online publishing route to remain a media player in

tough economic times as he also believed that online magazine publishing

expands the market from national to global clients and also because online

is the way to go because it rules out printing costs'' (Louw 2009:4).

``Blaque is published independently by Blaque Lifestyle, which is a

multiplatform lifestyle organisation owned by Bonngoe Media. Its target is

black men aged between 24 and 40. In 2009 it had a readership figure of

about 10 000 and generated income partly through current sales and

marketing'' (Louw 2009:4).

``Ymag publisher Earl Joseph supports the digital production of this youth

magazine as he believes that online is the future, and the youth is the

future. The digital Ymag is available at mymag.co.za and the Mail &

Guardian newspaper has a 35 per cent stake in this magazine business

 27 COM3704/1

which is run by Joseph and Kgomotso Molebatsi and published by Mojo

Publishing'' (Louw 2009:4).

``Online publishing is the trend for a lot of independents (small and

emerging publishers which are not part of big media groups). If you are not

part of a group you have to be innovative to survive, because you don't

have the same resources'' (Louw 2009:4).

``All newspapers and magazines, internationally, have Web sites and some

offer online versions of these publications. The question that remains is,

will printed versions of these publications be replaced by online versions,

or will both versions be offered in the publishing markets, depending on

the economic situation prevalent at that time. It cannot be denied that

business aim is to reduce costs and make more profit. Therefore, it is likely,

that publishing companies, such as newspapers and magazines, will go the

online route, if this business model extends their market, maintains their

staff and also promotes their profit, international stature as well as increase

advertising revenue'' (Louw 2009:4).

ACTIVITY 2.2 Social media and social networking

Refer to case study 2.1 and answer the following questions:

1. Outline all the key aspects raised in the article which are related to

the new media versus traditional media debate.

2. What is the importance of advertising in maintaining a newspaper or

a magazine?

3. What would be the main reason to influence newspapers and

magazines to move to an online version?

2.3 The internet and media convergence

The internet The internet is defined as ``a network of networks, linking thousands of

computer networks together. The Internet was established at the end of the

cold war by the United States military to ensure continued communications

between the military and various branches of government'' (Ivala 2000:24).

In other words, the internet refers to ``the global information system that is

logically linked together by a globally unique address space based in the

Internet Protocol (IP) or its subsequent extensions'' (Lister et al 2003:165).

People who are connected to the internet are able to transfer information to

one another and communicate with each other through the linked computer

networks, regardless of where they live or where their offices and buildings

are located in the world.

Convergence Convergence, the merging of media sectors, has driven some of the most

important communications industry developments in the last decade. It is

important that in this study unit you learn about convergence, its levels and

contribution to technology and services development in the information

society. Convergence has impacted on, among other changes, the industry

market structure, business ownership models and service provision, and has
 28

created consolidation, increased competition and improved service delivery.

This in turn has provided consumers with convenience and varied choices.

In the era of convergence, consumers can purchase communications services

from one service provider if they so wish. The reason is that service

provision no longer depends on providing a single service but multiple

services, eg a service provider can sell several products and services such as

fixed-mobile telephone services, internet services and value-added services.

In this study unit we also describe industry policy implementation strategies

as well as selected company business activities and models aimed at providing

communication services in the information society. Most of the develop-

ments explored in this study unit are South African and those of some

countries which have taken the lead in technological innovation.

ACTIVITY 2.3 Convergence

Read sections 2.1 and 2.2 in your prescribed book to learn more about

media convergence and how it has changed the communications

industry.

Convergence Common types of convergence are described below:

levels

. Functional convergence, notable in network level technology convergence and

bundled convergence. Network level technology convergence involves the

merger of transport technologies, such as circuit-switched and packet-

switched networks, eg the migration of circuit-switched voice networks

to packet-switched data networks. Bundled convergence involves a

situation where services are delivered over their traditionally separate

platforms and continue to be used separately, but the services are

marketed, priced and billed in a single retail package. For example, fixed-

line telephone services and pay TV access is offered as a single, cut-price

package.

. Convergence of markets or market convergence demonstrates functional

multiplicity because it involves the development of services to such an

extent that they become substitutable for other services as far as both

suppliers and consumers are concerned. This term refers to the

phenomena of horizontal and vertical concentration, mergers and

acquisitions.

. Regulatory convergence. This implies that regulators which previously

regulated different communications markets, eg a telecommunications

and a broadcasting regulator, merge to establish a communications

industry regulator such as the Independent Communications Authority of

South Africa (ICASA) and Office of Communications (OFCOM) in the

United Kingdom (UK) (see Lesame 2000 about regulatory convergence

especially in South Africa).

 29 COM3704/1

2.4 Social media and social networking

Social media Social media is about individuals sharing content, for example blogs carrying

articles, insights and news from amateur and professional writers alike,

video-sharing sites such as YouTube and Zoopy, and photo-sharing sites like

Flickr (Shapshak 2009:4). These are different from social networking sites

like Facebook and LinkedIn, which are about connecting people rather than

about sharing content.

Case study 2.2 Social networking websites

Internet search conglomerate Google chief executive officer (CEO) Eric

Schmidt has described social networking in these words:

``Thanks to the Internet, masses of people outside the traditional boundaries of

traditional hierarchies can innovate to produce content, goods and services''.

Schmidt describes the internet as the communication tool enabling people

from all over the world to communicate via websites on any topics of their

choice regardless of where they are geographically located. As long as you

can interconnect to the Web and join or visit discussion forums and

websites such as Facebook, Twitter and other social networking sites, you

can participate in national and international debates on these sites and also

socialise with old and newfound friends. ``The power behind the new

communication paradigm exemplified by Internet sites such as Facebook,

Wikipedia and YouTube is that it promotes the flow of ideas all of it free of

charge'' (Mawji 2007). Social networking allows collaboration between

business and consumers or customers, suppliers and business partners, and

internally across business and organisation boundaries. Technology enables

business, although online business has challenges such as transparency or

issues of privacy and governance. Online business owners have to ensure

that their activities are in compliance with national electronic communica-

tion laws and that they retain ownership, patents and intellectual property

(IP) protection, including copyright and trademarks.

Generally, these online interactions between individuals, companies and

organisations, nationally and globally, are known as social networking.

Individuals can also post their information on websites such as Facebook

to publicise or promote themselves as well as their work. Politicians,

celebrities and the rich, for example talk show queen Oprah Winfrey of the

US, are also on Facebook and usually use this powerful tool to educate

millions of people across the globe about different social, economic and

political issues. As leaders, these individuals influence millions of people via

this important tool.

Fast-growing Facebook was started by Mark Zuckerberg in 2004. In early

2009 Facebook boasted more than 175 million members and Zuckerberg

believed, at that time, that the number would exceed 200 million worldwide

by the end of 2009. The US President Barack Obama is on Facebook, he

has 5 000 friends on Facebook and can also post his thoughts on any issues

of his country's interest, such as the economy, and receive feedback from

readers and users of Facebook directly. Facebook allows individuals to

have their virtual voices heard. It is also a platform for people and

businesses to promote their products or brands to individuals and other

 30

companies located in different countries of the world which converge on

Facebook. Twitter is another micro-blogging service that people around

the world use to communicate with the world, and Facebook social

networking rival is MySpace. These websites are an indication that people

all over the world are interested and engage in international communication

and also want to stream information quickly.

Many famous people have launched profile pages on social networking

sites and these include US governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, Bono from

U2, Demi Moore and Ashton Kutcher. National heroes, in any country, as

well as presidents, television actors, musicians and leaders of political

parties are also online and they communicate with their supporters and

fans on social networking sites on a regular basis. In 2009, Ashton Kutcher

(find him online) was declared the ``King of Twitter'', after online voting

suggested that he had received more votes than the CNN channel on the

social networking channel. That means that this voting process proved that

more (millions of) people visited Ashton Kutcher's pages more than

anyone else's on Twitter.

ACTIVITY 2.4 Social media

1. What are social media?

2. Give an in-depth explanation of how social media operate and provide

at least two examples of social media.

3. Visit a social networking site, for example Facebook. Log on to this site

and explain how it works by describing its characteristics.

4. What is the impact of social networking on the individual, business and

society?

5. Do you think social networking sites are relevant? Explain.

6. What is the difference between social media and a social networking

site? Give examples.

7. Give the advantages and disadvantages of social networking sites.

8. Do you think it is relevant to regulate media such as social networks?

Give an explanation for your answer. If you answered yes to this

question then explain how social networking sites can be regulated.

Case study 2.2 indicates the role of social media and blogs in

communication and demonstrates that if you have something to say about

anything to anyone, just blog it, as long as you follow the communication

rules online, which are explained in chapter 2 in your prescribed book.

The language that you use in blogs is also important. It has to be the right

language, polite and not offensive to other readers or bloggers.

2.5 Virtual networking and the blogosphere

``Blogging has emerged as a channel for self-expression and communication''

± Phumzile Kotane
 31 COM3704/1

Case study 2.3 Women bloggers in the information society

the stor y of Shannon Smith, Nothando
Maseko and Thandiwe Mzoyi

Shannon Smith (see figure 2.2) is a model, businesswoman and TV

presenter. She blogs to contact other business people in the broadcasting

industry she works in to introduce herself and network with them. She also

uses blogs to express herself and her ideas and writes about ups and downs

in her life. If she experiences something funny, she blogs it and shares it

with other bloggers. However, Shannon is concerned about safety issues

on blogs and believes that ``blogging has its down side as people who do

not know you can use the blog to try and pry into your private life, so be

careful what you write on the blog'' (Kotane 2007:121). Most websites

offer safety features that you can use to block people you don't want on

your blog or those you don't know and don't want to know in the first

place.

Figure 2.2: Shannon Smith, blogging for business (Kotane 2007:121)

Nothando Maseko (in figure 2.3) is the producer of a TV show, SABC 2's

morning show Morning Live, broadcast from 06:00 to 08:00 every

Monday to Friday hosted by Vuyo Mbuli and Leanne Manas and from
 32

06:00 to 08:30 on Saturdays. Nothando learnt about blogging from a

colleague at the TV station. She uses her blog to write about world issues,

from politics to music and a range of other issues. Blogging allows

Nothando to ``really get into the minds of people around the world and

discover their views on a range of issues'' (Kotane 2007:122). Nothando

also conducts research about work on blogs as she concedes that some

ideas raised on blogs by other people can be topics that they address in

their TV shows for TV viewers and radio listeners.

Figure 2.3: Nothando Maseko, blogging for business and pleasure

(Kotane 2007:122)

Thandiwe Mzoyi (in figure 2.4) is young, married and a mother of two,

and is a senior communications officer at the Government Communica-

tions and Information Services (GCIS). Thandiwe uses her blog to ``rant

and rave'' about issues she agrees and disagrees with regarding what people

say in media or elsewhere (Kotane 2007:122-123). She believes that

blogging can change mainstream publishing (in media) and that blogging

indicates a growing need by people to express their ideas freely (increased

self-expression by the public).

 33 COM3704/1

Figure 2.4: Thandiwe Mzoyi, blogging for work and self-expression

(Kotane 2007:122)

ACTIVITY 2.5 Blogs

1. In what ways do women use blogs.

2. In your opinion, how can women use blogs to empower

themselves?

2.6 New media and the public sphere

Public service is the fulfilment of specific needs of information and

communication in the general interest of a particular society. It means a

sufficient supply of accessible public connections (public pay phones and

computer terminals in public buildings) and services of health (e-health),

education (e-education) and public information in hospitals, schools, libraries,

telecentres and other community centres.

 34

2.6.1 ICT and public service

Public service in these institutions is broadly considered the best way for

people to gain access to ICT in the short term. In contrast to universal

service, public service is a matter of public investment, primarily of the (local

and national) government. Telecommunications networks play a huge role in

educational projects throughout the work to ensure that most members of

civil society are educated. Also, consider the role of cellphone networks in

the banking and business sector. Africa has a massive cellphone market that

far exceeds the number of fixed-line internet connections. As a result, the

continent is leading the world in developing innovative uses for the cellphone

that also address social issues. In this regard, think about projects like M-Pesa

in Kenya and Mowaly in South Africa.

M-Pesa has revolutionised the money transfer process in Kenya to such an

extent that it was estimated in 2009 that one in four Kenyans used the

service to transfer cash to relatives in rural areas who had no banking

facilities. Previously, money would have to be sent physically through third

parties, a process that took time, incurred unnecessary expenses and proved

dangerous for those waiting for the money to arrive as they could be robbed

of it just after receiving it. But with M-Pesa, sending money via a cellphone is

cheap, immediate and safe. Meanwhile, in South Africa, cellphone banking

has increased rapidly in the past two years with 28% of South Africans using

their cellphones to make financial transactions rather than using electronic or

internet banking which most people regard as still unsafe or susceptible to

cybercrime or cybercriminals. Mowaly, created by Primedia Business

Solutions, is one of the first financial banking services in South Africa

powered by a local bank's new virtual currency, Mimoney, and works like a

virtual wallet. Mimoney allows users to shop online by providing a PayPal-

type service for locals who don't have access to credit cards. With Mowaly,

using Mimoney becomes far simpler with a single interface for managing

purchases and tracking your bank balance. Mowaly can be accessed through

the cellphone's Web browser, or can be downloaded to your cellphone as an

application. Access to the mobile wallet is protected by a pin code, much like

when using an ATM or new generation credit card.

2.6.2 Communication networks

Some of the communication networks that should contribute to public

service delivery projects, including education, banking and health projects,

are the following:

. telecommunications networks, including broadband and mobile networks

. computer and data networks

. satellite communication networks

. converging networks including merged broadcasting, telecommunications

and computing networks

 35 COM3704/1

Read more about these networks in your textbook. You need to understand

the differences in the structural frameworks of these networks as well as the

roles played by these networks in personal and business communications

(local and global) and in public service.

ACTIVITY 2.6 Communication networks

Read sections 2.5, 2.6 and 2.7 in your textbook to learn about issues

raised in the rest of that chapter. After reading these sections, select any

two communication networks (for example the Johannesburg Broad-

band Network) that you know and explain the role and functions of the

networks in public service.

Also, state which people and organisations are served by the networks

and what services these clients get from that network.

2.7 Reviewing and connecting the dots

Convergence brought about telecommunications market structure changes

which resulted in stakeholder or ownership changes, industry mergers,

``triple-play '' and ``quadruple'' service provision by ICT companies.

Technology development, fierce competition and deregulation have trans-

formed several distinct communications service markets into converged

markets. Although the South African communications market is not

characterised by fierce competition, the market is deregulated and

characterised by convergence of technology. Forecasts of this market

indicate that by 2015, the market will be hugely advanced with most people

using their cellphones for many applications, including mobile shopping and

mobile television services. Driving this changing market structure is

technology convergence brought about by globalisation of markets. The

fact is that great changes have taken place in the last decade in

communications. Whether or not we refer to these changes as the dawn

of the information society doesn't matter. The point is that the world is not

the same place as it was 20 years ago or even a few years ago. The amount of

information generated and disseminated has grown exponentially. But it is

also true that there are disparities in the flow of information between

developed and developing countries as more information flows from

developed to developing countries and less information flows from

developing to developed countries. The onus is on developing countries,

therefore, to be more information productive and inform other parts of the

world about what is happening in their part of the world in the way that they

see it.

Reviewing what The teaching material in this study unit should enable you to

you have studied

. have a clear sense of the communication capacities of new media as

opposed to old media

 36

. evaluate the role of new media in the blogging contexts and in the public

service

. be sensitive to issues of culture and diversity, including perceptual and

political diversity in online social environments and on blogs; view

people's comments and discussions on blogs as they present themselves

have an awareness of culture, and how cultures and discourses shape

identities online

. be able to start your own blog and converse with other people on blogs,

people from any country in the world as part of personal wellness and

community development where your relationship with others online is

part of the promotion of your well-being and that of others

For example, you can visit these websites and learn about how to start your

own blog:

blogger.com

myspace.com or

livejournal.com

AS EASY AS 1, 2, 3: CREATE YOUR OWN BLOG

The important thing about learning how to create your own blog is to access

the internet using your computer use one at home, at a telecentre or an

internet cafe
Â.

Follow the guiding prompts and instructions on each site that you have

accessed and then be a blogger!

ACTIVITY 2.7 Self-reflection (journal)

Owning your 1. Review the material in this study unit. What do the stories teach us

experiential about our living and what is going on in our technological world?

lessons 2. Why do you think it is important to use the internet, blogs and other

social media to interrogate social, historical and political issues that

surround and affect us on a daily basis?

3. How would you describe the communication differences between

old and new (digital) media?

4. We use the concept of convergence to explain how new and old

media have converged to offer consumers new communication

services. Describe old and new media which converge and explain

the new services they offer, eg online videos. What other metaphors

or concepts of your own can you use to describe this new media

landscape? Provide at least three concepts.

Make sure that you have written summaries of all your reflections as

you will be expected to submit evidence of them as part of your

assignments.
 37 COM3704/1

2.8 Resources for further enrichment

Should you wish to study more about the topics covered in this study unit,

you are most welcome to read more about them in these and other readings

you may find:

Arrington, D. 2006. Decentralisation: The future of online social networking.

http://dig.csail.mit.edu/2008/Papers/MSNWS [Accessed on 20 July 2009].

Chun, WH-K. 2006. Did someone say new media? In Chun, WH-K &

Keenan, T. (eds). New media old media: a history and theory reader.

London: Routledge.

Croteau, D & Hoynes, W. 2003. Media in a changing global culture. In

Croteau, D & Hoynes, W. Media society. California: Pine Forge Press.

DiMaggio, P, Hargittai, E, Nueman, WR & Robinson, JP. 2001. Social

implication of the internet. Annual Review of Sociology: 27.

References

Bohlin, E, Brodin, A, Lundgren, A & Thorngren, B. (eds). 2000. Convergence

in communications and beyond. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Destiny. 2009. A touch of class. November-December:116.

Doyle, G. 2002. Media concentrations and pluralism. In Doyle, G. (ed).

Understanding media economics. London: Arnold.

Flew, T. 2002. New media: an introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Harber, A. 2009. Social network journalism. Special Report. True Love

Magazine, January:68.

Ivala, EN. 2000. The internet and distance education. Communicatio,

26(1):24±30.

Kotane, P. 2007. Have something to say? Blog it! O Magazine, July:120±123.

Lehman-Wilzig, S & Cohen-Avigdor, N. 2004. The natural life cycle of new

media evolution. New Media & Society, 6(6):707±730.

Lesame, Z. 2000. The new independent communications authority of South

Africa: its challenges and implications for telecommunications liberal-

isation in the country. Communicatio, 26(2):28±36.

Lister, M, Dovey, J, Giddings, S, Grant, I & Kelly, K. 2003. New media: a

critical introduction. New York: Routledge.

Louw, I. 2009. Broadband short on time. City Press, 4 October:3.

Mail&Guardian Online. 2009. Shake-ups loom at US newspapers. 24

February.

Mawji, A. 2007. Social networking leverage the power of the masses for your

next innovation. www.upsidesoft.net/upside%2Bsoftware/PDF/Article_So-

cial_Networking-Dec2007.pdf.

O: Oprah Magazine. 2008. Something to think about: everything you need to

be successful is within you. June:23.

Shapshak, T. 2009. Social media for SMEs. It's my business. Sunday Times, 30

August:4.

Sunday Times. 2009. The iPhone 3G: Widescreen, iPod, Internet and phone,

all in one super-fast 3G device. 28 September:7.

 38

Van Dijk, JAGM. 2006. The network society: social aspects of new media. 2nd

edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage

 39 COM3704/1

PART 2

Positive uses and

consequences of new media
on society

(Zandi Lesame)

``Time is money. Manage your own time better. Now look at your list of

priorities, and ask yourself whether your current use of time reflects the

important aspects of your life. If not, change the way you do things and work

to match your life priorities'' (O: Oprah Magazine 2008:23).

 40

Contents

Overview

Critical questions

Key concepts

STUDY UNIT 3: THE INTERNET AND THE INFORMATION SOCIETY

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The internet and the information society

3.3 Interconnection and pricing issues in South Africa

3.4 Finding your own story: ICT prices and you

3.5 Regulating for cheaper communication costs

3.6 Reviewing and connecting the dots

3.7 Resources for further enrichment

References

STUDY UNIT 4: NEW MEDIA AND POSITIVE CONSEQUENCES

Overview

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Connecting to the internet

4.3 Uses of the internet

4.4 Reviewing and connecting the dots

References

STUDY UNIT 5: NEW MEDIA AND THE INDIVIDUAL

Overview

5.1 New media, business and economic development

5.2 Women, e-health and tele-working

5.3 Women and ICT: other issues

5.4 New media and education

5.5 Youth and new media

5.6 Regulation of new media

5.7 Other social, economic, political and cultural issues about new

media

5.7 New media and journalism: offline and online newspapers and

magazines

5.9 Online advertising

5.10 Conclusion

5.11 Reviewing and connecting the dots

References

STUDY UNIT 6: FIT FOR THE SMALL(ER) SCREEN: FILM, MOBILE TV

AND THE NEW INDIVIDUAL TELEVISION EXPERI-

ENCE

Overview

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Digital media and new ways of producing content

6.3 Small screens, aesthetics and genre

6.4 Digital ecologies, economies and environments

 41 COM3704/1

6.5 Intellectual property rights, copyright, the internet and cellphones

6.6 Conclusion

6.7 Reviewing and connecting the dots

References

STUDY UNIT 7: ELECTRONIC GOVERNMENT: MEANING, MODELS

AND APPLICATIONS

Overview

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Purposes of e-government

7.3 Applications of new media in political environments

7.4 Computer networks and the spread of politics

7.5 Citizens using technology to communicate with government

7.6 The digital divide and e-government

7.7 E-government theories

7.8 Conclusive reflections

7.9 Discussion points

7.10 Suggested readings and other relevant websites

References

STUDY UNIT 8: BROADCASTING DIGITAL MIGRATION

Overview

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Broadcasting digital migration

8.3 Visual radio and subscription television

8.4 Globalisation and the public broadcaster

8.5 Conclusion

8.6 Reviewing and connecting the dots

References

STUDY UNIT 9: NEW MEDIA AND DEVELOPMENT

9.1 Introduction

9.2 The role of technology in development

9.3 Technology use and impact in developing countries

9.4 Conclusion

9.5 Reviewing and connecting the dots

References
 42

Overview

Part 2 consists of several study units (3 to 9). All these units deal with the

uses and importance of new media in society in general. Everything has a

good and a bad side and in these few units we aim to share with you the

most positive experiences of new media or the applications of new media for

the improvement of an individual's life or inducing of positive change in an

organisation and also in society.

Critical questions

Society today is ever changing when it comes to new media technology. The

world is rapidly moving to a Web-based society where time and space are no

longer constraints. Importantly, it is becoming more vital to be better

prepared for the information society. The following questions, among others,

are addressed in part 2 of this study guide:

What is the internet and what are its purposes?

What are the key milestones in internet development?

What is interconnection?

How is the information society described and understood?

What are the most important uses of the internet?

What are the assertions of the internet hierarchy of needs?

What is e-health and mobile health (m-health)?

What is electronic government?

What roles do new media play in the development of individuals and society?

In what ways have cellphones revolutionised film distribution and consump-

tion?

How has digitisation reconceptualised the film and television industries

today?

Have cellphones diversified digital culture?

Are cellphones contributing to the promotion of cybernetic democracy and

the creation of critical cellphone and TV content?

Is the government of your country using electronic media to communicate

with members of the public?

Do you think the use of computers helps a country 's citizens to

communicate better with their government or vice versa?

Has e-government changed or influenced your life? If so, how?

Do electronic votes by members of society on a major issue of concern

influence how governments decide on that issue?

What theoretical models and perspectives explain the nature and practice of

e-government?

What new opportunities have been brought about by convergence and

digitisation to broadcasting?

What is broadcasting digital migration and what are its benefits?

What is the impact of globalisation and international broadcasting on national

broadcasters?
 43 COM3704/1

What is the role of public broadcasting services in a multichannel and

multicultural world?

Key concepts

The main concepts in the study units in part 2 explain most of the new media

processes and positive uses in different countries, both developed and

developing, and emerging and advanced economies. These concepts include

the following:

. internet

. interconnection

. regulation (of new media technology)

. electronic health (e-health)

. mobile health (m-health)

. electronic education (e-education)

. electronic government (e-government)

. online public relations

. online advertising

. internet hierarchy of needs

. broadcasting digital migration

. digital divide

. digital ecologies, mobile movies, cellphone and digital economies

. shovelware

. teleworking

. telemedicine

. online journalism

. broadband access

. mobile video

. copyright

. privacy

. ideosphere

. cybernetic democracy

. prodsumers

. intellectual property rights

. noosphere

. digital natives

. digital democracy

. online voting

. telepolls

. deliberative democracy

. plebiscitary democracy

. pluralistic democracy

. digital inclusion

. telereferenda

. globalisation

. visual radio

. subscription television
 44

. private and public broadcasters

. electronic programming

. two-way transmission versus one-way transmission

. cultural promotion

. digital signal

. economic development

. frequency spectrum

. transmitters

. receivers

. set-top boxes

. aerials

. digital video broadcasting technology (DVB-T)

 45 COM3704/1

Study unit 3

The internet and the

information society
(Zandi Lesame)

Everything you need to be successful is within you.

(O: Oprah Magazine 2008:23)

3.1 Introduction

This study unit deals with aspects of the internet as a global communications

tool and with industry policy implementation strategies pertaining to the

internet, mostly in a South African context. Business activities and models

aimed at providing communication services in the information society are

discussed. Most of the developments explored in this study unit are South

African and those of some countries which have taken the lead in

technological innovation such as China and India.

In this study unit, we also explore the internet and revisit how this

technology developed. Internet milestones over the years are identified and

internet service provider business relationships are explored against the

background of anti-competitive practices that induce some governments to

regulate the provision and use of the internet within their national borders.

Differences between countries in aspects of internet service provision are

also assessed.

3.2 The internet and the information society

In this section of the study unit, you should understand terms like the digital

divide and the information society, and be able to explain how countries

measure the digital divide and how they plan to reduce or are currently

reducing it (read the textbook about these issues). You should know the

various ICT projects run in your country and other countries aimed at

reducing the divide, and use these examples of projects in any discussions or

essays you are required to write. If you reside in a developing country, you

need to be able to learn from ICT deployment strategies and programmes

employed and deployed in developed countries. These can act as

 46

development lessons for countries which are still grappling with reducing the

digital divide or countries in which many people have no ICT access, such as

South Africa and many other African countries. South Africa is in an even

better position in this regard compared to many other African countries see

your prescribed book on some of these ICT statistics in different regions of

the world, including Africa.

In this part of the study unit, you also have to study and fully understand the

sub-indices employed internationally to measure the ICT development index.

These sub-indices are

. the ICT access sub-index

. the ICT use sub-index

. the ICT skills sub-index

The most important new medium today is the internet, with its different

applications which we inform you about in this module, especially

broadband. However, it is concerning that in South Africa internet

development is slow and so expensive that millions of South Africans have

no access to it, and most do not even know what it is. See table 3.1 about

how many South Africans had access to ICT in 2009. Additionally, although a

few South Africans have internet access, it has low speed compared to

internet services in countries such as the Republic of Korea, Brazil and India.

In countries such as Korea, most people own a digital cellphones which they

use to access various services, from education to electronic government

services. The Korean government has made it a priority to make

communication technology and services cheap so that most Koreans can

afford them; the internet, too, is affordable. However, the status of South

Africa as an information society where most people access ICTs at cheap

prices regardless of where they live (rural or urban) is still debatable. In fact,

in most rural parts of South Africa people have no ICT to access various

services easily so we should not yet refer to this whole country as an

information society. Most cities are information societies, but the rural areas

are not.

Table 3.1 South African ICT access: Statistics South Africa survey 2007

ICT access (by South Africans) YES NO (do not

(have access) have access)

Cellphone 81% 19%

Landline telephone 25% 75%

Internet facilities @ home 12% 88%

Radio 80% 20%

Television 75% 25%

Adapted from Lesame (2009)

 47 COM3704/1

In the 1970s and 1980s the internet was mostly used for academic and

community research (Lesame 2001b. The start of the internet can be traced

back to 1969: the ``Internet Society records the astonishing growth of

computer-based communications from a system based round four hosts/

servers in 1969 to 19, 540,000 hosts in 1997'' (Lister et al 2003:165).

Although the internet started in the military and was later adopted in

academic circles, today it is used in many different organisations, not only in

educational and defence institutions. It is also used for business purposes, or

in what is referred to as electronic commerce (e-commerce) and also to

transmit health information (electronic health or e-health) from some

computers to other computers in health departments and institutions such as

hospitals. Other uses of the internet are explained in other units of this study

guide as the internet is one of the important new media. In the 1990s, the

rest of the world took to the internet and since then, this medium has grown

massively all over the world.

ACTIVITY 3.1 Defining and measuring the information so-

ciety

1. Study-read sections 3.1 to 3.4 in your prescribed book, particularly

subsections on the beginnings of the internet and the meaning of the

information society; and what development indices are used to

measure whether a country is an information society or not.

2. Conduct some good research, perhaps by doing a literature analysis

of government policies, documents and legislation and by inter-

viewing government officials and so on, to measure your country 's

ICT access index as well the national ICT usage index and ICT skills

training index. After completing this mini-research, note your

findings in your journal, and recommend new ICT rollout strategies

and programmes for your government department responsible for

national ICT deployment and bridging the digital divide. In South

Africa this body is the Universal Service and Access Agency of South

Africa (USAASA see www.usaasa.org.za) and sister organisations

such as ICASA, which regulates the communications industry in

general. View ICASA's website and learn more about what they do

as a regulator. See figure 3.1.

3. What is the difference between ICASA and USAASA?

Figure 3.1: The South African communications regulator, ICASA

(ICASA [sa])

Visit ICASA's website at www.icasa.org.za.

 48

3.2.1 Government's role in the information society

Governments should conduct research in their countries and assess how

many people have ICT access and use those ICTs annually. This kind of

information allows the very same governments to know how many people in

that country require ICT skills training and what ICT skills those people

should be trained in. Most people should receive education in any country

and improve the status of that country internationally through education and

information production about that country and also neighbouring countries ±

what happens in neighbouring countries usually affects other countries in

some way.

Information The information society is a ``society in which information has become the

society dominant source of productivity, wealth, employment and power'' (Van Dijk

1999:247). Several concepts are available to indicate ``the type of society that

evolves under the influence of the use of information and communication

technology (ICT)'' (Van Dijk 2006:19). The most popular concept is used in

combination with the concept of network society to typify contemporary

developed and modern societies marked by a high level of information

exchange and use of ICTs. In the concept of an information society, the

changing substance of activities and processes in these societies is

emphasised. In the concept of a network society, attention shifts to the

changing organisational forms and (infra)structures of these societies.

In an information society the information intensity of all activities becomes so

high that it leads to (Van Dijk 2006:19)

. ``an organization of society based on science, rationality and reflexivity;

. an economy with all values and sectors, even the agrarian and industrial

sectors increasingly characterised by information production;

. a labour market with a majority of functions largely or completely based

on tasks of information processing requiring knowledge and higher

education (hence the alternative term knowledge society); and

. a culture dominated by media and information products with the signs,

symbols and meanings''

For a society to be categorised as an information society, (most of) its

citizens should be highly educated and have qualifications obtained from

institutions of higher learning or universities. Former South African

Communications Minister Nyanda expressed concern at the low number

of university students acquiring ICT skills at university and those studying ICT

courses (Tshivhidzo 2009). Because most South African citizens do not have

university education qualifications and some are illiterate (cannot read or

write), the South African government (assisted by the private sector) should

work speedily to improve education facilities to ensure that most students

acquire the ICT skills required to function in an information society and also

to work towards the socioeconomic development of South Africa. The

scarcity of ICT skills is even worse in other African countries.

It is the intensity of information processing in all these spheres that allows us

to describe this society as a new type of society. The common denominator

 49 COM3704/1

of the changes brought about by the increasing information intensity of all

activities is the semi-autonomous character of information processing. Most

activities in contemporary society are dedicated to means, in this case means

of processing and producing information.

Information ``New media, including telecommunications technology, satellites and

economies computer networks such as the Internet, have led to an explosion in the

production, manipulation and distribution of information. These develop-

ments also culminated in what is today known as the information society.

Scholars like Bell and Toffler stated that the economies of many industrialized

countries were transformed into information economies through the use of

ICT'' (Straubhaar & LaRose 1997:58). This means that the emphasis shifted

from the production of goods to the production, processing and distribution

of information. In other words, information is being treated as a commodity

that can be traded for a fee. In addition, the majority of people are employed

in what is classified as information jobs. These include secretaries, academics,

researchers, bankers, educators, people working in the financial and

insurance industries, technology manufacturers and sellers, media producers,

computer workers, engineers, journalists and editors, managers and

information technology designers and distributors.

Frank Webster (1995; 2006) is one of the social scientists who has defined

the information society in more detail. He argues that people interpret the

information society in various ways. According to him, definitions of the

information society are based mainly on technological, economic, occupa-

tional, spatial and cultural concerns.

ACTIVITY 3.2 Do you live in an information society?

Read section 3.8 in your prescribed book. Then state whether the

country you live in is an information society or not and provide reasons

for your arguments, backed up by ICT and ICT usage statistics from that

country.

Sources from which you got those statistics should also be specified

correctly see your tutorial letters on how to reference the sources

correctly.

ACTIVITY 3.3 Implementing and enforcing communications

policy

Study-read table 3.1 and, after analysing the ICT access situation

depicted in this table, provide suggestions of policy imperatives

concerning how the South African government (or the government of

your own country if that country has inadequate ICT services for the

whole population) can improve public access to internet facilities and

landline telephones, thus improving the ICT imbalances in this country,

and also increasing accessibility figures to the levels of cellphone, radio

and television technologies.

 50

3.2.2 Public access to new media and ICT access issues in other
developing countries

If you visit South Korea and China, you realise that most people in cafeterias

and fast food outlets such as McDonald's and other restaurants are using

laptops and digital cellphones that offer internet access at cheap prices and

also convey different types of business and other data; they are not just

phones for making calls. Although some South Africans do own digital phones

which allow the user to access information and data services, there are only a

few of these people because many South Africans are poor, unemployed and

therefore cannot afford to purchase and use these phones. They may

therefore be unable to access useful information and internet service

accessible via cellphones. The figures given in table 3.1 about how many

South Africans had access to new media in 2009 and also the first half of 2010

may have increased by now, but certainly not by much.

If governments such as those of South Korea and China can speed up ICT

access and facilitate ICT skills training to most citizens of Korea, then other

countries can learn from the South Korean example. With some political will

behind the deployment of ICT facilities nationally, they can also distribute or

rollout new media facilities. Financial and human resources are crucial in

achieving this goal.

3.2.3 Universal service and universal access to new media

These two issues are also explored in study unit 12 of this study guide as they

are important policies in the communications sector. Undoubtedly, South

Africa needs to improve the status of internet access, use and also skills

training so that many people in this country have access to the internet and

are also well trained in how they can make use of it for their benefit. This

means that universal (wide) access to ICT by most South Africans is an ideal

still to be reached by government working with the private sector. Universal

access to ICT services means that ICT should be made available to areas such

as schools, libraries, universities, telecentres, community halls, municipalities

and other centres where most members of society gather or meet to

socialise or do other things, eg buy products or study. Universal service is

another ICT policy supported and legislated by South Africa (in the

Telecommunications Act 103 of 1996, the Electronic Communications Act of

2005 and other subsequent laws).

The United In the US, universal telecommunications (in the case of dial tone) has largely

States been achieved, with 94% of households having a telephone service

(Compaine & Weinraub 1997:15). The US universal service was achieved

partly through the use of cross-subsidies that were made possible under a

regulated monopoly scheme that governed the US telephone industry for

most of the 20th century. Universal service is also extended beyond Plain Old

Telephone Service (POTS), to include the provision of internet and online

services. In Europe, the OECD's universal service standard incorporates

 51 COM3704/1

three concepts and constructs. These, according to Compaine and Weinraub

(1997:19), are

. Universal geographical availability - telecommunications (also known as

telecoms) services should be made available, by service operators,

everywhere in the OECD countries

. Non-discriminatory access - access to communication services should be

made available to all that require that service

. Reasonable costs of affordability - telecoms services should not be too

expensive for most society members

South Africa has neither universal telecom geographical availability nor non-

discriminatory access to services. Rural areas do not have access to reliable

and efficient telecoms services (Chetty, Blake & McPhie 2006; Langa,

Conradie & Roberts 2006). Perhaps this situation has improved since this

study guide was written find out how much.

Providing Sawhney and Jayakar (2006:1) state that, today, universal access is a key issue

universal ICT in a wide range of public policy discourses including those involving

access education, the disabled, minorities, community networks, e-government, e-

democracy, public sector information and digital libraries. They identify

several principles that guide the policy of universal access (Sawhney & Jayakar

2006:29-30):

. Universal access is based on the belief that information flow and exchange

has certain social and economic benefits.

. Universal access cannot be provided without an organised systemic

framework (eg rural broadband can be delivered or provided through

subsidy flows from one part of the system to another). Minorities and

people with disabilities should also be provided with ICT from some kind

of subsidy fund or cross-subsidisation and direct government grants could

help deliver much-needed services to these groups.

. The organised systemic framework set for providing universal access

should spread services to metropolitan and rural areas the metropole (ie

urban) should not dominate remote (ie rural) areas in terms of ICT service

provision. The digital divide between the haves (information-rich) and the

have-nots (information-poor) should be bridged through rollouts of ICT

projects (eg for tele-education or tele-health).

. Government subsidies or regulatory actions should not favour one

commercial provider over another. This principle is important and

continues to be operative, especially in the telephone industry, where the

transition from a monopoly to a competitive market and the proliferation

of technologies that deliver essentially similar services have made

regulatory neutrality a major issue.

. There should be uniformity or egalitarianism in access across regions and

social strata (nationally). Rural connectivity and broadband rollout are

always a concern when it comes to the implementation of this policy

directive. Affordability, of course, as already stated above, is a major

concern and should be enforced by any regulator.

 52

3.3 Interconnection and pricing issues in South Africa

Read case studies 3.1 and 3.2 below and then consider how interconnection

and pricing are always issues of debate and commercial challenges for service

providers, the regulator and consumers in the telecommunications and

broadcasting industries in South Africa.

Case study 3.1 Some statistics

''World Bank researchers, looking at 120 countries from 1980-2006, say for

every 10 percentage-point rise in broadband penetration, a developed

country's GDP rises by 1,21% and a developing nation's GDP by 1,38%.

According to recent Organisation for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD) statistics, half of OECD countries have reached

25 subscriptions per 100 inhabitants. South Africa has a dismal four

broadband subscribers per 100 inhabitants. Ouch!'' (Bouwer 2010:78).

Case study 3.2 Pricing

``International telecommunications costs are gradually dropping but in

South Africa they remain stubbornly high'' (Van Rensburg 2009:17). In

response to these high costs of telecommunication charged by Telkom

South Africa and cellphone companies, ICASA moved swiftly in 2010 and

dropped the prices twice, forcing the operators to lower their charges.

Reduction of prices by a regulator when the prices are high happens in

several countries to serve the public's need to have access to affordable

communication services and technology. For example, in 2009, the British

Competition Commission ruled that big cellphone networks had to reduce

their interconnection tariffs to 4% (about 52 cents) by 2010/11, according

to Research ICT Africa (in Van Rensburg 2009). In Namibia it was also

decided in 2009 that interconnection fees had to be reduced by 43%, and

Namibian telecoms regulators further plan to have the tariffs be just 30

cents a minute by 2011, which is very affordable compared to South

Africa's current R1,25. South Africa has no reason, therefore, why it should

not drop high telecoms prices and related costs and follow the examples of

the European Union (EU), Namibia and Britain.

In South Africa, in April 2010, ICASA reduced interconnection rates from

R1,25 to 89 cents. Furthermore, it proposed a dramatic drop in

interconnection rates up to 2012, with what it termed a ``glide path'' of

rates to 15 cents and another reduction to 10 cents from July 2010

(Speckman 2010:19). Companies, including Telkom, will lose some profit

from these drops in tariffs but it is a good development because ICASA

has the prerogative to cut down high communication prices that abuse

consumers and business.

 53 COM3704/1

Case study 3.3 Telkom expensive but useless

 54

You can also access this article online find The Times, Business Times of

Monday 7 June 2010 and surf on page 13.

ACTIVITY 3.4 Self-reflection (journal)

What are your views on the article in case study 3.3 based on the

telecommunications and other new media services (eg internet) that

you may have used from Telkom?

We note very clearly from the three case studies above and also in chapter 3

of your prescribed book where the information society is explained - that

South African telecommunications is not advanced, that many South Africans

have no access to telecoms and ICT services (see figures and statistics in

chapter 3 of your prescribed book) and also that communication prices are

high in South Africa, causing the regulator, ICASA, to force operators to drop

the prices. ICASA's decision to drop these prices is commendable and we

expect it to drop these prices even further and also to force the telecoms

operators to offer cheaper ICT services to the public, especially the poor.

The problem of high telecoms prices affects communication negatively.

People are unable to communicate since they may not be able to afford to

pay for that communication. Thus, two levels of affordability (or rather lack

of it) are determined by two effects:

. the ``barrier'' effect, which prevents people from owning a phone, or

from using shared access phones other than in emergencies

. the ``inhibitor'' effect, which discourages people from making as many

calls as they need to even when they own or have access to a phone

(Milne 2006:3)

Furthermore, affordability is generally viewed as depending on two major

influences:

. overall income levels (which rise only slowly as a result of economic

growth)

. overall telecoms price levels (which are a function of actual costs and

profits, both of which rightly attract a great deal of attention) (Milne

2006:3)

Therefore, communication prices should be affordable to all so that high

prices do not inhibit communication between people and/or businesses.

ACTIVITY 3.5 Telecoms services

. Which telecommunication service provider(s) do you use when you

communicate for personal or business reasons?

. In what way do the prices charged by your service provider(s) affect

your life or business?

. How much do the prices charged by these service providers affect

 55 COM3704/1

the development of your community? Do people in your community

own any ICT businesses at all and how do the telecoms or ICT

operator prices affect these businesses? Jot down a few notes about

what you have found out.

. If telecommunications prices are high and have a negative effect on

your financial resources and business, what do you think the

regulator, ICASA, should do to ensure that telecoms and other new

media or ICT prices are affordable to you and other ICT users,

whether they be individuals or businesses? Advise the regulator

about a more public-friendly pricing scheme or policy. If you have no

problem with the prices, then you do not have to answer the

question.

3.4 Finding your own story: ICT prices and you

Be the agent of the change you want to see in the world.

± Mahatma Ghandi

ACTIVITY 3.6 How do you fit in regarding these communica-

tions regulatory issues?

. Why do you think there are telecommunications consumer bodies

or organisations in your country or in other countries?

. Are you aware of any telecoms consumer organisations in your area

of residence? What are the names of these organisations and what is

their role in new media or telecoms consumer issues and industry

regulation?

. Do you know, for example, what the Internet Service Providers

Association of South Africa (ISPA) is? If not, find out what this body

does, who its members are and what they do. Visit their website

and those of many other similar organisations which fight for

consumer and small communications service providers in South

Africa (and any country where you may be staying). ISPA's website is

www.ispa.org.za.

. Why am I busy engaging with this module? Will this module help me

in future to have meaningful engagement and work in the ICT sector

of my country? How will I contribute meaningfully to this sector,

having studied this module? Will I be a technology innovator or a

communications sector policy developer working for the govern-

ment department which formulates ICT policies or will I be a

regulator enforcing such policies on the service operators or ICT

companies offering services to the public? What is my role in this

new media sector?

. How can I contribute meaningfully in processes and decisionmaking

regarding national telecoms or new media policies? Should I attend

conferences or colloquiums where these policies of laws are

discussed and decided on? Should I write to government officials

about my views on such issues? What should I do?

 56

. In what way can learning counselling provide me with a lever to

make a meaningful contribution to my community?

. How can I be of relevance? Could I join a telecommunications

consumer organisation and participate in the activities it is involved

in or start another similar organisation to serve the communication

interests of the people in my own area? Could I communicate with

ICASA's consumer affairs department to learn more about

consumer issues and interconnection issues in the South African

communications industry and how these issues affect me? Make

your own choice and take your own decision because if you use a

cellphone to communicate with others, these issues affect you too.

3.5 Regulating for cheaper communication costs

As we mentioned, the former South African Minister of Communications

Siphiwe Nyanda worked hand-in-glove with telecommunications operators

and the regulator, ICASA, in reducing these charges (Tshivhidzo 2009). In

2009 the country experienced the first drop in interconnection costs as a

result of the negotiations between the major parties which resulted in lower

communication prices for consumers. Cheaper communication allows small

businesses to flourish in the ICT sector, among other benefits.

It is hard to conclude that there is no need for government regulation of

telecommunications markets as well as in internet-based services. Pro-

competitive and other social purpose regulation of telecommunications

markets may be necessary. Countries decide whether to regulate the

internet depending on internet problems arising in that country.

ACTIVITY 3.7 To regulate or not to regulate?

Read sections 3.6 and 3.7 in your textbook to understand this issue

better. Also conduct research on the internet and other sources to

investigate why some countries regulate the internet within their

borders and why other countries do not. Write brief notes in your

journal about your findings. Give two examples of countries that

regulate the internet, state what internet regulations exist in those

countries and explain what these regulations regulate.

3.6 Reviewing and connecting the dots

South African internet service provision is best explained and clarified utilising

the analogy of game theory concepts. ``In many-player games, there is a

tendency for the players to form coalitions to favour common interests. It is

assumed that each coalition can guarantee its members a certain amount

called the value of the coalition'' (Tenene 2009:7). Furthermore, the

coalitional form of a game is part of cooperative theory. In South Africa, the

 57 COM3704/1

coalition of independent internet service providers (ISPs) joined in 1996 to

form ISPA, ``an association of internet providers with a common interest of

engaging backbone Internet provider Telkom not to abuse ISPA members

with high interconnection charges for services that can be charged at much

lower prices'' (Tenene 2009:7).

Reviewing what The teaching material in this study unit should enable you to

you have studied

. become aware of what your potential contribution as a telecommunica-

tions and new media consumer, policymaker and regulator is, and the

active role that you can play in your community and country in these

respective roles and professions

. reflect on the new media and telecommunications networks (such as the

internet and cellphones) and their prices within your community, and

whether these networks and their prices promote socioeconomic

development of the community or country in which you live; if they

do, you should know how and if they do not, you should know why not

. consider the importance and role of a telecommunications, broadcasting

and/or new media regulator as well as the roles of the policymakers

(government) and service operators (companies that sell communications

services); make sure that you are able to differentiate between the

functions and roles of these three stakeholders in the communications

industry

Make sure that you have written summaries of all your reflections as you will

be expected to submit evidence of them as part of your assignments.

3.7 Resources for further enrichment

Lehman-Wilzig, S & Cohen-Avigdor, N. 2004. The natural life cycle of new

media evolution. New Media & Society, 6(6):707±730.

Shapshak, T. 2009. Social media for SMEs. It's my business. Sunday Times, 30

August:4.

TechCrunch. 2009. What is the definition of a blog? http://techcrunch.com

[Accessed on 31 August 2009].

Webster, F. 1995. Theories of the information society. London: Routledge.

Webster, F. (ed). 2004. The information society reader. London: Routledge.

Webster, F. 2006. Theories of the information society. 3rd edition. London:

Routledge.

References

Bohlin, E, Brodin, A, Lundgren, A & Thorngren, B. (eds). 2000. Convergence

in communications and beyond. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Bouwer, C. 2010. BROAD-RAND. Destiny Magazine. July:78.

Chetty, M, Blake, E & McPhie, E. 2006. VoIP deregulation in South Africa:

 58

implications for underserviced areas. Telecommunications Policy, 30(5±6),

June- July:332-344.

Compaine, BM & Weinraub, MJ. 1997. Universal access to online services: an

examination of the issue. Telecommunications Policy, 21(1):15±33.

Destiny. 2009. A touch of class. November-December:116.

ICASA. [sa]. www.icasa.orga.za.

Internet Service Providers' Association (ISPA) South Africa. [sa]. www.is-

pa.org.za [Accessed on 20 June 2010].

Ivala, EN. 2000. The internet and distance education. Communicatio,

26(1):24±30.

Langa, Z, Conradie, P & Roberts, B. 2006. Slipping through the Net: digital

and other communication divides within South Africa. In Pillay, P,

Roberts, B & Rule, S. (eds). South African social attitudes: changing times,

diverse voices. Pretoria: HSRC Press.

Lehman-Wilzig, S & Cohen-Avigdor, N. 2004. The natural life cycle of new

media evolution. New Media & Society, 6(6):707±730.

Lesame, NC. 2009. The role of information and communication technologies

(ICTs) in development: a case study of the role of telecentres in the

education of users. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Lesame, Z. 2000. The new independent communications authority of South

Africa: its challenges and implications for telecommunications liberal-

isation in the country. Communicatio, 26(2):28±36.

Lesame, Z. 2001a. The media and technology of international communica-

tion. In Bornman, E, Fourie, P, Lesame, Z & Schoonraad, N. (eds).

International communication. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Lesame, Z. 2001b. New media technology: only study guide for COM304B.

Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Lesame, Z. 2010. The analysis of information and communication technology

trends in developing countries. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Lister, M, Dovey, J, Giddings, S, Grant, I & Kelly, K. 2003. New media: a

critical introduction. New York: Routledge.

Louw, I. 2009. Broadband short on time. City Press, 4 October:3.

Mbeki, T. 2007. State of the Nation Address of the President of South Africa.

Cape Town: South African Parliament.

Milne, C. 2006. Improving affordability of telecommunications: cross-fertilisation

between the developed and the developing world. Washington DC: George

Mason University.

O: Oprah Magazine. 2008. Something to think about: time is money.

June:23.

Sawhney, H & Jayakar, KP. 2006. Universal access: precedents, prevarications

and progress. Bloomington: Indiana University.

Speckman, A. 2010. Telkom sees red over interconnection fees. Pretoria

News Business Times, 30 June:19.

Straubhaar, J & LaRose, R. 1997. Communications media in the information

society. Belmont, California: Wadsworth.

Telkom. 2010. www.telkom.co.za [Accessed on 24 April 2010].

Tenene, SG. 2009. An analysis of the economic performance of the

Johannesburg's small internet service providers from 2002-2006. Master's

dissertation, University of South Africa, Pretoria.

 59 COM3704/1

Tshivhidzo, E. 2009. South Africa lagging in ICT skills. http://mybroadband.-

co.za/news/General/9801.html [Accessed on 1 October 2009].

Van Cuilenburg, J & Slaa, P. 1995. Competition and innovation in

telecommunications: an empirical analysis of innovative telecommunica-

tions and public interest. Telecommunications Policy, 19:647±663.

Van Dijk, JAGM. 1999. The network society: social aspects of new media.

London: Sage.

Van Dijk, JAGM. 2006. The network society: social aspects of new media. 2nd

edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Van Rensburg, R. 2007. Freebies of the phone business: cellphone firms use

big bait to get and keep your business. You, 25 January:8±10.

Van Rensburg, R. 2009. Cut these costs! You, 6 August:16±17.

Webster, F. 1995. Theories of the information society. London: Routledge.

Webster, F. (ed). 2004. The information society reader. London: Routledge.

Webster, F. 2006. Theories of the information society. 3rd edition. London:

Routledge.
 60

Study unit 4

New media and positive

consequences
(Zandi Lesame)

Across the globe, 5 billion people can now make cellular telephone calls but

fewer people have access to a good toilet

± New York Times

Overview

At this point in your module we specifically explore new media. We continue

with the positive uses of the internet in this study unit. As we know, in life,

everything has a good side and a bad side. We start with the good side of the

internet in this study unit. We look at how the internet can serve your needs,

whether these needs are personal, business-related or otherwise. Most

importantly, we are interested in how the internet can help you to improve

your life or some aspects of your life. This gives you a frame of reference

from which you can ground your notions of what is good and what is bad

about the internet and how we as responsible citizens can promote the good

via the internet and discourage the bad.

4.1 Introduction

By working through chapter 4 in the prescribed book, you will see that the

popularity of the internet is growing at an enormous rate. Millions of people

worldwide are using the internet to perform a range of activities varying from

work to pleasure, or simply satisfying curiosity. No matter what their

interests, there is something for everyone on the internet.

This study unit consists of the following three important sections:

. how to connect to the internet

. the uses of the internet

. how the internet improves people's lives and how you can use it to

improve yours

The internet is defined in chapter 3 of the textbook. It is amazing that since

 61 COM3704/1

its beginning in 1969 it has grown in many countries and millions of people

around the world are connected to it. Chapter 3 of the textbook also offers

you the historical aspects of how the internet developed, so you are

welcome to refer back to that chapter to revise the internet's development

in the US and here in South Africa.

4.2 Connecting to the internet

To connect to the internet, you (or a business) should have access to

technology such a telecommunications network (see chapter 4 of the

textbook on which companies provide telecoms backbone for other

companies such as ISPs), a computer, a modem and software, among other

necessary technology.

Naturally, if you do not have access to these technologies, then you are

affected by the digital divide and may be an information have-not.

ACTIVITY 4.1 Are your connected to the internet?

Write very brief answers to the following questions in your journal:

. What is an ISP?

. Why are there many ISPs in the market?

. Which telecommunications service providers offer internet back-

bone connection in your country?

. What is a modem and what is its function?

. What are the other pieces of technology required to ensure that

you can be connected to the internet whether you are an individual

or a business?

ACTIVITY 4.2 Your internet connection

Having read the information about internet development and connect-

ing to the internet in chapters 3 and 4 of the textbook, read the

information in the above section and then answer the following

questions, jotting down your answers in your journal:

If you are not yet connected to the internet

When will you get access to it and how?

If you are connected to the internet

1 Do you use the internet quite often enough?

2 What is the name of your internet service provider?

3 What is a router?

4 Do you use e-mail? What is the name of the e-mail software that

you use?
 62

5 Do you use a modem for your internet connection or you are

connected to the internet by other means?

6 If you have a Telkom internet connection, is your line dedicated or

does it experience constant breakdowns?

7 What problems do you encounter on a daily basis when connected

to the internet that often disturb or cut your connection?

8 How much do you pay for using the internet per hour? If you do not

pay per hour, then indicate the basis on which you do pay and how

much.

9 What advice would you give to someone who wants to be

connected to the internet? How should they get connected, which

ISP choice/s can you advise them to select and how much would

they pay?

4.3 Uses of the internet

There are several positive uses of the internet. Some of the information and

data you can get from the internet is educational or information about your

own education and also about other courses taught in many universities

around the world. You can also get health-related information from the

internet, as well as banking and investment information.

e-commerce, People also use the internet to buy products they need or want and this is

gaming and known as electronic shopping (e-shopping by using a credit card). Other

e-shopping people use the internet for entertainment purposes, eg watching online

movies or those shown on some websites or buying movies online by credit

card, playing games, finding a dating partner (known as e-dating) and also

other things, eg seeking information about holidays, tourism and countries to

visit. There is information about everything people do and write about on the

internet you just have to Google the topic of what you want see figure 4.1 on

Google, the search engine used worldwide to find information online.

Figure 4.1 Information search Google (Ko 2009:7)

 63 COM3704/1

Distance An example of the use of the internet is distance education. In distance

education learning, the student controls the learning environment because they can

decide when and where to learn and how long to take over a course. In

addition, the student can send assignments and questions to the lecturer

using e-mail and the lecturer can also respond using e-mail. An institution

may put the courses on a website that is password protected, for example

Unisa's student system called myUnisa. Students have to log on to this

computer system and carry out various study-related activities as well submit

assignments and contact lecturers they learn via computer. In such distance

education systems, a student either reads the coursework directly on the

internet or downloads it from the internet. This has obvious cost and

administrative savings for the institution. Some students may not be able to

afford to pay for systems of this nature but more and more universities are

putting their study materials online which forces students to adapt to these

technological systems. It also means universities can enrol students from all

over the world. Moreover, registration and payment of fees can also be done

online (Pawar 2008; Pakhare 2007).

Open distance Unisa effectively became the fifth largest mega open distance learning

learning education institution in the world, as it services approximately 300 000

learners (Sonnekus, Louw & Wilson 2006). With the help of the internet

Unisa enrols students from all over the world. It is also true that an electronic

learning tool such as myUnisa cannot function without the internet, so this is

the power of the internet at its best.

An important point worth mentioning is that online services have become so

popular because they provide two major benefits to potential buyers:

. Convenience

Customers can order products 24 hours a day wherever they are; you just

need a credit card (beware of phishing see study unit 10 where online

criminals may be watching you via your computer when you buy and can

abuse your credit card details) to shop online in what is also termed e-

commerce. E-commerce involves many parties doing business and transact-

ing money online, be it government and other businesses or ordinary

individuals. They do not have to sit in traffic, find a parking space and walk

through countless aisles to find and examine goods. They do not have to

drive all the way to a store, only to find out that the desired product is out of

stock (Pakhare 2007).

. Information

Customers can find reams of comparative information about companies,

products and competitors without leaving their office or home. They can

focus on objective criteria such as prices, quality, performance and availability

(Pakhare 2007).

Entertainment Almost on a daily basis some people use the internet to access entertainment

online services, be it games, movies, cybersex or other forms of entertainment.

 64

There is nothing wrong with accessing entertainment services online as long

as people do not abuse these activities and commit criminal offences. These

online services are paid for by those who make use of them.

Cybersex There is nothing wrong with using the internet to learn more about sex or

find a sexual partner. Some people have even found spouses online by

forming friendships with people they have met in cyberspace or in

chatrooms. Whether these relationships last or not is beside the point; the

point being made here is that people find love in chatrooms. Cybersex can

be good for partners who want to stimulate their boring sex life or spice up

things in the bedroom, but it should only be accessed by adults. The law will

take its course regarding any adults who expose children to such cybersex.

Some people also sell their ``wares'' online to make a living, eg sex workers

and strippers in countries where such activities are allowed.

Other uses of the There are many other uses of the internet; read more about them in chapter
internet 4 of your textbook and reflect on what you have read there and how it

applies to your own life. The internet is used mostly for communication,

exchanging cultural, political and economic ideas. It offers leisure but can also

lead to loss of identity where people fake identities online, eg in social media,

and pretend they are different from what they are in reality.

A problem of technology is that some people treat others like pieces of

technology while valuing technology itself. In other words, some people love

their cellphones and may even forget about human relationships while busy

on a cellphone or on the internet surfing or even playing games. Van Dijk

(2006) calls this the ``anthromorphosis of technology '' and states that people

need to refrain from treating technology as if it is human but should start

reforming human relationships with other people.

ACTIVITY 4.3 What are your own uses of the internet?

Read chapter 4 in your textbook to learn more about what the internet

is used for worldwide and then answer these questions below. Write

your answers in your journal:

. What do you use the internet for?

. State the positive benefits of the internet for you.

. What are the bad experiences you have had while trying to use the

internet for good reasons?

. If you are not yet using the internet, why are you not using it?

The popularity of the internet has grown at an enormous rate. Millions of

people worldwide are using it to perform a range of activities varying from

work to pleasure, or simply satisfying curiosity. No matter what their interests,

there is something for everyone on the internet. We should emphasise that the

internet can be both good and bad. However, it all depends on its user. We

should also point out that the future of the internet is full of so many more

surprises. All we have to do as its users is to make sure that we are not

overwhelmed by those enormous advantages that the internet has to offer us.

We must still be real; we must not be fakes hiding behind the internet.
 65 COM3704/1

WWW It is hard to imagine today what life was like without the World Wide Web

(WWW). It is quite unbelievable when you think that without ever leaving

your house you can talk to someone right on the other side of the world,

order clothes and other items from stores hundreds of kilometres away,

even pay your bills without ever licking a stamp. Many people use the terms

``internet'' and ``World Wide Web'' interchangeably, but the two terms are

not synonymous. The World Wide Web is a huge set of interlinked

documents, images and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and Uniform

Resource Locators (URLs). These hyperlinks and URLs allow the Web

servers and other machines that store originals and cached copies of these

resources to deliver them as required using Hypertext Transfer Protocol

(HTTP). HTTP is only one of the communication protocols used on the

internet. Web services also use HTTP to allow software systems to

communicate in order to share and exchange business logic and data (Pawar

2008).

The internet is the electronic network of networks that link people and

information through computers and other digital media technologies (Flew

2002:12).

E-mail From the earliest days of computer networking e-mail proved very popular.

It is the method of sending messages between connected computers. An e-

mail user can send or receive messages from most computers wherever they

are, eg from a cybercafe

 in another country. You may send these messages to

many addresses at the same time. In addition, you may be notified if your

message has failed to reach its destination. E-mail messages (and any

attachments transmitted with them) can be saved and edited by the

recipient, whether text or graphics.

To send or receive e-mail or access information on the Web you need the

following:

. computer

. connection ± this may be a phone line (a telephone system to connect to,

either dial-up (temporary) or a leased line (permanent) connection),

cable, digital subscriber line (DSL), or wireless

. modem

. software ± you should be connected to some computer network, eg that

of the company that you work for and the company will have software

that enables users to use e-mail

. an account with an ISP; this service provider will offer the internet service

and you pay them

4.4 Reviewing and connecting the dots

Reviewing what The teaching material in this study unit should enable you to

you have studied

. be sensitive to how you use the internet and ensure that you use it to

engage with others positively rather than negatively

. see the internet as a communication medium that is used by millions

 66

around the world to contact others for yielding positive communication

results and not to abuse the internet

. understand the importance of using the internet to develop yourself,

others, communities and the country where you live and of using it as a

connective device that can enhance communication and linkages between

different parties involved in communication processes

In this study unit you learnt about internet communication protocols and we

also looked broadly at the internet as a communication tool.

In the next study unit, you are introduced to film, mobile TV and the new

individual television experience.

References

American University in Cairo. 2002. Internet introduction. http://unsweb.au-

cegypt.edu/UNSWEB2/NetIntro.htm [Accessed on 29 November 2009].

Flew, T. 2002. New media: an introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ko, Y-S. 2009. New technologies in implementing e-government and

Government Communication and Information Office's must-have. Pretoria:

University of South Africa.

New York Times. 2010. In Pretoria News, Business Times, Fast facts. 12 July:19.

Pakhare, J. 2007. Advantages and disadvantages of the internet. www.buz-

zle.com/articles/advantages-disadvantages-internet.html

[Accessed on 19 August 2009].

Pawar, D. 2008. Uses of the internet. http://ezinearticles.com/?Uses-of-the-

Internet&id=1034725 [Accessed on 9 August 2009].

QA International. 2008. Internet uses. http://visual.merriam-webster.com/

communications/office-automation/internet_1.php

[Accessed on 29 November 2009].

Sonnekus, P, Louw, W & Wilson, H. 2006. Emergent learner support at

Unisa: an informal report. In Progressio, 28(1). www.unisa.ac.za/contents/

faculties/service_dept/bld/progressio/docs/Emegent%20LS.pdf

[Accessed on 12 March 2009].

Thompson, JL. 2009. Advantages of the internet. www.helium.com/items/

927818-the-advantages-of-the-internet?page=2

[Accessed on 14 March 2009].

Van Dijk, JAGM. 2006. The network society: social aspects of new media. 2nd

edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

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Study unit 5

New media and the

individual
(Sibongile Sindane)

``Who aims at excellence will be above mediocrity;

who aims at mediocrity will be far short of it'' ± Burmese saying

Overview

This unit illustrates concepts of new media and the individual. We establish

how individuals use media and draw out the impact and influence new media

have on the individual. There are issues of the digital divide that are critical

when considering whether individuals have access to new media technol-

ogies. We also deal with how those that do not have access or the skills to

use the technology can be assisted more especially in developing countries

such as those in Africa, where technology and access to it is somewhat

lagging behind the developed countries.

E-health and In this unit we define technology, and explain how new media assist in

teleworking business and economic development, what small and medium enterprises

are, how employment among women is increasing in the ICT sector, what

E-health is, what teleworking is, the barriers to internet usage, the role of

ICT in empowering women in Africa, the organisations in Africa that are set

up to help women in ICT, how these organisations assist women in ICT, the

role of new media in education, the impact of new media on the youth and

what the digital divide is. The previous parts and study units provided you

with the broader social context and some of the conceptual tools for

understanding, among other things, how people make sense of reality, how

they sense/know/feel and how they consequently behave. An understanding

of the social issues raised within this context is pertinent scaffolding for

counselling, as it provides levers for engaging meaningfully with clients.

5.1 New media, business and economic development

In developing countries, it was found that residential telephones appear to

contribute more to economic development than business telephones

 68

(Hudson 2006). The reason may be that residential phones are often used for

business activities, and are available 24 hours per day, whereas business

phones are available only during working hours. However, with the advent of

cellphones, this situation has changed. With cellphones, hand-held digital

devices, teleworking facilities and technology now available, telephone users

can do business anywhere, any time. There is also a difference now between

public and private sector use of telephony for business purposes, with many

businesses using technology more than the public sector for economic

productivity. Today, cellphones serve both personal and business needs,

organisational, advertising and public relations promotions and users of these

devices pursue many other goals with the use of a cellphone.

Cellphones and Cellphones, being the main communication for many entrepreneurs

business (especially small and medium-sized enterprises or SMEs) in developing

countries and elsewhere, have greater potential for SMEs. For example, in

African countries cellphones are the most commonly used ICT for

communicating with clients and business partners as well as for ordering

supplies, whether a person is in the coffee-producing business in Rwanda or

selling flowers, or even selling airtime in a phone shop in South Africa.

Khayelitsha In the township of Khayelitsha (and also in other townships), Cape Town,

township in South Africa, local residents use cellphone shops to generate income, employ

South Africa other local people, eliminate poverty and also promote social cohesion as

local people make phone calls at the phone shops to assist other community

members with existing problems (Skuse & Cousins 2008). Local residents

also contact friends and family in other provinces such as the Eastern Cape

by using the cellphones at these phone shops. SMEs that export agricultural

products receive daily price quotes and are alerted to business opportunities

through their cellphones (Hudson 2006).

M-commerce Doing business by using a cellphone is known as mobile commerce ( m-

and m-banking commerce). Mobile content is also taking off, as people become acquainted

with using cellphones for business activities and therefore are producing

locally relevant content through their cellphones and transmitting this

content to those who are interested in such content. Payments and banking

(known as mobile banking or m-banking) by means of cellphones also

promote economic activities and economic growth as they promote e-

commerce and m-commerce, especially if there is an enabling regulatory

environment in a country.

Broadband Broadband access to the internet can enable or enhance the adoption of

access certain applications that have an impact on enterprise productivity, and the

technology is changing fast (Ki-moon 2007). The use of ICT for business

processes can also contribute to income generation and increased labour

productivity. ICT can reduce the cost of transactions and increase market

access, because business can access national and international markets,

particularly if they operate businesses online. On average, 34% of European

enterprises have automated integration of international business processes

(Ki-moon 2007). This figure has not been determined at present for

developing countries. There are, however, encouraging signs that some

enterprises in developing countries are realising the benefits of ICT adoption.

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Bhoomi project While the Bhoomi project is a state-based project, the Gyan Ganga project is

and Gyan Ganga a joint state-private sector initiative aimed at the use of ICTs in development.

in India Bhoomi involves the digitisation of all land records in Karnataka, and the

provision of access to these records via information kiosks and telecentres

(such as village public telephones), and fingerprinting authentication

systems (Thomas 2009:22).

OECD and ICTs ICT services account for more than two-thirds of ICT sector value added in

OECD countries, with growth sectors being communications and software

services. Between 2003 and 2005, in the EU countries, high ICT-sector

value-added shares were seen in Finland and the UK, whereas shares were

falling in Ireland and Austria. Employment in the ICT sector is also increasing.

The share of the ICT sector workforce of the total business sector

workforce is the highest in the Republic of Korea, accounting for more than

10% in 2003. In 2000, exports from developing to developing countries (ie

South-South) exceeded those from developing to developed countries. This

demonstrates increased ICT trade between developing countries and the

growth of the ICT countries and of the ICT market in developing countries,

where the potential for ICT uptake is considerable and hence the demand for

ICT is high. Although the developing world ICT market is concentrated in a

few Asian economies, a number of small economies (including some least

developed countries) have succeeded in building some competitive

advantage and increasing their shares of exports of ICT goods and services.

Exports in ICT-enabled services grew faster than total services exports

during the period 2000-2005. In 2005, the $1.1 trillion value of ICT-enabled

services represented about 50% of total services exports, compared with

37% in 1995. This has created new export opportunities for developing

countries. Up until 2004 the top 10 exporters of ICT-enabled services were

all from developed countries, but in 2005 India joined their ranks as the first

developing economy. Computer and information services exports grew six

times faster than total services exports between 1995 and 2004, and the

share of developing countries in this export sector increased from 4% in

1995 to 28 per cent in 2005 (Ki-moon 2007).

Figure 5.1: Use of cellphones in business (Bizhelp24 2009)

 70

Case study 5.1 Mobile phones in business

Introduction

No matter what type of business you run, it is almost certain that telephone

communication plays a vital role in communication with customers and

business partners.

The mobile phone has become a part of everyday life for millions of

people across the world. People now consider the ability to communicate

by phone across the country (and even the world) as ordinary.

Despite this, many businesses are still missing out on the huge potential

benefits of using mobiles phones as a part of their business.

Here is a look at the advantages and disadvantages of using a mobile phone

in business, and what you should consider when choosing whether to use a

mobile phone

Why buy a Mobile ± The Advantages

1. Accessibility

The biggest advantage of having a business mobile phone is that it

becomes much easier to contact you. Instead of being told ``I'm sorry, Mr

Smith is away from the office'', a colleague or customer can be put straight

through to your mobile phone. Even if they can only speak to you briefly, it

is better than turning them away with no contact.

Being available by mobile phone allows employees to contact you. In the

event of a critical problem, it can be communicated to you and a decision

taken, without you having to be in the office.

If your staff are given mobile phones as part of their work, then they

become instantly more accessible. This is particularly so for employees that

travel to customers, different departments or offices, and will not always be

available from their normal location.

Mobile phones can allow a whole network of employees or offices to

communicate with each other no matter where they are. Even if each

employee has their own land telephone number, when they are away from

that location they normally become unreachable. Effective use of mobile

phones can help improve both employer to employee, and employee to

employee communications.

2. Common

Mobile phones are now so common that many people expect you to have

one. Instead of hanging up when told you are not there to answer a call,

many people will now ask for a mobile number as a matter of course. This

is especially so if your job takes you out of the office for considerable

amounts of the week, people will expect to have another number to contact

you on.

This is much more so for business to business dealings. A customer will

not normally expect to be able to communicate personally on a mobile with

an employee. However, a manager at a purchasing or supplying business

will usually want to be able to keep in contact with a senior employee at all

times.
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3. Time

A mobile phone gives you more time to communicate. An important

conversation can take place anywhere (for example, on a train), which puts

less restrictions on time.

If you travel for 3 hours of every working day, then normally you would

lose those 3 hours of communication, a mobile phone allows you to get

those hours back. This means you can get through necessary phone calls

quicker, and can provide better response times to customer or associate

enquiries.

4. Details

A mobile phone allows you to confirm and check details quickly. If you

went to an important meeting, and forgot a piece of important information

(I'm not saying you will, but it does happen!) then usually you would be

stuck without it.

However, one call or text message to an employee during the journey could

allow you to get that information right up to the last minute without

anybody else ever knowing.

A mobile means you can also check on the office while away from it. There

is no need to worry about returning to find that a major development is

behind schedule. With a mobile phone employees can keep you up to date

on sales or projects, and you can manage and delegate at any time.

5. Bookings and Appointments

Using a mobile phone has two advantages in the process of making and

keeping bookings and appointments.

Firstly, the ability to allow instant checking of appointments, you can

communicate with an employee, or with the person you intend to meet at

any time to confirm, clarify, or alter meeting details (for example, location,

time). This means that if a meeting needs to be changed at the last minute,

all parties involved can be informed quickly, even if on their way there.

Secondly, with the rapidly increasing technology of mobile phones, many

have the ability to act as a fully functional organiser. This is particularly on

the phone models aimed at business users. You can set reminders and

notes in the same way as a paper organiser.

6. Email messages

There is no need to go without email messages on the move. It is now

possible to be informed by phone call or text message of all (or specifically

selected) new emails, and some packages also allow you access to all your

emails via the WAP and GPRS (mobile internet) connections of newer

phones.

Some network packages even allow notification of faxes. This then allows

you to forward the message to the nearest fax number and receive it.
 72

A good mobile package means that you can be informed about all

important communications while you are away, so even when miles from

the office, your ability to communicate with customers, employees and

associates is not significantly diminished.

7. Re-Direction and Answer Services

A mobile phone can act as a good extension of a land phone. Instead of

callers to your land phone then having to try your mobile number, they can

be forwarded almost instantly if you are not there.

For extra cost, the mobile phones can be used as part of an existing

switchboard. This allows callers to be put straight through to you from the

office switchboard or reception without the inconvenience of dialling two

numbers.

When out on business matters, you may not have the time to answer all

your calls. You can pay for someone else to answer for you by using a

personalised answer service.

When you request the service or are unable to take a call, it will be

answered by a person at the network provider (or answer Service

Company) using a greeting that you request. After a call is taken, a text

message is sent to you detailing the call. If certain calls are important, they

can be forwarded on to you while others leave a message.

8. Dual Lines

One of the main concerns about giving employees mobile phones is that

they will use them for personal calls and run up massive bills. However,

banning personal use of the phones altogether can create a negative

attitude, and shows a lack of trust towards employees.

One solution is to use a dual line. Some network operators allow

businesses to run mobile phones with two lines, one for business use and

one for personal use. Employees can use the phone for personal calls, but

pay for those calls themselves.

This has two advantages. The employee does not feel mistrusted, and can

make personal calls when necessary; and the employer can feel safer that

they will not be paying excessive bills for non-business calls.

9. International

Most new phones are able to work in a number of countries, which means

that even when you are abroad on business trips you can still be instantly

accessible.

However, the only problem with this is the huge costs. You are charged for

incoming calls, as well as outgoing calls.

Source: Bizhelp24 (2009)

ACTIVITY 5.1 Cellphones

Read sections 5.1 to 5.3 in your textbook and then consider the
 73 COM3704/1

following questions; note your reflections on the following questions in

your journal:

1. What is information and communication technology?

2. How do new media assist in business and economic development?

3. List all the characteristics of cellphones in business as well as their

advantages and disadvantages.

4. What are small and medium-sized enterprises and how do

cellphones assist in their functioning?

5.2 Women, e-health and tele-working

Figure 5.2: A woman on her cellphone (Dreamstime.com [sa(a)])

In many developing countries, women use ICTs to obtain and share

information relevant to their work, as teachers, academics, community

developers, artisans, construction workers, engineers, doctors and nurses,

entrepreneurs or business powerhouses. These women may benefit directly

from ICTs, but many more women benefit indirectly from ICTs through the

work done by other women who share their own knowledge and

information with others through ICT. Women therefore use ICTs at work,

at home and at play, to maintain social relations as well break those relations

that do not work and are not worth maintaining.

Tele-medicine, As health administrators, women also use the internet to educate the

m-health public about important health issues and diseases in a particular country

(so do men but women dominate the health and education sectors).

Doctors (regardless of gender) use the internet and e-mail to get in touch

with nurses located in clinics in remote and rural areas to share medical
 74

knowledge, solutions and medical care to patients located in these remote

areas; this is called telemedicine. Tele-medicine can also be in the form of

mobile health (m-health), sending health messages via cellphones, which is

promoted by international organisations such as the United Nations,

especially in relation to wellness programmes and disease information

about women and children.

Advantages of Nowadays, many women telework, or use information technology to fulfil

tele-working their work obligations because of the balance that they have to maintain

between work and raising young children as well as managing their homes

and keeping families together. Tele-working is also on the rise, because of e-

commerce and m-commerce. The demand for technology is increasing at

home and at work. The number of people working at home most days of the

week has risen dramatically in the past five years, as child-rearing demands

necessitate that people pay more attention to the needs of their children

more than they satisfy employers.

Tele-working involves doing work that has an IT component at home (or a

location that is away from the usual office) and using tele-communications

technology to communicate with colleagues at the main office.

The top reasons for telecommuning (or teleworking) are to save money and

time instead of wasting time in traffic jams and other disruptions, family

considerations, flexibility and the freedom to run their lives better. However,

the greatest benefit of teleworking is reduced costs of petrol, travelling,

lunches bought at work but eaten at home, and commuting in general, which

costs commuters thousands of rands daily.

Tele-working has been proved to increase productivity by at least 20%. This

figure is increasing as people start working early and don't waste hours

waiting in traffic jams or sitting in unproductive meetings at work or dealing

with interpersonal problems with colleagues. Instead, they use all that time

to finish their work and be much more productive.

Research has also establish that tele-working women are happier because

they experience less stress usually encountered at the office as a result of

working with unnecessarily demanding bosses as well as competitive

colleagues.

Disadvantages of Perhaps one negative aspect of tele-working is when people decide to do

tele-working private work during tele-working hours, but this should be not so.

. Tele-working therefore requires self-discipline from the person tele-

working, and private work should be performed after working hours as

usual.

. There can be a clash between deadlines and nappies, and a working wife

or woman still needs help with the children while tele-working, but there

is no harm in supervising the other woman looking after your children

while busy tele-working.

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Figure 5.3: A woman teleworking (Dreamstime.com [sa(b)])

Case study 5.2 Women and teleworking

Mobile Phones in Business Telecommuting

Do long commutes, rumours of corporate downsizing, office politics, noisy

cubicles, inadequate child-care options, and lack of a peaceful place to work

get you down? Do you dream of working on your back deck instead of the

back office? Have you always wanted to work from home, but could not

figure out how? Then consider telecommuting.

Every day in America, millions start their workday by walking down their

hallway from bedroom to office and logging on to go to work. Total

commute time: one minute. The typical teleworker in the U.S. is male, in his

forties, and married, according to the International Telework Association,

an organization that surveys this group annually. An estimated 17 million

teleworkers work from home at least once a month. A much larger number

(29 million in 1999) are ``day-extenders,'' catching up on reading, e-mail

and other tasks from home instead of staying longer at the office. Some 8

million are full-timers, and work remotely all the time. Of those workers

who do not currently telework, 39% would like to.

Though males outnumber females almost two to one, telework is a great

work option for women. A flexible work schedule allows a working parent

to participate in their children's school activities, provides freedom from

stressful and long commutes, and creates a peaceful work environment far

from the constant interruptions of the office. It also frees up time to spend

with family or friends or community life, is a great help for parents of teens

and invaluable for those who care for elderly parents at home.
 76

This workstyle goes by many names telecommuting, remote freelancing,

eworking, teleworking, distance contracting, virtual temping, elancing but

whatever it's called, the common element is working from a distance.

Variety of Jobs

Teleworkers range from home-based traditional telecommuting to never-

in-the-office, virtual-office situations. Here is a sampler of some of the

women who telecommute:

Nancy. A nuclear engineer at a power generating station in Arizona,

Nancy checks into the plant in minutes by riding her modem to work,

avoiding a car commute of over 80 miles one way.

Kate. Living in a rural area of North Dakota, where high-tech jobs are

rare, Kate finds work on the Internet. She provides secretarial and

administrative services as a virtual assistant. Kate works for four clients,

each requiring from 4 to 8 hours of her time each week.

Estelle. A human relations manager for a health-care firm in Petaluma,

California, Estelle drives to a telework centre just minutes from her home

and saves 20 hours a week that she used to spend on clogged Northern

California freeways.

Margot. A manager of a global team for a communications company,

Margot works from her home in Atlanta, Georgia two or three times a

week. Her staff is located on both coasts of the U.S. as well as Latin

America and Europe.

Diane, the CEO of a virtual women's clothing company, runs her

organization from her loft in New York City. With key employees living as

far away as Milan, she decided to let her staff stay where they liked to live

and telecommute to work.

Tracey. An auditor for the State of California, Tracey lives across the

border in Nevada and works out of her home office full-time. She sees her

manager about twice a year at meetings in Sacramento.

Lin, A customer service representative for a travel reservation agency in

upstate Washington, Lin is a full-timer too. After working at her company

for a year, she qualified to work from home and signs on to her company's

network to handle customer calls remotely.

Jane. We hear that Massachusetts Governor Jane Swift will soon be doing

her job from home as well. She's expecting twins, and her home is 2 1/2

hours from the statehouse.

Popular Workstyle

Telecommuting is the biggest workplace trend in the U.S., according to a

survey by Challenger, Gray & Christmas Inc., an international out-

placement firm. Private and public organizations have adopted telecom-

muting as a sound business strategy. There are a variety of reasons for

telecommuting's rapid growth: global competition, the demand for 24-hour

customer support, technological improvements, workers' desire for

increased flexibility, and the need to reduce overhead.

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As more and more employees are looking for worklife flexibility, they are

requesting, and sometimes even demanding, telecommuting as part of their

employment offer. Companies see telecommuting as a useful recruiting

tool in a tight labour market and as a way to reduce personnel churn.

The high cost of real estate is another major growth factor. Since real estate

represents about 20 percent of a corporation's total assets, reducing the

amount needed has major impact on the bottom line. Companies with

telecommuting programs report saving as much as 30 percent in reduced

overhead expenses.

Productivity improvements also drive telecommuting growth. Telecom-

muters are 10 percent to 30 percent more productive than they would be in

the corporate office, according to a report published by Cornell

University's International Workplace Studies. Less stress, longer hours

worked, and fewer interruptions cause such productivity gains.

Companies with telecommuting employees report one or two days less

absenteeism per remote employee per year. Teleworking is proven to

decrease sick days, days lost to child-care emergencies and time taken for

doctor appointments. Simply reducing the average employee absentee rate

by one day a year can mean adding one or two points to a company's profit

margin, according to studies released by CIGNA corporation.

It's clear that telework makes sense for the organization and for the

employee too.

Source: Langhoff [sa]

Figure 5.4: A women teleworking and looking after her child (Phonoscope

Digital Cable [sa])

 78

ACTIVITY 5.2 Teleworking

1. How is employment among women increasing in the ICT sector?

2. What is teleworking?

3. What are advantages of teleworking?

4. What are the disadvantages of teleworking?

5. In what ways does teleworking increase productivity?

6. What is the impact of teleworking on the individual?

7. Do you think teleworking is a good or viable option for working?

Elaborate a little on your views on this issue.

5.3 Women and ICT: other issues

Figure 5.5: A women during training on ICT skills (InfoDev [sa])

ICTs has played a major role in development. Women can benefit from using

ICTs. Gone are the days of being barefoot and pregnant in the kitchen;

women have taken initiatives to educate themselves in using ICTs in order to

be independent and empower themselves. However, there are some

drawbacks when it comes to the distribution of ICT skills and knowledge

among women in the workplace as well as in the rural areas. There are

different reasons as to why people shy away from ICTs: some lack the skills

to use it, some fear using the technology and prefer the comfort zone of the

traditional way of pen and paper.

Barriers to ICT It is also difficult to provide ICT training in most rural areas as there is a lack

usage of resources, such as people to train these women, lack of electricity and

lack of transportation as these women live in remote places.

 79 COM3704/1

. ICTs usually require money to use them, particularly in our personal

capacity. Most women have become marginalised from the use of ICTs

because of poverty. An ordinary mom in the rural areas would rather buy

food for her children instead of using those funds to surf the internet for

business ideas or other alternatives of empowerment.

. Many women do not even know how to use the internet because of

illiteracy as well as the language barriers since they do not understand

English and speak only other local languages. Although some search

engines such as Google now provide the user with the option to choose

their preferred language, this does not help much as most articles on the

internet are in English.

5.3.1 Organisations in Africa

The idea of ICTs being a burden has become apparent in African countries.

Organisations such as Women'sNet, LinuxChix Africa, Senegal Online and

the Acacia Initiative have made attempts to help women in using ICTs and to

bridge the information or digital divide.

Women'sNet was founded in 1998. The NGO has gone through various

stages as it has strengthened its role in bringing ICT to women and making

them work in the interest of gender transformation. Women'sNet has

various faces owing to the multilayered approach it has taken to developing

women through ICTs. It is particularly interested in supporting South African

women's access to new ICTs. The key focus of Women'sNet is to target

women who historically have been prevented from accessing ICTs. It aims to

reach out to women in all possible ways, including those without computer

and internet access. The Women and ICT policy established by Women'sNet

states that telecommunications, like other resources, are not gender neutral,

and that they risk not being relevant, attainable or beneficial to women unless

the position of women is represented at policymaking level.

LinuxChix was co-founded by Anna Badimo and Muthoni Gathari as the

African continental arm of the global LinuxChix movement. Like its

international counterpart, LinuxChix Africa has both an online presence

and offline activities. It has grown from a handful of people in South Africa

and Kenya to membership in more than 40 African countries in under three

years. One of the key tasks undertaken by LinuxChix Africa was to ensure

the ongoing transfer and upgrading of women's skills in computer skills.

Senegal Online has seen the use of ICTs as crucial for women's networking

around the globe. This institute has also seen that ICT creation, training and

technical support have empowered women even at the lowest economic

levels, providing a powerful tool to compete in global marketplaces.

The Acacia Initiative is also working on promoting women's training and

equitable access to ICTs.

The CORDIO ICT Livelihood Project, which is also an African organisation in

Kenya, assists women's groups with ICT training and in engaging in

 80

alternative livelihood activities. The project sponsored a number of women

to attend a computer course. The computer course provided the women

with training which included an introduction to Microsoft products, including

Windows, Word, Excel and PowerPoint, as well as internet use. The

CORDIO ICT Project has also provided training for other women in the

workings of the community payphone project and supplied the necessary

equipment, including cellphones. The training covered topics like phone

operation techniques, security and its benefits.

Traditional forms of communication and information such as drama, dance,

folklore, group discussions, meetings, exhibitions, demonstrations, visits,

farmer field schools, agricultural shows, radio, television, video and print

media have been used successfully in many African countries. The media play

a major role in delivering agricultural messages, with the radio forming the

main source of information. Satellite, solar and fibre optic technologies are

now in use for computers, telephones and fax machines.

Where appropriate, these should be tapped to enable rural women farmers

to access information using modern ICT concurrently with traditional forms

of communication and information. Telecentres are the way forward and

could be established in villages. New ICTs such as e-mail, the World Wide

Web, electronic networks, newsgroups, Listservs, teleconferencing, DVD

and distance learning tools can be used where appropriate by rural women

farmers, women leaders or their intermediaries such as NGOs, community-

based organisations and development agencies.

Case study 5.3 Abantu (Kenya)

Strengthening Electronic Communications Capacities of Women's

Organisations in Africa

Abstract

Abantu for Development was established in 1991. In 1999 it began an

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) component of its

work, which was funded in part by infoDev. This work has concentrated

on Kenya and has included training various women's groups in basic

software and internet skills, and bringing together different sectors of the

business community to produce gender sensitive ICT policy recommenda-

tions. However, the funding from infoDev also enabled ICT conferences to

be held in Ghana and Tanzania. While the ICT component was started as a

project stream, i.e. ``Gender and ICT'', Abantu has found that experience

to date has highlighted the need to incorporate their ICT work into all

other areas. Through this, Abantu believes it can have a greater impact in

tackling issues associated with other Gender issue streams of Poverty,

Governance and Conflict. By integrating ICTs into its mainstream work, it

strengthened its partners and communicated the key issues. The ICT

advocacy work is about to be expanded into Uganda, Tanzania and

Zambia.
 81 COM3704/1

Background

Abantu for Development is an international non-governmental organisa-

tion established in 1991. The focus of their work is on training, providing

information and advice on mobilising resources towards sustainable

development in Africa. The East African Office is based in Kenya and

currently has 4 programmes: Gender and Poverty, Gender and

Governance, Gender and Conflict, and Gender and Information and

Communication Technologies (ICTs). This specific ICT project began in

1999 in collaboration with a number of other African organizations and is

mainly funded by infoDev. To begin with this project focussed on Kenya.

The Gender and ICT project's aim was to improve African women's access

to, and use of the internet. In addition, Abantu has been working with

policy makers to try to ensure that gender perspectives are part of all new

policy on ICT. To accomplish this, the project developed a strong and

focused core group of women across Africa. This core group helped to:

. Define and guide African priorities on the development and use of

electronic communications;

. Establish a cross-sectoral, inter-disciplinary African women's informa-

tion network

. Set up and maintain other African list servers and information networks

to build African information and data banks within Africa;

. Stimulate dialogue and cross-fertilization of ideas between women

across Africa;

. Enable women to use the Internet as an advocacy and information

sharing tool on international issues;

. Develop strategies for influencing information and communication

policies from a gender perspective.

As part of their work, Abantu have strengthened African women's

presence in cyberspace through the development of the Abantu

website.

The idea for this project arose through a survey carried out in 1995 on the

needs of women's groups and through demand raised at existing

workshops for ICT training. Therefore, in 1999 Abantu embarked on a

number of training workshops for women's groups on ICTs, seminars to

raise awareness among policy makers, and the development of a website.

Today, the project's work falls into four categories: Training and Capacity

Building (TCB), Advocacy Public Awareness and Networking (APAN),

Research, Publications and Information (RPI), and the Institutional

Development of Abantu. Information is also regularly electronically

exchanged between Abantu's regional offices and to their network of

NGOs. The types of information exchanged include following up on the

implementation of work plans created during workshops and dealing with

requests for information on NGO activism in Africa. Under the Training

and Capacity Building component, Abantu has trained organisations in one

farming region (Nyeri), one pastoral region (Kajiado) and 2 informal

settlement communities of Nairobi. Nyeri is known as one of the major

coffee producing regions. The training focused on the internet and on

software programmes for use in the factory. The results from the various

trainings include an increased use of the internet and of email (particularly

for personal use), although this is often constrained by poor infrastructure

(power and telecommunications). Abantu are currently proposing a small

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telecentre project for each of the groups. Under the Publication, Research

and Information (PRI) arm of the project, Abantu has recently produced

gender-sensitive ICT guides for use by African women's organizations.

These guides cover such areas as `Making the most of the World Wide

Web' and `Advocacy and the internet'. In addition, each quarterly issue of

Abantu's GAP Matters magazine now carries a section on technology. This

section is used to inform people about emerging ICT issues. Finally, under

the Advocacy, Public Awareness and Networking component, Abantu have

held a number of public seminars. These include one in 1999 where

Abantu held a public seminar on the upcoming telecommunication

reforms. People from all sectors attended the seminar and spoke about

what they wanted to see in the new legislation. Abantu then looked at the

concept of gender in all of this. The results of the seminar were sent as

recommendations to the government. A more recent seminar has

produced a framework with which to critique future ICT policies. An

internal evaluation of this Gender and ICT programme was also carried

out in June and July 2002. The ICT component had been increasingly

integrated with the other gender issue projects poverty, governance and

conflict. The evaluation highlighted how ICTs were key to efficiency and

effectiveness concerns in all programmes and it was decided that ICTs

would not be a stand alone project as such but be a part of all the gender

work of Abantu.

Impact/Results:

. Some of the women's groups Abantu have trained up no longer require

support as they have used the IT skills learnt to increase their income.

. Produced Gender Sensitive ICT guides for African Women's organisa-

tions.

. Produced a critique framework for ICT policy.

. Trained women's groups in farming, pastoral and slum communities in

how to use the internet and basic software programmes.

. Noted that ICTs are supportive to all advocacy and actions on gender

issues, and integrated ICTs with poverty, governance and conflict

activities.

Key Issues

± Target groups

The main target groups of Abantu are poor women and policy makers.

Abantu work with existing women's organisations in various communities

in order to improve the ability of women to use and access ICTs. Abantu

encourages and facilitates opportunities for people from various sectors of

society and business to attend workshops and seminars. The results of

these are used to put together policy recommendations for government.

± Capacity building

For community groups, Abantu's training has helped improve the

management and organisation of the various groups and income

generating activities. To date they have trained groups from pastoral,

farming and two slum communities within Kenya. Abantu found that it

was important that all staff had a basic ICT working knowledge and so

within Abantu, staff have the opportunity through the institutional

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development component of the programme to teach themselves various

software packages using CD Roms. Abantu have found that self teaching

CD Roms have been more cost effective than sending people on courses

no disruption of work, learning at a self taught pace, and everyone can be

at different levels.

± Technology

Standard laptops and Personal Computers (PCs). For the community

training Abantu staff take 3 PCs with them, as the participants are more

familiar and relaxed with these rather than a laptop.

± Finance

Total Project Costs: US$ 500,000 (+/- R 5000, 000)

infoDev funding: US$250,000 (+/- R 2500,000)

The remainder of this funding was provided through other Abantu

programmes. The infoDev funding has now finished. However, the aims

of the project will still continue as this project now forms an integral part

of all Abantu activities. With regards to the specific telecentres project (for

increasing communities income) external funding is currently being sought.

Issues and Lessons

. The main lesson learnt was that it is best practice to incorporate ICTs

into existing programmes rather than to run a separate programme.

Much of the work has, therefore, been carried out in co-ordination with

the other three programmes.

. With regards to advocacy, the most effective tool has been seminars and

workshops. This is because

Kenya tends to be an oral society and so the written work is seen as

less accessible.

Challenges

In Kajiado a largely illiterate Masai women's group have used the internet

and software skills learnt to successfully search for and obtain funding

from USAID for their bees work. This work has now expanded from

honey collection into utilising the wax and honey for other income

generating activities. Near Kisumu a poor semi literate woman has used her

training to enable her to personally communicate bimonthly with her son in

America. Previously any emails had been collected by a friend who, it was

later discovered, had kept the money sent for this lady by her son through

Western Union. Today the woman has the confidence and ability to

communicate with her son directly and so no longer needs to go through

someone else. This woman is also happier as she no longer worries about

not being able to directly communicate with her son. In fact she likens

using email to a phone call.

Source: InfoDev [sa]

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ACTIVITY 5.3 ICTs and women

1. What is the role of ICTs in empowering women in Africa?

2. What are the barriers to internet usage?

3. What organisations in Africa are set up to help women in ICTs?

4. How do these organisations assist women?

5. What is the impact of these organisations in assisting women?

5.3.2 Challenges facing women and ICTs

Some of the challenges facing women and ICTs are listed below:

. a lack of role models for women in the ICT sector

. a gender bias in the ICT sector towards men

. the salary inequity, as men are better paid than women

. the lack of influence to choose ICT as a career

. work-family conflict the ICT sector is demanding of time and thus, some

women find it difficult to juggle working hours with family time

. cultural issues which play a major role in the career path of women;

where there is discrimination some women tend to shun such sectors

. valuing women and tokenism a lot of women are more pressurised to

perform because of the mere fact that they are women

. perceptions and stereotypes, for example the perception that ICT is

regarded as a career for men

However, support systems that have been established to combat these

barriers include

1. Businesswomen's Association of South Africa (BWASA)

2. Women in IT (WIIT), Vodacom, South Africa ± Graduate Programme for

Females in Technology, Computer Science Corporation (CSC)

3. South Africa, Cape IT initiative ± CITI

4. Innovation Hub ± Blue IQ (Gauteng)

5.4 New media and education

Your prescribed book explores this issue in quite a bit of detail. Read more

about how new media facilitate education in chapter 5. Hudson (2006:34)

offers the following guidelines which may serve as precautionary advice to

those using ICT or planning to use it for educational advancement:

. ''ICT usage in schools does not mean discarding the use of chalk and talk

and textbooks;

. ICTs are not a universal panacea (i.e. there are instances where ICT does

not work or apply and people have to teach others); and

. It is not so much about the technologies as it is about education and how

ICTs support educational outcomes''.

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5.5 Youth and new media

In many developing countries, young people use new media quite often,

more especially cellphones and social media such as Facebook and MXit. The

youth are expected to be digitally connected continuously in order to keep in

touch and maintain social ties. This indicates that already existing social ties

are strengthened online, rather than new ones being created. Thus, the

internet-connected computer has become the most important communica-

tion channel among young people.

Young people interact with each other with unprecedented frequency and

immediacy, using ICT. In Kuwait, research shows that mobile telephone

applications, and more especially SMS, have been found to make Kuwaitis

happy, because it allow them to ``express their feelings, send love poems or

attached music and songs and exchange pictures'' (Al-Failakawi 2006:57-71).

These are just some examples that demonstrate the usefulness of ICT for

youth in various societies at social level.

5.6 Regulation of new media

With the development and ever-growing application of new media

technology in our private and professional lives, it has become important

to regulate new media technology usage in society to curb its abuse or

misuse. Therefore we also explore the various technological and regulatory

methods of protecting privacy, personal and organisational autonomy online.

Case study 5.4 Guidelines for parents of children who use

MXit from MXit authorities

Understand the environment in which your child communicates as this is

of utmost importance, so install MXit. As much as you would not let your

child stay over a friend's house without knowing the family, so spend some

time on MXit so that you know and understand where your child is

interacting and with who.

. Have an open and honest discussion with your child. Tell them about

the potential dangers and ask them to tell you if they ever feel that

someone is not who they say they are on MXit.

. Allocate a specific amount of time that your child can spend on MXit

and use your cellphone to monitor this.

. If you notice that your child's time on MXit suddenly drops, check to

see if he/she has a secret phone.

. Check your child's contact list regularly and follow up if there is anyone

with whom you don't feel comfortable.

. Remind your child not to hand out personal information on MXit.

. Tell your child that she/he should never, under any circumstances,

agree to a private offline chat with a stranger.

. Help your child understand that he/she should never forward or post

pictures that could cause embarrassment if passed on.

 86

. If your child fails to heed your advice and warnings, install the chatroom

blocking feature. The educational route is advisable, as children will

always find another way to communicate, whether or not on MXit.

Source: Gounden (2010)

ACTIVITY 5.4 MXit

1. What are the dangers of MXit?

2. How has MXit changed the way in which children/the youth

communicate?

3. How can parents monitor their children's use of MXit?

4. How can the viewing of pornography be prevented on MXit?

5. What rules or regulations should children or the youth be given

before using MXit?

6. In what ways can MXit be regulated?

7. What do the youth use new media for today?

8. How is society managing some instances of new media abuse by

the youth?

9. Comment on the way society should ensure that the youth are not

abused by other citizens through the use of new media. What do

the people in your community do to protect the youth against

abuse in computer networks and via cellphones?

10. What should parents do to ensure that their children are safe

online?

11. What should children do when they experience problems, eg

cyberbullying, and abuse from other people with whom they

communicate through new media?

5.7 Other social, economic, political and cultural issues

about new media

Two important social impacts of the internet on users are information and

leisure. We get all sorts of information from the internet and this is probably

its best feature.

Dangers of the internet

Some lifestyles and cultural issues that people have to pay attention to and

guard against when online are listed below.

. Loss of identity: People usually fake their identities online and copy others

they interact with in virtual spaces and some even lie about who they are

on cyberspace.

. Pornography: This feature of the internet is abused by many, especially

those who unlawfully seduce and victimise young children for their own

selfish sexual gain. Members of the public should identify paedophiles and
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report them to the authorities as they abuse children who are mostly

unaware of the sexual predator's intentions and motivations.

. Hate speech and anti-social behaviour in new media: Those who do not

like particular groups of people abuse them online in different negative

ways. Behaviour like this should be discouraged as it divides society

unnecessarily.

. Hacking and internet crime: These negative behaviours online should also

be reported to authorities when discovered as they are illegal and culprits

belong in jail) (Lesame 2001). These behaviours continue to exist online

and are even on the increase.

. Restriction of internet access to elite groups or the digital divide, known

as the Matthew effect. This seems to be rooted in biblical writings,

specifically Matthew 24:29 which says: ``For everyone who has, more

shall be given''. A popular version of this might be: ``the rich get richer''

(Van Dijk 2006:183). It appears that those who already have a large

amount of resources (financial and other) at their disposal benefit first and

most from the capacities and opportunities of the new media. The digital

divide is rooted in societal inequalities and these should be resolved if the

divide is to be eliminated. We explore the issue of the digital divide more

in study unit 7.

Case study 5.5 Digital divide

Another step towards bridging digital divide

According to Flavien Bachabi, vice-president for satellite provider Intelsat

Africa, Intelsat is on track to launch its $250m Intelsat New Dawn satellite,

targeted at the African market, by the end of 2010.

Saying that the lack of broadband in Africa sparked the need to design a

satellite that would address the continent's needs, Bachabi says Intelsat

New Dawn will provide telecommunications and television channels, as

well as extend broadband access and services to rural areas in most of

Africa for around 15 years.

He says most of the service providers would use the satellite as a backup to

their fibre optic cable or wireless services, while others would use it to

expand their network coverage, especially to rural areas where the laying of

fibre optic cable would probably prove expensive.

MTN Business, a subsidiary of MTN Group, will connect its enterprise

customers to link their offices across sub-Saharan Africa. Gateway

Communications has secured more capacity for corporate network services

offered by its parent company Vodacom.

Bachabi said Intelsat New Dawn would complement the undersea fibre

optic cables such as Seacom, as different technologies were ``good for

different services''. Intelsat also provides broadcasting signal to broad-

casters such as pay TV provider MultiChoice, one of its biggest clients.

It is interesting times for the South Africa media arena, with broadband costs

coming down and new offerings on the horizon. Will we bridge the digital

divide in such a way as to make communications more accessible for all?

Source: Media Online (2010)

 88

ACTIVITY 5.5 Digital divide

1. What are the challenges facing women in ICTs?

2. What is the role of new media in education?

3. What is the impact of new media on the youth?

4. What is the digital divide?

5. What means can be used to bridge the digital divide?

6. Describe and explain the Matthew effect.

5.8 New media and journalism: offline and online news-

papers and magazines

Both the online and the print newspaper versions have advantages and

disadvantages. One key of the newspaper has always been distance, for

example there is a limit to how widely a daily newspaper can be distributed.

``Telecommunications is famously known to be one of the main engines of

space and time compression'' (Sparks 2000:271). Because of the online

newspaper, newspapers are now free from physical limitations and there are

no geographical constraints, except in the poor regions which may not be

able to afford access to online newspapers. Online newspapers offer

proprietors the opportunity to tap into the global market.

''Computers also challenge our traditional notions of time and space,

particularly as the virtual world of cyberspace evolves'' (Croteau & Hoynes

2003:304). Online newspapers are available at any time of day whereas the

print newspaper either has to be fetched from the mailbox or bought at the

shops at a specific time. The online newspaper is free from constraints; it can

be updated as quickly and as continuously as a radio or television broadcast

as events unfold and interpretations become clearer. The print edition has to

await its next edition to add the update and in most instances, it may be too

late to do this, especially if the print newspaper is a weekly one.

Online newsgathering and production are free from the deadlines imposed

by the physical constraints of printing and distributing news and having to sell

the news at a specific time or else face the consequences of losing out on

business. Online news can go from the reporter straight to the desk editor

and directly into circulation; therefore there is no direct sense of production

and intermediaries are eliminated.

This brings us to the notion of the cost involved in online and print

newspapers. The availability of resources determines the type and quality of

content. Online newspapers have not found a viable business model so it is

costly to sustain online sites and provide free content. The cost of

maintaining a site is determined by the amount of breaking news provided, so

sites may also use syndicated news. Staff with special skills are also very

costly and are crucially needed in the running of an online newspaper. An

online newspaper acts as a separate entity with its own staff to meet

demands of the Web. On the other hand, costs may well determine the end

of print newspapers since production and distribution are expensive but

 89 COM3704/1

online newspapers do not face any of these costs. In online newspapers the

consumer carries the cost, by actually accessing the computer and paying for

the telecommunication services.

One of the prominent advantages of print newspapers is that they have

developed styles of journalism, most notably objective reporting that does

not involve obvious bias for or against any influential group in society, since to

do so would risk alienating important potential readers. On the internet

objectivity is not guaranteed since the internet is not a regulated medium.

Reading a print newspaper also does not require any sophisticated,

cumbersome technical equipment. This offers readers a high level of

flexibility. Newsprint can basically be read in any place at any time. Readers

can absorb the information offered at their own pace. In addition, the print

newspaper is tangible which means that readers can touch and feel the

printed paper while turning the pages and this may be of some importance.

A copy of the print newspaper could be put directly onto the internet. This is

known as shovelware. ``The news sections in online papers consist mainly of

duplicates of the printed `parent' paper'' (Neuberger et al 1998). This adds

extra costs to the newspaper company. Moreover, online newspapers do not

have the same distribution expenses as do print versions; they are costless to

produce. The print version needs to be put onto a server and this can be

expensive. This shovelware may also be unattractive to the audience and not

marketable. The fact that the online newspaper has a different news rhythm

to the deadline-bound offline edition means that there is pressure to employ

journalists and other staff specifically to produce a copy of the electronic

version.

The Twin Towers disaster in the US on 11 September 2001 was an

opportunity to measure the degree of both the technical and professional

development reached by the digital media at the beginning of the 21st

century (Salaverria 2005:73). Hundreds of journalists and cameras could

access the affected areas very quickly, in such a way that the event could be

watched live. The space factor was eliminated and the world immediately

became a global village because at the time when the attacks started there

was maximum live coverage, not only in the US, but in nearly every western

country. ``According to Google, during the two hours following the start of

the attacks, an average of 6000 searches of the acronym `CNN' were

performed every time'' (Salaverria 2005:73). This means that there was an

information demand since it was quicker to receive news on the internet and

there were also quick updates on the events online.

The experience of September 11 meant a key test of the internet as a

network. Many online newspapers as well as other interactive media on the

internet collapsed because of a user flood. To resolve the problem a

significant number of publications drastically reduced the quantity of text and

graphic elements in the pages. This drastic reduction in accessibility to the

online media affected digital publication in other parts of the world.

``Newspapers such as Le Monde (France), experienced serious accessibility

problems due to the sudden avalanche of users searching the latest breaking

news'' (Salaverria 2005:74). Smaller media outlets offered more satisfactory

 90

technological performance. But online newspapers without a breaking news

service did not receive much attention.

Online newspapers were one of the media outlets in which haste resulted in

information errors. ``This lack of editorial prudence confirmed the fears of

Fred H. Cate about online sources'' (Salaverria 2005:74). The concerns were

about the accuracy and reliability of online newspapers. Cate underlines that

``the trend to digitalization could lead to an easier manipulation of data''

(Salaverria 2005:74). Online networks tend to speed up the flow of

information in multiple directions, which reduces the time and opportunity of

checking data and these problems were evident on the online newspapers on

September 11. But print newspapers seldom have this error since they are

thoroughly checked. Thus it seems online journalists tend to give more

attention to speed than accuracy.

The news coverage on the events showed that ``online newspapers tend to

integrate the characteristics of a network computer environment hypertex-

tuality, multimediality and interactivity '' (Salaverria 2005:80). As

extensions of print media, they stress the analytical and interpretive

information element. However, at the same time they tend to provide

immediate content information and home pages are transformed into long

columns with chronological headlines (Salaverria 2005). The final results

resemble a news wire service where quantity and speed are more important

than providing depth and context. Therefore this is evidence that print

newspapers have more in-depth news coverage than online newspapers.

``The Internet edition of El Pais retrieved articles and reports from its archive

that could be useful to set up the context of the incidents'' (Salaverria

2005:80). This showed interest in providing context and background.

Case study 5.6 Online and offline journalism

After a period of crisis, online journalism is finally coming of age.

But critical self-analysis is key to unlocking its potential, reports

Herman Manson.

South Africa's premier online news sites - including the Naspers-owned

News24, Independent-owned IOL, Johnnic-owned Sunday Times Online,

and even the fiercely independent Mail&Guardian Online - often lead with

identical stories. This was pointed out by one of online journalism's many

critics, Matthew Buckland, editor of the Mail&Guardian Online. Online

journalism has been suffering from a self-esteem crisis ever since the

Internet bubble collapsed under the weight of its own hype. As more

online publications closed down or cut back on staff and salaries, many

senior journalists returned to print, TV or radio. The Net suddenly had less

personality, less journalistic colour. Quality writing, while by no means

extinct on the Net, became scarce. Independent outfits, those original

thinkers, got swallowed whole by the subsidiaries of multinationals, and,

how humiliating, by `dead-tree' outfits (in other words, online media's print

counterparts). ``Unfortunately, the standards of online journalism are poor

at the moment,'' says Buckland. ``And it is largely a result of the unfortunate

financial circumstances online publishers find themselves in since the

dotcom fallout. Budgets are squeezed and staff complements are not as big
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as they used to be, so online publishers are operating in incredibly difficult

environments. The lack of budget has largely been a result of the medium's

inability to attract substantial advertising revenue. Online advertising in this

country makes up less than half a percent of the advertising market, a

figure which is also way behind international standards.'' Rachel Stewart,

acting editor for SABCnews.com, also points to a number of potential

pitfalls in online journalism, including more prevalent opportunities for

plagiarism and copyright infringement. The ease with which corrections

can be made online could mean that less attention is paid to the quality of a

story and presentation at the outset, and, according to Stewart, lack of

regulation also leaves space for unethical journalism.

A Question of Ethics

So much for the circulation of diverse ideas and original journalism, right?

Not quite, says Buckland, who claims the industry is showing signs of

progress. ``I believe improved revenue streams will lead to an overall

improvement in standards and quality. Remember, many web operations

have downsized significantly and adjusted to the market realities, so there

could be a few lean web operations poised for profitability in the future.'' In

the same vein Alec Hogg, Moneyweb's CEO, points out that since online's

slice of the total SA media pie currently stands at a mere 0.4 percent

compared with 6 to 8 percent in other major media-consuming countries

there is substantial potential for future growth. For now, while Buckland

insists that there is no shortage of talent in the industry, he says ``there is no

doubt that after the dot bomb crash the medium and industry suffered

somewhat of a credibility crisis - which to some extent has informed these

negative perceptions.'' Professor Guy Berger, Head of the Department of

Journalism and Media Studies at Rhodes University, believes the perceptions

should be questioned. He argues that the standards and ethics in online

journalism are on par with print or the other electronic mediums, and points

out that online journalists are more accountable to their readers due to the

ease of response. ``Serious audiences for online news are no less concerned

about credibility than are print audiences. And given that so much online

news is re-purposed from other platforms anyway, especially in this country,

I doubt that much of a quality distinction is evident between good online and

good print information,'' says Berger. A similar view is held by Ranka

Jovanovic, editorial director at one of South Africa's few financially

successful independent websites, ITWeb. ``Print or TV publicity may be

perceived to be of higher value than online, but I don't think this has

anything to do with the standards, objectivity or ethics of online journalism.

If anything, [the] online journalist's work is under closer scrutiny in terms of

originality, plagiarism, consistency, etc. as stories can be retrieved via search

engines, and re-read and analysed at any time.'' Of course, the recent Jayson

Blair scandal at The New York Times (NYT), which cost that paper some of

its reputation and its two top editors, suggests that journalistic ethics reside

with people and not distribution channels. Problems with copyright, fact

checking and plagiarism are universal, no matter what the medium.

(Ironically, some commentators argue that web loggers helped to force the

two NYT editors' resignations. Disgruntled NYT staffers apparently leaked

numerous memos and emails to journalist Jim Romenesko, who posted it on

his cult-journo site Medianews.org, keeping pressure up on NYT manage-

ment until the story finally played itself out.) ``Good journalists discern
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compelling stories in events, cultivate and mobilise networks of sources,

double check and triple check facts, develop reputations that can only be

won by getting the story right week after week, year after year,'' writes

Howard Rheingold in Online Journalism Review. ``The most famous pioneer

in the earliest years of the democratisation of journalism, Matt Drudge, did

not establish a sterling example of new media's promise. Now that savvy and

respected newspaper journalists like Dan Gillmor have become enthusiasts

of what Gillmor calls `we journalism', some of the necessary professionalism

has begun to correct the imbalance of Drudge's example.''

Changing Culture and Workflow

Many US newsrooms are faced with the reality of not only developing print,

but also online and broadcast news. Similarly, many South African

newsrooms are now producing content for both online and print products.

Presstime, the magazine of the Newspaper Association of America, recently

reported on the three key precepts industry executives agree should be

adopted to ensure successful cross-media publishing: cultivating an

understanding of non-print media; a `content neutral' system that can

handle text, photos, audio and video; and an editorial system that focuses on

production and news-gathering for any medium. While dotcom-era

buzzwords are no longer welcome in boardrooms, the Nasdaq nosedive

has ironically made `convergence' a current reality in many newsrooms, as

stand-alone Web publishing operations are integrated into the larger

newsroom. ``I think most stand-alone news websites have a tough time

financially unless they are very niche. I think integrated newsrooms, with

people principally dedicated to one medium - as most people are not jacks-

of-all-trades - are the way to go, witheach story being treated in the medium/

s which suit it best,'' says the SABC's Stewart. ``But it will take a while for that

to happen in SA newsrooms, as people are still entrenched in traditional

media roles and ways of envisioning the media.'' At the Mail&Guardian the

online department used to operate in a separate part of the building but now

occupies the same newsroom. Although a separate editorial team runs the

website, they are effectively working with their print colleagues. Buckland

says: ``Newsroom integration is encouraged at the Mail&Guardian, not just

purely from a cost efficiency and resource sharing point of view, but to also

ensure that the values and editorial positioning of the print publication and

the online publication are consistent. A newspaper website must reflect the

core values of the print product but must also succeed as a unique product.''

Sven Lunsche, managing editor for the Financial Mail, doesn't believe that

traditional media have to adopt a 24-hour news cycle to meet the challenge

of the Internet. They do, however, need to be aware what news has appeared

on the web already. Lunsche believes the web's impact is still limited in this

country because of low Internet penetration, which means that the majority

of newspaper readers have not yet read the story. Berger, meanwhile, feels a

huge cultural change is necessary. ``We have seen many instances in SA of

convergence and integration unwinding and going into reverse, because of

the difficulties of cultural change. Both Johnnic and Media24 have retreated

from their earlier versions of being integrated multi-platform publishers,''

says Berger. ``Managing change is always tough, and this particular change is

maybe tougher than most instances. It calls for very nuanced leadership who

can recognise varying abilities amongst staffers and deploy them according to

story requirements in the most effective way. We do not yet have such a
 93 COM3704/1

cadre in this country: most news managers are uni-platform.'' Underpinning

these difficulties are resource constraints, pressures on journalists to produce

quantity at the expense of quality, and poor management. ``Younger staffers

are more flexible and more multi-skilled and will have an easier time in

adapting to multi-platform publishing,'' says Berger. ``New media ventures

can start off on a multiple platform footing, though it does not seem that

ThisDay has had this vision. And again, it comes back to leadership.'' A

Populist Medium Douglas Rushkoff, a respected new media and social

commentator, once told a colleague of mine that the Internet is as warm as

the people using it. This was back in 1997, and he was commenting on what

he described as the struggle for control of the Internet between the

``populist/spiritual vs. elitist/wired business types''. It would seem that the

wired business types won the day. If so, it would be in no small part because

they co-opted many of those populist/spiritual types to join them in that

rabbit hole called the IPO. Simply put, online media over-reached in its own

zealous self-love. The story does not end there, though. If ever there were a

medium suited to the power of the individual, the Internet would certainly be

it. It simply cannot be controlled. Those journalists who have always

appreciated the way this medium connects them with their audience are

creating their own websites, blogs, and mailing lists. Once their independence

is declared, the size and loyalty of their audience is dictated by the quality of

their writing. Writing on the Net suddenly seems a little more diverse, a little

more colourful, and a little more alive. The future democratisation of the

media, described by some as peer-to-peer journalism, made possible by

technology, lies in following the traditional principles of journalism.

Source: Mason (2003)

ACTIVITY 5.6 Online and offline journalism

1. What is the difference between online and offline journalism?

2. What skills do you think a journalist who works for a newspaper on

the internet needs compared to one who works for a newspaper

that is a hard copy?

3. What challenges do online journalists face in comparison to offline

journalists?

4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a newspaper that is

on the internet?

5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a newspaper that is a

hard copy?

5.9 Online advertising

In advertising, advertisers reach audiences by purchasing space in a newspaper.

To attract readers who will purchase the newspaper, the proprietors have to

invest in editorial material that will be of interest to the readers; similarly,

advertisers invest in editorial that attracts the readers. Different types of

readers are attracted by the type of editorial the newspaper has. ``The

business model of the commercial press is one that seals advertising and
 94

editorial material insolubly together'' (Sparks 2000:274). The newspaper is

thus a bundle of two quite different kinds of material: journalism and

advertising. Within the print newspaper there is a clear difference between

editorial content and advertising content. In contrast, advertising on online

newspapers is rapidly increasing on the internet. The reason for this is that the

online newspaper presents a valuable new medium for advertising.

Online advertising is the biggest threat to the viability of the print edition.

The adverts on the online newspaper are dynamic and intrusive on the Web

and this threatens the traditional role between editorial and text. It is also

much easier on the online newspaper to see the number of people who have

seen the advert. So advertisers get to see how well their adverts are doing. In

reality the development of online advertising represents a considerable

threat to print newspapers.

Case study 5.7 Online advertising

Source: Business Report, 3 June 2010, page 23

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ACTIVITY 5.7 Advertising and new media

Read through case study 5.7 and answer the questions that
follow:

1. Why are advertisers in favour of online advertising instead of

traditional advertising? Specify and provide examples.

2. Why do you think advertisers choose to advertise on social

networks such as Facebook? Give examples to substantiate your

answer.

3. Why has Facebook grown to pose a threat to rivals such as Yahoo

and Microsoft?

4. What is the significance of acquiring as many advertisers as possible

to social networks or websites? Critically discuss.

5. Briefly explain why social networks such as Facebook are

questioned about privacy issues. Do you think these websites or

social networks are safe? Explain.

5.10 Conclusion

In this study unit, you learnt that ICT plays a crucial role in building the

national economy and facilitating international trade. Many ICT projects have

also improved the lives of women and the youth both educationally and

economically, while also advancing the lives of those already participating in

business and the health sector. It is imperative, therefore, that developing

countries learn from the role played by ICTs in developed countries. They

need to deploy ICTs in their own geographical areas widely and cheaply, so

that most members of society are able to access them for the socioeconomic

development of many. This includes those who are uneducated since

research has already established that those who benefit the most from ICTs

are the educated and rich. It is about time that ICT opportunities are created

for everyone, regardless of the size of their pocket, educational qualification

or economic class.

5.11 Reviewing and connecting the dots

Revise the contents of this study unit and try to establish on your own how

new media can be used to develop individuals or improve the quality of life of

a person. Jot down your views in the journal for future reference.

In this study unit, we explored how new media are used for personal and, in

certain instances, community development, eg in Bangladesh and Khayelitsha.

Reviewing what The teaching material in this study unit should enable you to

you have studied

. become aware of the role played by technology in personal and

community development

. understand the general conditions under which technology can assist

 96

individuals to thrive in business and also other goals they want to pursue

and achieve in their lives

Make sure that you have written summaries of all your reflections as you will

be expected to submit evidence of them as part of your assignments.

References

Al-Failakawi, Y. 2006. Using SMS in Kuwait. Journal of International

Communication, 12(1):37±73.

Bizhelp24. 2009. Mobile phones in business. www.bizhelp24.com/tech/

mobile-phones-in-business.html [Accessed on 9 July 2010].

Business Report. 2010. Advertisements hit the Facebook target. 3 June:23.

Croteau, D & Hoynes, W. 2003. Media in a changing global culture. In

Croteau, D & Hoynes, W. Media society. California: Pine Forge Press.

Dreamstime.com. [sa(a)]. http://thumbs.dreamstime.com/thumb_273/

12119740248gDqgN.jpg

Dreamstime.com. [sa(b)]. http://thumbs.dreamstime.com/thumb_353/

1231777082YqWuNN.jpg

Gounden, F. 2010. MXit: youngsters urged to use common sense. Call for

parents to guide kids by logging on and chatting with them or use the

blocking feature. Pretoria News Weekend, 9 January:4.

Hudson, HE. 2006. From rural village to global village: telecommunications for

development in the information age. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.

InfoDev. [sa]. Abantu (Kenya). Strengthening electronic communications

capacities of women's organisations in Africa. www.sustainableicts.org/

infodev/Abantu.pdf

Ki-moon, B. 2007. Information economy report 2007-2008. New York and

Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.

Langhoff, J. [sa]. Telecommuting. www.eworkingwomen.com/experts/telecom-

mute.html

Manson, H. 2003. Navel-gazing is needed for internet journalism.

w w w. t h e m e d i a o n l i n e . c o . z a / t h e m e d i a / v i e w / t h e m e d i a / e n / p a -

ge4212?oid=3586 Duck, A. 1998. Online - the future of newspapers?

Germany 's dailies on the World Wide Web. Journal of Computer-

mediated Communication, 4(1). http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol4/issue1/neu-

berger.html.

Phonoscope Digital Cable. [sa]. http://www.phonoscopecable.com/images/

laptop_woman_child.jpg

Salaverria, R. 2005. An immature medium: strengths and weaknesses of

online newspapers on September 11. The International Journal for

Communication Studies: 69±86.

Skuse, A & Cousins, T. 2008. Getting connected: the social dynamics of urban

telecommunications access and use in Khayelitsha, Cape Town. New

Media & Society, 10(1):9±26.

Sparks, C. 2000. From dead trees to live wires: the internet's challenge to
 97 COM3704/1

the traditional newspaper. In Curran, J & Gurevitch, M. (eds). Mass

media and society. London: Arnold.

Thomas, P. 2009. Bhoomi, Gyan Ganga, e-governance and the right to

information: ICTs and development in India. Telematics & Informatics,

26(1):20±31.

Van Dijk, JAGM. 2006. The network society: social aspects of new media. 2nd

edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Women'sNet. [sa]. www.womensnet.org.za

 98

Study unit 6

Fit for the small(er)

screen: film, mobile TV
and the new individual
television experience
(Zandi Lesame)

The more hours you spend bent over a video game or the Internet, the less

time you have for things that matter ± Deepak Chopra

Overview

In this study unit you will work through exercises to improve your

knowledge of how you can produce content by using your cellphone and

other new media, as well as how you can distribute that content to

audiences, whether online, through broadcasting channels or via other

cellphones. In this study unit you also learn that you no longer have to be an

information consumer but that, with the assistance of cellphones and other

data-capturing and information-producing technologies, you can also

produce and market your own information for social usage and critical

analysis. The focus and content of that information, be it a video or a movie,

depend entirely on you, a producer and a prodsumer.

6.1 Introduction

Digitisation and media convergence have diversified the functions and uses of

both new and older technologies. Cellphones are now multiplatform, ie they

incorporate TV, radio, the internet, computer and the phone. They are also

multifunctional as a result of the merged infrastructures and so we now have

companies offering converged services such as mobile broadcasting or

mobile TV, WebTV and internet videos such as those on YouTube. Film and

television content can be produced, distributed and consumed through

cellphones. In this study unit we highlight the various areas in film and

television which cellphones have impacted. Your knowledge and under-

standing of cellphone filmmaking is examined from the point of view of

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changing technological and experiential fronts. The research findings of

Dockney and Tomaselli (see chapter 6 of the prescribed book) reveal that

cellphones have resulted in critical shifts in practices in the areas of

production, genre, aesthetics, distribution, consumption and business. Their

research findings also explain how the cognitive shifts resulting from

technological and social changes enabled through digital culture have also

enabled a new kind of interactive consumer, the prodsumer, who consumes

and produces content.

ACTIVITY 6.1 Digitisation and convergence

Read section 6.1 in your textbook, where you are introduced to

digitisation and convergence and how these two technological

developments have revolutionised traditional film and television

production. They have also transformed fields such as marketing (both

public relations and advertising) and new media consumption patterns

by enabling people to produce and consume movies in new ways

enabled by cellphones. Distribution of these movies has also changed as

producers can distribute their movies to whoever they wish using new

media of their choice, whether online or offline, for example

independently produced, marketed and distributed movies on online

networks and forums such as YouTube.

Think about the issues that you would like to produce a short movie on;

perhaps issues of national debate in your country or socioeconomic

issues concerning your immediate environment that need solutions.

Perhaps you would like to produce an entertainment movie, a movie

about greening or the environment, or a movie about any other

interesting aspect of your life or country. Remember, movies are

basically for entertainment, even though they may also educate and

inform audiences of international issues.

Reflect on the following issues you would like to address on your mobile

or online movie in your journal, as perhaps one day you may have the

opportunity of producing it.

6.2 Digital media and new ways of producing content

Digitisation has resulted in cognitive shifts owing to the new practices

generated through new interactive, networked and converged technologies.

This has enabled media users to operate in a radically different way from

users of the past. This new space is characterised by an increasing ability for

the virtual to be situated in the physical world. Implicit within this is the

increasing frequency of ``various alternative platforms for communication''

(Uzelac 2008:15), the increasing ability of media users to communicate in a

one-to-many (and one-to-one) fashion, and the ability of users to become

producers of content (prodsumers).

Digital natives Digital technology has placed ``production'' in the hands of the consumer/
 100

prodsumer, as reflected in the popularity of websites such as YouTube and

the notable effects on the media by events such as the 2005 London

bombings where information was sent to news agencies via people's

cellphones before the journalists had even arrived on the scene. The

emergence and convergence of three technologies, the internet, television

and cellphones, have influenced the development of a group of commu-

nications consumers whom Guo (2008:8) calls ``digital natives'' who have

been born into and have grown up in a world of ubiquitous communications

and connectivity. The digitisation of communication technologies and the

resulting effects of this have led to an ability and desire to connect with

people across spatial and temporal divides. The emergence and insertion of

these key technologies, and their subsequent creation as ``lifestyle

infrastructure[s]'' (Ling 2004), including all their technological advancements,

have contributed to this process.

It is this new group of communications consumers, in combination with these

technologies, who are driving the change through their shifting expectations,

desires and wants in combination with the respective technological

developments. Filmmakers thus need to start with audiences identify the

audience, make the film and move on from there. They need to take

cognisance of the changes in niched audiences on mass scales that are

emerging as a result of the changes in technology. This is one of the most

extraordinary narrowcasting opportunities provided by the internet.

In this section, you should also pay attention to ways in which digitisation has

led to the reconceptualisation of the film and television industries through

cellphones. Some of these ways are given below:

. The development of the noosphere (incorporating the ideosphere)

comprises a film of information which envelopes your world or the world

of those around you and how you can use new media such as a cellphone

to put this world online or to the rest of the world (eg put your movie on

YouTube online or on other multimedia channels).

. All information is particularly receivable anywhere at any time on a

personal level.

. New media create a world in which people are actors or creators of

reality or content (consider online and mobile broadcasting ) which they

can publish online or distribute to others via cellphones or television for

mass consumption, critical analysis and other usage.

Keep these three issues in mind as you work through this study unit.

Mobile TV digital broadcasting can offer the following services (Vodaworld

Magazine 2005/6):

. Snacking ± watch news or other things on your cellphone while relaxing

or even waiting for something to happen, for example meeting a friend at

a coffee shop, travelling home in a taxi or bus, standing in a taxi, train or

bus queue, waiting for a doctor in a waiting room or a plane at the airport,

and so on
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. Streaming ± watch a soccer match live on the cellphone or a breaking

news story

. Streaming-on-demand ± providing what the cellphone owner requests

If all these are affordable, they can be accessed by millions and digital

broadcasting can be on its way to mass local consumption. Mobile

broadcasting is the way to go. The purpose of broadcasting the information

will be the key to bringing service providers revenue, and broadcasting

services consumers knowledge and pleasure. Digital convergence creates

new opportunities for upstarts and challenges for technology companies and

service providers. Convergence involves the power of the digital media to

combine voice, video, data, text and money in new applications, devices and

markets (Kim 2005:4). The age of digital convergence in which the computer,

the telephone and the television are no longer distinct products with

separate functions is upon us. Whether at home, at the office, or in the

classroom, we increasingly communicate, learn and enjoy entertainment

using video-on-demand, interactive television, the internet, personal digital

assistants and more.

Case study 6.1 South African pay TV competition timeline

In 2007, ICASA awards five pay TV licences to Walking on Water, ODM,

E-Sat, Telkom Media and MultiChoice.

2005: ICASA issues invitation to apply (ITA)

2006: 18 companies apply

2007: Four companies win licences to compete with MultiChoice ODM,

Telkom Media, WoWTV and E-Sat

2008: Telkom announces plans to sell its Telkom Media stake

2009 (March): Telkom decides to liquidates Telkom Media

2009 (May): Shenzhen Media South Africa buys 76% in Telkom Media and

renames the company

MultiChoice is exploring new offerings in the form of high definition

mobile TV, video on demand and Internet Protocol Television (IPTV).

What is clear is that the consumer will have many communications services

to select from and pay for, in pay TV, for entertainment and self-

gratification. Most of these services will be delivered via satellite to

television; cellphones and other services will be communicated through the

internet via optic fibre. E-Sat proposed offering a 21-channel pay TV

package focusing on movies, sports and news. ODM plans to offer a 40-

to-50 channel service which will offer consumers entertainment bundles

based on what the consumers request, a unique ``only-pay-for-what-you-

want system'' which will allow consumers to create their own bundles (Da

Silva 2007; Hill 2007; Van der Post 2007). ODM entered the market in the

first half of 2010 as TopTV.

In this section, also pay attention to the emerging digitally driven culture,

digital productions, digital natives, technologies of film (for example DVDs,

computer and cellphone-enabled movies), strange relations between people

 102

and moving images, cellphones as creators and distributors of content and

critical assessment of the world around us, and redefinitions of traditional

cinema by cellphones.

ACTIVITY 6.2 Online movies

Visit any website containing movies shot by using a cellphone or sites of

videos posted online by filmmakers or any other communicators with

ideas or stories to share with the world. You can even visit websites

mentioned in section 6.2 of your textbook. Study-read this section.

Some of these websites are

. www.youtube.com

. The Mobile Film Festival at www.fr.mobilefilmfestival.com

. Festival Pocket Film at www.festivalpocketfilms.fr/english/

. Mobifest at www.mobifest.net/

. SMS Sugarman at www.smssugarman.com

ACTIVITY 6.3 Unpacking the online movies

After visiting one or more of these sites (or other similar ones of your

choice), write a short essay on any two short mobile or video online

movie that you watched on the websites. You can focus on the contents

of the movie or production in terms of what the production conveys,

how the movie theme is relayed to the audience, who the source of the

messages is in the movie and what you gained from watching the movie.

Also, if you were the producer of the movie state what you would have

done differently to convey the same message, what issue you would like

to communicate in a digital movie of your own, how you would produce

the movie and for whom. Read section 6.3 in your textbook, and write a

brief summary of the main theme of this section in your journal.

6.3 Small screens, aesthetics and genre

New media technologies such as the internet, DVDs, digital audio and video,

and other types of interactive multimedia technologies are shaping our world

and world view at an unprecedented scale (Jackson 2001:347). In the light of

new media technological transformations, dominant aesthetic theories are

being redefined as communicators produce movies and other types of

knowledge such as news by using new media such as cellphones with small

screens. For example, private individuals shoot breaking news stories with

cellphones and send them to broadcasting stations and newspapers even

before journalists arrive on the news scene. We saw this in Haiti during the

devastating 2010 earthquake where cellphones played a crucial role in

transmitting information from Haiti to other countries to highlight the plight

of Haitians at the time and seek financial, human and other kinds of

resources.
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In this section, it is also important to know the following issues:

. Small cellphone screens have redefined film production, aesthetics,

distribution and consumption.

. You have to understand and know the characteristics of mobile TV and

the reasons for ``snacking'' and the rationale behind bite-sized cellphone

movies. You can identify these characteristics only if you participate in

these activities and observe what these characteristics are. In other

words, take a cellphone and watch a video or movie on it and note down

what the qualities of this service are as you watch the movie, compared to

watching a movie on the internet or on TV.

. How to shoot movies with cellphones, which cellphones are capable of

doing this and how these cellphones differ from those that cannot capture

movies.

6.3.1 Aesthetics, aesthetic theories and genre

New media can be defined within this context as technologies including all

types of computers and other communication devices using microproces-

sors, digital, audio and video, local and global networks (such as the internet,

intranets, broadcasting networks, cellphone networks and the World Wide

Web). New media content and genre (types of content and different ideas as

well as symbols) can be found in toys which communicate, cellphone movies

which inform and educate, movies on CDs and DVDs for entertainment and

educational use, virtual reality environments, interactive kiosks and other

multimedia environments, high-tech surveillance equipment, telemetry

devices, artworks incorporating or produced by digital means, various input,

output and storage devices, for example broadcasting and computer devices

for electronic content. At this point, it is also crucial that you understand

what is meant by aesthetics.

6.3.2 Aesthetics, simulated aesthetic experiences and virtual

worlds

The term aesthetics was applied in German by Baumgarten in about 1830 to

mean ``criticism of taste'' and has since been used as such (Jackson 2001:352).

``Concomitant with current technological shifts in the forms of representa-

tion via new media, there has also been a shift in theoretical structures which

has deconstructed and reconstructed the historical assumptions of the fields

of aesthetics. These theoretical shifts challenge traditional definitions of

aesthetic subject position(s). One example of these theoretical shifts is

exemplified by simulated aesthetic experiences as they relate to physically

mediated experiences. Simulated aesthetic experiences in virtual worlds are

ontologically different from those of the primary (real) world. Yet the impact

of these experiences can be similar in effect'' (Jackson 2001:352). Consider

the real experience of watching a live soccer match at a stadium and

compare this experience with watching a simulated soccer match on a

cellphone soccer game or online.

 104

Both matches have a field, players, a referee and other aspects of a soccer

match, such as people clapping hands when a goal is scored; both games have

players and names of players, a whistle is blown when the referee makes a

decision about the match, there are goal posts and goals are scored, teams

have names whether real or not, whether in the real or simulated match.

Again, consider war games that boys or young men play on gaming sites on

the internet which are about winning and losing and which teach players how

to compete and win fights (or games in the game-like wars fought by

countries in real politics) in the fake (online) and real world. Players in online

games meet at specified times and obey the rules of the game against other

players, just as people do in real life. In other words, games teach people

some life lessons, even those played online. The same thing applies to

simulated art; it usually tells a story that teaches those reading about or

watching the story important life lessons. We just need to figure out what

lesson is there to learn.

Cellphone movies and computer games also have the same impact as big

screen and TV movies. New media content, in most cases, reflects

happenings in the real world and teaches audiences about how to learn from

previous occurrences and events, whether these productions are conveyed

via cellphones or the internet games. Sometimes, and often enough, the

unreal world reflects the real world. New media genre therefore reflect

society and educate members of society about what is around them.

A practical social vision would be that a new media aesthetic should reflect

hope in society rather than deprivation and hopelessness, and be aimed at

economic, social and political transformation for the betterment of most

rather than the upliftment of a few. This is especially true in countries such as

South Africa, which has one of the highest social and economic imbalances in

the world where there are millions poor and suffering from poverty and a

few who have it all and don't share it with others. New media offer a strong

force in the production of ideas, the formation of personal and collective

identities and the expansiveness of contemporary art. At the same time they

also offer possibilities to harness the strength of new media in the service of a

vision for a more radical, critical practice of democratic life through a socially

binding (and definitely not diversifying or divisive) new media culture. This is

already apparent in social media where people are free to raise issues of

concern and interest that they wish to discuss.

Social media such as Facebook and Twitter undertake the positive functions

of new media such as communication, idea and product promotion and

socialisation. However, this by no means suggests that there are no negative

vibes experienced and posted by negative people online. We do not focus on

these negatives in this study unit, but mention them in study unit 7.

6.4 Digital ecologies, economies and environments

Individuals and businesses (owners thereof) should produce new content

about issues of their concern that they wish to share with others and publish
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them via communication networks, be it about culture, lifestyle, countries,

language, work or business. New media are useful instruments in cultural

industries to package and sell cultural ideas and products, be it music, art,

literature or whatever. People using cellphones are able to consume these

ideas and products if sent to them via cellphone networks.

``The development of information and communication technologies (ICTs)

demands that cultural industries change their business models. These models

traditionally depended on marketing physical objects (such as books, CDs,

records, and so on). These goods are now becoming non-rival (a good that

can be consumed by one individual without depriving other users; a material

good, which is destroyed in consumption, is rival (like food) as today 's

technologies (e.g. the Internet) make it possible to extract, process, copy and

transfer or even paste information (text, sounds, images and cartoons) at

very low costs'' (Gensollen et al 2004:18). If cultural industries can adapt new

technologies, they will gain access to new markets in the long run, but this

can only occur in a new economic context.

To characterise the current transformation of the cultural industries as well

as new media content and selling industries (book publishing, movie, CD and

DVD production), the processes can be divided into four key stages

(Gensollen et al 2004:18):

Conception and Conception and production of works, which generate fixed costs, ie

production independent of their subsequent distribution.

Edition and Edition and promotion, in the broadest sense of these terms; these activities

promotion generally aim to ensure that the products match the various customers'

tastes. However,

(i) cultural products are experience goods (whose utility is unknown to

consumers prior to purchase)

(ii) demand forms and grows gradually (acculturation)

(iii) authors do not generally have a clear idea of their clients' tastes

Distribution Distribution, which ensures that users (readers, listeners, viewers, etc), can

access the diverse cultural products. This access can be provided either in

theatres (live performances, movies, etc) and online, or at home when it is

equipped with reception (eg a satellite dish), reproduction and emission

material (including decoders, set-top boxes, recorders and such technolo-

gies).

Distribution of The distribution of derivative products whose consumption is induced by

derivative cultural products and which are at least partly composed of rival goods, the

products value of which can be easily collected.

However, the digitisation of works (and ICTs) has changed the production

and promotion of cultural products and other goods, including mobile

movies, and reduced the four stages explained above to three:

 106

Conception and Conception and production costs of works are plummeting for both music

production costs and video. These costs sometimes change in scale. ICTs will soon render (if

this has not happened already in some countries) music and movie

production similar to writing: these activities will only involve, at least

technically, an initial investment affordable to the mass market although this

does not mean that ICTs cannot offer, for higher development costs, the

special effects that feature heavily in certain films. Also, some software can

be used by anyone, if it has been developed as open source software.

Edition and Edition and promotion, refocused on the matching process, will come to

promotion the fore. The huge variety of digital cultural products calls for new

information procedures, reviews and comments by early adopters (people

who adopt new technology first or before others) on retail websites like

Amazon and files exchanges on peer-to-peer networks (which are based on

software that enables internet users to search for and exchange files). This

service is obviously legal in that some files (such as MP3 audio files) are

copies of records made by consumers, so their distribution falls under the

legal notion of a private copy (fair use). File exchanges in peer-to-peer

networks take place between consumers and between consumers and

authors thus displaying the interactive quality of new media which old media

do not have.

Physical Physical distribution will progressively become obsolete; it will be replaced

distribution by online and mobile distribution of files, namely non-rival goods. However,

this does not mean that the distribution of non-rival files cannot be profitable.

Edition and promotion (stage 2) will form the main source of value, even

within peer-to-peer networks. That is why in fields such as marketing, public

relations (PR), advertising and promotions in general, online channels or

media and cellphones have become paramount media of communications

(Gensollen et al 2004).

Closely related to the consumption of cultural products are intellectual

property and copyright. These issues have to be ensured so that information

producers remain owners of that information and that other consumers of

that information treat that status as such and do not abuse it. Information,

offline and online, must also be copyrighted or protected against abuse by

others with bad intentions.

6.5 Intellectual property rights, copyright, the internet

and cellphones

ACTIVITY 6.4 Copyright and intellectual property in new

media
Conduct some research in the Unisa library and on the internet to

investigate what is meant by the terms ``intellectual property '' and

``copyright''. Write the definitions or meanings of these concepts in a

few sentences. Also state how information producers or sellers can

 107 COM3704/1

protect their intellectual property rights and copyrighted works.

It is important that individuals as well as organisations (and commercial

businesses) that produce (and sell) information, entertainment, knowledge

and other cultural and educational products protect their intellectual

property rights and also ensure that their information and knowledge is

copyrighted. Intellectual property means the creation of a person's mind;

therefore, a person's new idea is that person's intellectual property and

should be protected as such. Copyrighted work is protected and indicated by

the symbol at all times so that other individuals or organisations do not use

that work as their own or claim that it is their own. If work appears with or

bears the sign, it means that the owner's permission has to be obtained

before that work is reused. If that is not done, then that work is stolen. In

South Africa, copyright is protected by law and anyone breaking copyright

laws can be jailed for a period of years or pay a fine. Government regulations

can also be used to protect original work from fraudsters who abuse other

people's information, eg those who engage in music piracy are abusing the

music rights of the original artists who have copyright of that music. Laws,

however, should regulate the industry for further growth but not impede that

growth. Laws also protect people and businesses against cyberfraud and

other types of illegal activities online. Types of intellectual property (also

usually copyrighted works) include the following:

Patents Patents refer to rights of innovation.

Trademarks Trademarks refer to rights of using an original symbol and profit from any

reproduction of that symbol; in fact, trademarks should not be reproduced

as they represent specific businesses.

Domain names Domain names (names of websites and their addresses) of companies and

organisational networks must also be protected by law, so that no other new

business uses an existing domain name (Lesame 2001a).

6.5.1 E-commerce, the law and personal information online and

on cellphones

An online business, or e-commerce, belongs to someone, individuals or

organisations, and is therefore one form of intellectual property. Regulators

monitor and regulate e-commerce activity and online business operations to

curb abuse of networks and abusive, misleading as well as predatory

promotions that are aimed at profiting at the expense of the misinformed

consumer. The following elements should be secured by law in all e-

commerce or e-business transactions:

. Integrity

This is the assurance that modification or corruption of information, online

business process or mobile promotional material and processes will not go

undetected and unchallenged.

 108

. Confidentiality

Online data should be kept private by use of technological methods such as

encryption, passwords, personal identification numbers (PINs) or codes,

firewalls, steganography (blocking information through a combination of

secret numbers), digital certificates, cryptography, digital signatures and

other data protection techniques that are available on the market as

hardware and software. Small businesses should find out about these data

protection methods and use them to safeguard their business information in

the same ways that big business protects its information from hackers and

crackers (ie those who break into other people's websites to steal

information).

. Authentication

All identities of an online business transaction must be secured.

. Non-repudiation

This means that in a business transaction, neither party should be able to

refute or deny the transaction entered into. It must be ensured that the

transaction is binding on and agreed to by the parties concerned.

6.5.2 Protecting individual information and business privacy on

networks

While we produce information such as movies and other productions and

promote as well as distribute them over networks, it is imperative that we

protect this information against misuse. Some data protection techniques

available include the following:

. Conventional passwords

Passwords for computers and cellphones, for example, and user-name

controlled access can be broken or hacked (by network offenders), and then

these passwords are used to intrude on networks from behind established

firewalls or from within a company intranet. Smart cards can be used to enter

networks and to help eliminate the password hacking problem. When

passwords travel across networks, there are sometimes sniffer products that

are used to read these passwords (or other information) of other network

users and thereby gain access to the other's information. These sniffer

products are originally designed to check the efficiency of networks.

Encryption technology is often used to protect information and deal with the

latter problem (Van Dijk 2006). When computers, notebooks and laptops are

stolen by criminals, access codes are hacked, but encryption networks

usually solve or prevent this problem as data cannot be entered into if

encrypted (encryption software blocks entry to private data).

. Public key cryptography is a method of keeping data secure and

 109 COM3704/1

protected by applying a mathematical formula to obscure information

being transmitted (Lesame 2001b:64±65).

. Digital signatures are the electronic versions of original signatures and

cannot be faked or forged. On the Web, business signatories ``sign'' deals

or agreements with digital signatures and other electronic methods to

validate and secure e-business deals. Debtors also need to be controlled

on Web business, and bad debts should be avoided. Digital signatures

generally serve the following functions:

± They confirm or endorse the business intent of the parties involved.

± They identify the signatories of the business deal.

± They make the ``signed'' document credible and authentic or legal.

At this point, we need to remind you that as communicators who

communicate through new media, which operate under different laws from

different countries, it is crucial that we copyright our original information or

works as producers, promoters and prodsumers in all media that we use,

including cellphones and the Web.

6.6 Conclusion

In this study unit, we explored the driving forces behind the paradigmatic and

cognitive shifts in the film and television industry in general, which are the

consumers, producers, prodsumers and technological developments. As

mentioned above, film has left the confines of its traditional production and

consumption sites and entered the realm of the moving image. This has given

film/the moving image a range of new meanings and functions. Cellphones

are only one of many means of film production, editing and consumption.

In addition, you also learnt about how cellphones have expanded the film

industry in terms of possibilities for production and consumption. Extending

Simons's quote, ``film is now wherever the potential [prodsumer] is''

(2009:7).

In the next study unit you will be introduced to how the internet has

impacted the world and provided many benefits to its users while at the

same time it has had negative ramifications. These are illustrated by how

some people are preoccupied with using the internet, are unable to control

their use of it, and are jeopardising employment and personal relationships

by being addicted to the internet. You will learn about internet addiction

disorder (IAD) and how to deal with it.

6.7 Reviewing and connecting the dots

Reviewing what The teaching material in this study unit should enable you to

you have studied

. understand how content can be produced and distributed via cellphones

and also via the internet

 110

. have a sense of what constitutes an appropriate context and climate for

interactive communication and sharing of ideas via new media

. have a sense of how we are both producers of content in the information

society and consumers of information

. reflect on the importance of information protection by those who

produce such content

Make sure that you have written summaries of all your reflections as you will

be expected to submit evidence of them as part of your assignments.

References

Bailey, C. 2001. Virtual skin: articulating race in cyberspace. In Trend, D. (ed).

Reading digital culture. Oxford: Blackwell.

City Press. 2008. TV in your pocketcoming soon. 14 December:2.

Da Silva, IS. 2007. ICASA awards five pay TV licences.

http://bizcommunity.com/Article/196/66/18004.html [Accessed on 21 Novem-

ber 2007].

Gensollen, M, Gille, L, Bourreau, M & Curien, N. 2004. Content distribution

via the internet: comments on upload taxation. Communications &

Strategies, 55(third quarter):17±44.

Guo, Y. 2008. Global trends in a multi-screen world. [Slideshow and paper].

Hill, M. 2007. New pay TV licensees make big promises, but face uphill battle.

www.engineeringnews.ca.za/article.php?a_id=116729

[Accessed on 4 December 2007].

Jackson, TA. 2001. Towards a new media aesthetic. In Trend, D. (ed). Reading

digital culture. Oxford: Blackwell.

Lesame, NC. (ed). 2005. New media: technology and policy in developing

countries. Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Lesame, NC. 2009. The role of information and communication technologies

(ICTs) in development: a case study of the role of telecentres in the

education of users. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Lesame, Z. 2001a. The media and technology of international communica-

tion. In Bornman, E, Fourie, P, Lesame, Z & Schoonraad, N. (eds).

International communication. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Lesame, Z. 2001b. New media technology: only study guide for COM304B.

Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Ling, R. 2004. The mobile connection: the cell phone's impact on society. San

Francisco: Morgan Kaufmann.

Simons, J. 2009. Pockets in the screen-scape: movies on the move. Paper

presented at MiT 6: Stone and Papyrus, Storage and Transmission. MIT,

Cambridge, 24±26 April.

Tomaselli, KG. 2009. Local is lekker: piggs, pirates and policy.

A report on Southern African Communications for Development Forum

2007. Journal of African Cinemas, 1:115±122.

Uzelac, A. 2008. How to understand digital culture: digital culture a resource

for a knowledge society? In Uzelac, A & Cvjeticanin, B. (eds). Digital

 111 COM3704/1

culture: the changing dynamics. Zagreb: Institut za medjunarodne

odnose.

Van der Post, T. 2007. E-Sat, ODM throw hats into pay TV ring.

Mail&Guardian Online.

www.mg.co.za/articlepage.aspx?area=/breaking_news/breaking_news_busines.

[Accessed on 1 October 2009].

Van Dijk, JAGM. 2006. The network society: social aspects of new media. 2nd

edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Vodaworld Magazine. 2005/6. TV goes mobile. Summer 2005/6. Johannes-

burg: The Vodacom Group.

YouTube. 2009. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0m2JZbHY7ZA [Accessed

on 1 October 2009].
 112

Study unit 7

Electronic government:
meaning, models and
applications
(Zandi Lesame)

Electronic government is a global phenomenon ± Mbeki

Overview

This theme emphasises that if governments aim to expand e-government

initiatives in their countries and promote public participation, they have to

implement ICT policies aimed at bridging the digital divide so that many

citizens have access to ICT infrastructure and services. This study unit

teaches you about the importance of e-government in countries. You also

learn about theory and practice of e-government, digital democracy and also

the digital divide, and how these three concepts and processes are

interrelated. You will gain an in-depth understanding of new media employed

to facilitate communication between civil society and governments, such as

internet blogs, websites, e-mail and cellphones (especially the short message

services or SMS). If more people have ICT access, then there is a possibility

that digital democracy may exist as more and more people with ICT access

can then use it to communicate with government officials about issues

affecting their lives.

In countries such as the Republic of Korea, where ``over 90 per cent of the

population have ICT access, digital democracy already exists and members of

the public use ICT such as Internet applications to make their requests to

government officials, contribute to national law making processes online and

also apply for important documents that they require from government by

making use of the Internet'' (Ko 2009:10). In some developing countries e-

government is still in its early stages of adoption and development and the e-

government status such as that of the Republic of Korea is still an ideal that

some countries aim to achieve in the future. South Africa is one of these

countries whose ICT sector is less developed and, in future, would like to

have advanced e-government services and applications.

This study unit also deals with South Africa's e-government processes,
 113 COM3704/1

institutions and challenges, while also indicating some lessons learnt over the

past years. You are encouraged to study e-government case studies of

different countries, developed or not, to understand how media are used

internationally to engage with governments to serve public interests,

especially governments who fail to meet public demands or serve

communities with the basic social needs that they need to be met.

This particular study unit is made up of five sections:

. the nature of e-government, digital democracy, the digital divide and e-

government applications

. theoretical models and perspectives about e-government and the digital

divide

. the role of public-private partnerships (PPPs) in e-government

. public institutions and e-government as well as public participation in e-

government processes

. lessons learnt in e-government implementation: the case of a developing

country ± South Africa

7.1 Introduction

In this study unit we discuss the meanings of e-government and some of its

applications and manifestations, including electronic governance and digital

democracy. We also explain theories and models of e-government, with real-

life examples of political activities and events that demonstrate e-government

in action in different countries around the world. E-government may be a

reality in some countries but not yet in others. However, those countries

could be working towards the achievement of making e-government services

widely accessible.

E-government is an international phenomenon and many governments

around the world have websites where civil society can access and use online

government services. This allows national and local governments to place

critical information online, automate once cumbersome processes and

interact electronically with citizens via the internet, telephone, community

centres, wireless devices or other communications. E-government is

important as ICT solutions can promote increased productivity, be more

cost-effective and improve service delivery. However, ICT solutions in and of

themselves cannot attain these benefits if proper systems are not in place and

individuals do not have access to the e-government systems or are unwilling

to use them.

The word ``government'' comes from a Greek word meaning ``to steer''. It

means a body that has the authority to make the power to enforce laws

within a society. New media are used by many governments to enforce their

laws and also announce their plans.

 114

ACTIVITY 7.1 Meaning and purposes of e-government

In your journal, reflect on the following questions in the light of your

understanding of e-government as you learn about this concept and its

processes in chapter 7 of your prescribed book:

1. Have you used e-government services where you live for any

purpose/s? If yes, which e-government services did you use and for

what purposes? If not, why have you not used any e-government

services so far? What did the encounter evoke in you what feelings,

emotions and physical sensations did you experience?

2. Do you think it is necessary or important for governments to

provide e-government services to their citizens? Jot down a few

notes to explain your answer. What thoughts, cognitions and

perceptions did you have about e-government services offered by

your government to its citizens?

3. Are there any red flags emotional issues or baggage that you feel or

that come up for you when you think about e-government in your

country of residence? List them, and also reflect in your writing on

what action steps you can take to facilitate your better use of e-

government facilities in your area.

Also, read sections 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3 in chapter 7 of your textbook,

where you are introduced to e-government and theoretical models

explaining the nature of e-government as well as e-government

applications in South Africa and other countries, such as China or the

UK. Before you explore the subject of e-government any further, you

have to understand its meaning and nature, as well as how it is

implemented in different countries and for what purposes. After reading

these sections in your textbook, briefly answer the following questions:

. What is e-government?

. What is e-democracy?

. What is the digital divide and how does it influence e-democracy?

. What role do new media play in e-government?

. Does it exist in the country you reside in? If it does, how have you

measured it or how is it visible? Have people in the area (or country)

in which you live influenced the government by using new media? If

so, when and what was the major national issue?

. Can communication media such as the internet improve commu-

nication between people and government?

Does online voting create electronic democracy?

. Does everyone in a country need a computer or the internet to

communicate with the government or with government officials, eg

local government officials or the presidency, about issues of their

concern?
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7.2 Purposes of e-government

You have already established from chapter 7 of the textbook what is meant

by e-government, digital democracy and the digital divide. The important

point here is that although most governments around the world use the

internet to publicise their policies, plans and programmes, the internet has

not spread wide enough in some countries to acceptable universal access

levels where we can fully claim that digital democracy exists. Also, in some

countries, the internet spreads government policy and points of view rather

than promotes public engagement and input to government campaigns,

activities and decisionmaking processes that affect their lives, the children

and future generations. Perhaps after a few years to come in South Africa,

we may experience instances of digital democracy where most citizens use

new media such as cellphones and the internet to interact with government

departments, politicians and political parties.

Think about the theoretical views and issues explored and discussed in your

textbook and consider your immediate response to what e-government is

and how it has been implemented in your own country, whether it be a

developing or developed country. We will return to your responses and

considerations of these e-government developments and trends in your

country later on in this study unit.

Important issues Whatever your views about the internet, there is no doubt that it provides

in e-government volumes of information about anything and everything, including government

and state information to the electorate and civil society. Some information on

the internet is accurate while other information is inaccurate and can mislead

readers or users of this resource. People should therefore always confirm

information obtained from the internet as not every piece of information on

the internet is true, and the same applies to e-government information.

Governments primarily post their information such as laws, policies,

presidential and ministerial speeches and State of the Nation Addresses, which

detail the future of a country in relation to other countries, and other key

government information that we need and use as citizens of that country. They

also post strategies of how government aims, plans and programmes will be

achieved in the future and have already been achieved in past years. On their

websites governments (and political parties) invite public comments to Bills,

Acts or laws and other programmes proposed, implemented and evaluated for

re-implementation or renewal, for example contributions to a new ICT law or

an urban renewal programme aimed at moving people from rural areas and

settling them in urban areas in order to avoid the spread of shacks or shanty

towns where residents do not pay for municipal taxes and services such as

electricity in expected and normal ways. As students of new media and e-

government, and also as members of the public and the voting electorate, you

should consider the following important issues about e-government:

. definitions of e-government, digital democracy and the digital divide; the

nature of e-government and how e-government is applied by govern-

ments and political parties for the benefit of citizens

. the role of new media in politics and political education

 116

. how theoretical e-government models and views reflect e-government

reality, ie e-government theory versus practice

. whether governments practise what they preach or they just want public

votes and do not satisfy the needs of the public

. new media used by members of the public to communicate with

governments and government officials in the quest to have their demands

met and public interest served

Keep these five important considerations about e-government in mind

throughout this study unit as they are the areas we focus on as we work

through it.

Take a moment, and consider a few examples of how governments

communicate with members of the public by using technology (different types

of technology). What you need to learn from these examples is that e-

government serves different government functions and that government

officials can use any type of new media to communicate with civil society. In the

next section we explore how members of the public, in turn, communicate

with government officials through new media and whether they view these

processes as fruitful or not. It is up to you, then, to select which new media you

can use to convey your views about government to government.

Case study 7.1 Governments communicating with people

through the internet

The South African government website provides information about the

government to all citizens, those in South Africa and those residing

overseas who access the government's website to see what the government

offers them. The website address is www.gov.za.

Other interesting websites to visit would be that of the US government. On

the site you can also find US President Barack Obama's blog where you

can send your message to him or communicate with other citizens of the

world about issues of the day that affect people worldwide.

You can explore the websites of other countries' governments (see figures

7.1 and 7.2) as well to find out what governments really communicate to

their citizens via the internet.

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Figure 7.1: USA government online (Ko 2009; Usa.gov [sa])

As you can see in figure 7.1, infor mation is given on the US government

website on benefits and grants that people can get from the government

and apply for online, money and taxes, public safety and law,

environmental issues as well energ y (or electricity) and agricultural

issues, family and community infor mation, infor mation about consum-

ing products, science and technolog y, available jobs and education, and

lots of other infor mation that you will find on the website which does

not appear in figure 7.1.

 118

Figure 7.2: Singapore MyeCitizen (Ko 2009; myeCitizen [sa])

The Singapore government also offers useful services to its citizens, similar

to those provided by the South African and US governments for their

citizens.

ACTIVITY 7.2 Government websites

Have a look at the different websites in figures 7.1 and 7.2 above. Also

look at the South African government website. Jot down the differences

between the websites in your journal and evaluate which government

offers more useful services to citizens.

Case study 7.2 Telephones for e-government

Telephones are also technology networks that are used by governments to

communicate with members of the public, eg when the President wants to

communicate with local government officials to ensure that the latter

provide local residents with public services, the President or presidential

staff can make telephone calls to the relevant public officials and give them

the necessary instructions to deliver public services. E-mails can also be

sent by senior government officials (or national government officials) to

advise the local government officials on how to serve local people better,

whether with health, education or housing services.

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An example of a telephone line that South African government officials use

to communicate with members of the public to solve their problems (when

those members of the public have complained or voiced their concerns to

government officials via the same hotline or other technologies) is shown

in figure 7.3.

The South African Presidential Hotline

at http://www.thepresidency.gov.za

Figure 7.3: South African presidential hotline (The Presidency [sa])

Everyone is welcome to phone the hotline and communicate with

government representatives to ask what the government can do for

them.

Community members can also access government services on

computers found in telecentres. As seen in figure 7.4 telecentre users

at Siyabonga Telecentre in Orange Farm, outside Johannesburg, use

computers to access e-government services, among other things.

Telecentres Telecentres are given different names, including telecottages, community

technology centres, community communication shops, networked learning

centres, multipurpose community centres, digital clubhouses and community

access centres. Telecentres have generally been advocated as a means of

providing both information and communication facilities in underdeveloped

areas, which are those areas with minimal or no telecommunications

services. In South Africa there are many such areas. Telecentres are usually

established in these areas to provide inhabitants with cheaper and affordable

access to and usage of ICT facilities, including the internet. Reilly and Go
 mez

(2001:1) define a telecentre as a physical space that provides public access to

ICTs for communication purposes, and other aims including educational,

personal, social and economic development. There are many telecentres in

South Africa established in rural and urban areas by government agencies

such the Universal Service and Access Agency of South Africa (USAASA) and

the Government Communications and Information Services (GCIS) (see

Lesame 2009).
 120

Figure 7.4: Telecentre users at Siyabonga Telecentre (Lesame 2009)

Orange Farm has both urban and rural characteristics and so is semi-urban

or semi-rural sociodemographically because it constitutes large urban

houses, modern businesses and small shacks with cattle and donkeys

roaming around some streets. It is a fast-growing area, economically

speaking.

7.3 Applications of new media in political environments

New media are usually used in some of the following ways in politics or e-

government:

Allocution Allocution means the ``simultaneous distribution of information to an

audience of local units by a centre that serves as the source of, and decision

agency for, the information (in respect of its subject matter, time and speed''

(Van Dijk 2006:10). This simply means sending information from a mass

medium to audiences, with minimal or no chance of the audience responding

to such messages, eg as in old broadcasting technology where you listen to

the radio and watch TV sitting on a couch at home without responding to the

TV presenter or newsreader on TV.

Old media include old broadcasting media such as one-way TV and radio,

home videos, pay-per-view TV and so on. New media such as interactive TV

(for example video conferencing and live satellite broadcasting) do not

promote allocution because allocution emphasises one-way communication

from the source to audiences. New media promote consultation,

conversation and registration which puts more emphasis on the interactive

element.

Conversation Conversation and consultation involve two-way communication between

and consultation senders and receivers of mass messages. They form information traffic
 121 COM3704/1

patterns which are made easier by new media such as the internet, e-mail

and SMS, which promote shared messages between civil society members

and governments.

Consultation is seeking information rather than sharing it, or the seeking of

knowledge from a source by a receiver. It also promotes two-way

communication, such as the use of DVDs, telephone phone-ins to radio

stations and live TV programmes to air your views, and interactive media

such as e-mail and other methods of communicating electronically where

you can use an interactive medium to respond to political messages around

you. Van Dijk (2006:10) defines consultation as the ``selection of information

(primarily) by local units, which decide upon the subject matter, time and

speed, at a centre which remains its source''. Old consultative media are

books, newspapers and other traditional mass media that do not promote

immediate responses from audiences to mass media journalists, media

centres or broadcasters.

Registration Registration involves the writing and recording of political messages where

information can be retrieved, printed and reused at a later stage, such as

information stored in computers, the internet, e-mail or recorded in other

ways or media. For example, government can store data on computers

about all citizen activities and retrieve the information from the computers

when they need it.

There are several allocution e-government applications, as well consultative,

registration and conversational applications that we as members of the public

can use to contact governments about issues of concern. Some of these new

media applications are listed in table 7.1. The new media applications listed

there are not the only ones, and you are welcome to mention other new

media in your essays or assignments.

Table 7.1: Applications of the new media in the political system

Application Use in the political system

Allocution . the press and broadcasting

. political campaigns (mostly posters

on city street lights and newspaper

or mass media campaigns)

. government information campaigns

(also usually in old mass media)

Consultation . mass public information campaigns

. advanced public information sys-

tems (such as the internet)

. civil service information centres

(such as digital villages, telecentres

and other similar centres)

 122

Application Use in the political system

Registration . government and public administra-

tion registration systems such as

information captured online

. computer-assisted citizen enquiries

. electronic polls, eg government can

ask people to vote on an issue

online and then count the votes and

make a decision on the issue based

on popular vote

. electronic referenda ± government

can ask people to decide on an

issue by participating and voting in

an online referendum, eg people

can decide on whether a death

penalty should be banned in a

country or not and government can

take the popular public feeling

decided by the referendum results

. electronic elections ± people can

vote online in elections taking place

in their country while they are

physically located in other countries

Conversation . e-mail ± people can send govern-

ment officials and presidential staff

members e-mail messages to voice

their opinions, demands and views

. electronic debates and teleconfer-

encing ± people can join online

debates on issues of interest to

them

. group decision support systems ±

group members or members of

political groups can support the

decisions of their leaders or groups

by discussing issues in interactive

media such as social media like

Facebook and other internet or

interactive media

Adapted from Van Dijk (1999:98)

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ACTIVITY 7.3 E-government: government communicating

with citizens via technology

Have you ever experienced a situation where government has

communicated with you or members of your community via

technological means?

If yes, describe in your journal which government communicated to you

and how. If no, move on to reading the next section.

7.4 Computer networks and the spread of politics

New media are used by members of society to achieve specific goals,

whether these people are politicians, members of political parties, local

government officials or citizens in general who are not working in

government offices or departments. The following activity aims to shed

some light on these purposes of e-government and also explains why

members of the public in turn communicate to government by using new

media.

ACTIVITY 7.4 Apply what you know about process notes

Study-read sections 7.3 and 7.4 in chapter 7 of your textbook. Write a

short essay on the role of new media in spreading political ideas in

society and beyond national borders. The essay can be 11‰ pages long.

Some of the ways of using new media to spread political ideas include the

following:

. political communication from governments directed at members of the

public:

. interaction between civil society and government departments online

concerning political issues

. government policies, public debates on issues, government announce-

ments and policy changes

. speeches by politicians and programmes of action to be implemented by

government

Members of the public can use new media to influence government decisions

or send their messages, demands and complaints to government officials via

website access points, cellphone and telephone calls or hotlines (see, for

example, the hotline for President Jacob Zuma of South Africa in figure 7.3).

In many countries of the world cellphones and the internet are used by

citizens to campaign against governments that do not meet their needs as

well as governments that do not respect human rights or do not treat some

members of society justly. New media are currently playing a crucial role in

ensuring that members of the public participate in reporting events as they

 124

happen. The internet is also contributing towards the realisation of

democratic ideals although governments can shut it down. New media such

as cellphones and SMSs play a crucial role in news reporting and distribution,

especially when internet reporting is experiencing functional problems.

Countries viewed as not promoting free press, such as China, Burma and

North Korea, are experiencing what is called ``the rise of citizen journalism

through mobile phones'' (Gordon 2007) and online (Danitz & Strobel 1999;

Chowdhury 2008) because members of society use new media to mobilise

other citizens within and outside their country to revolt against authoritarian

and oppressive governments. Latham (2007:295) also suggests that SMSs are

promoting activism and freedom of speech in China and are redefining ``the

relationship between Chinese media, communication, society and culture''.

New mass media Chowdhury (2008:6) argues that the new mass media model (through the
model use of new media such as cellphones, the internet and others) is redefining

freedom of speech and of the press today and also challenging the

assumptions of the authoritarian press theory. New media are also redefining

how people communicate to news organisations, breaking stories before

authoritarian states determine otherwise. According to Chowdhury

(2008:6), the new mass media model has had two major features:

. ``The Internet has drastically reduced the cost of producing and publishing

media content since there are only minimal barriers to creating Web

content; and

. The Internet has also decentralised and distributed media production,

which makes it much harder for authoritarian regimes to capture media

outlets.''

Although reporting news through new media such as the internet still has its

own challenges, such as being shut down (for example the shutting down of

Google in China where Google rerouted their messages to Hong Kong see

figure 7.5), or networks breaking down, it offers an alternative to news

reporting in countries characterised by authoritarian states which do not

promote a free press and protection of human rights. See also online articles

listed at the end of this study unit which illustrate the many uses of new

media by journalists and members of society to express their views about

governments they are unhappy with concerning different issues. Zimbab-

weans have also used the internet on a daily basis to express their

dissatisfaction with ageing President Robert Mugabe's government policies

and practices.
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Figure 7.5 A Chinese man celebrating the exit of Google from China on the

Google sign (Lee 2010)

ACTIVITY 7.5: Apply what you know about e-government

processes

If it is possible for you visit your national government's website, go to it

and explore the following questions (if it is not possible for you to access

this website at present, try do so at a later stage, soon). The South

African government website is available at www.gov.za.

1. What does the government communicate to you? What does the

website add/contribute to your engagement with government?

Does the website allow you to communicate your views back to the

government? If yes, did you receive a response from the

government officials promptly and was your problem solved?

2. What can you read (words), see (pictures and so on), hear (perhaps

listen to a podcast or an online video of one of the President's major

speeches) on the website?

3. Why has the government put the information on that website and

for whom? Consider here government-to-citizens (G2C) commu-

nication, government-to-business enterprises (G2B) communica-

tion, information from government to other stakeholders such as

traditional leaders, civic unions, local government officials, security

personnel and the police and so on.

4. How do you feel about what the government says on this website,

especially on issues that concern you or affect your wellbeing

directly?

5. Did you send your comments or feedback to the government via

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any feedback means provided on that website and did you have your

say on issues of the day that interest you? If not, why not?

7.5 Citizens using technology to communicate with

government

As we said earlier in this study unit, in as much as government communicates

with citizens via technology, citizens can also use different new media to

communicate their views to government. Case studies 7.3 to 7.6

demonstrate how citizens say the things they want to say to government

and to other people or organisations, and about governments in different

new media (note that the newspaper articles are also available online and are

accessible).

Read through case studies 7.3 to 7.6 and learn about how you can also use

different media, from YouTube, e-mail, telephones, DVDs, films and other

new media.

Case study 7.3 Call centre from hell is no help to citizens

Case studies 7.3 and 7.4 show you that members of the public are not

always happy with or impressed by government and e-government

services, and take the opportunity to let government officials know it.
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Case study 7.4 Zuma's office not taking my free call

Networks and ``The central theme in the use of networks in politics is power. The division

political power of power is one of the most important social aspects in the design and use of

communication networks and new media are by no means technically or

politically neutral'' (Van Dijk 2006:95). The structure of a network enables

both centralisation and decentralisation the centre, nodes and terminals can

be connected in several ways. In the future, the central or peripheral position

of people inside communication networks, or their exclusion from these

networks, will largely determine their position in society. See the discussion

of the digital divide in your textbook. Those with access to ICT may be able

to use networks but those with power in society may use networks to

exercise that power, ie centralisation of power. Van Dijk (2006:95) further

argues that ``the content transmitted through networks is of secondary

importance. This shows how deceptive popular phrases such as `information

is power' and `knowledge is power' can be. It is not just having access to

knowledge that is important, but also being in the right position to use that

information.''

Networks enable us to use information or they prevent us from using that

information if access has deliberately been shut down. One thing is certain,

though: people who do not have access to communication networks or the

skill to use them, or to process and select information distributed by them,

will be powerless. The digital divide should therefore be bridged by countries

so that more people can obtain information by accessing and using those

computers (see, for example, Gurumurthy et al 2006; Tongia 2006; Fuchs &

Horak 2008). We can improve our power and ability to use information by

making use of communication networks which enable us to share

information and even obtain more information from other powerful and

knowledgeable people elsewhere. We can do this even though there will

always be other people who manage and control these networks within

organisations who sometimes thwart and even act as gatekeepers of

electronic communication.

whydemoc- New media provide more and better political government information.

racy.net Consider the kind of information, for example, that you can get from political

websites such as whydemocracy.net (figure 7.6) and electronic political

movies that you can get online and also on DVDs such as Maria and Osmey
 128

(Cuba), Miss Democracy (Spain) and My body and weapon (India) ± in figure

7.7. In these new media movies citizens express their feelings and views

about issues they are concerned about in their countries and say what they

think about their governments of the day.

Figure 7.6: whydemocracy.net website (Commonwealth Broadcasting

Association 2010)

The above figure (7.6) and figure 7.7 on next page, demonstrate that citizens

can have a voice in political systems and can use new media of different

types, even SMSs, to convey their views. You, as a citizen, can do the same if

you need to communicate with government.

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Figure 7.7: Political communication, new media and online movies

(whydemocracy.net 2010)

ACTIVITY 7.6 Communicating with government via

technology

Do you have something to say to government? If yes, use any of the

technologies mentioned in this study unit to convey your message to the

government. You can also use movies or social media or online videos,

eg see those on YouTube.

7.6 The digital divide and e-government

Countries experiencing the digital divide problem have to reduce the digital

divide by providing public access to ICTs in homes and public centres such as

schools, libraries, telecentres and post offices. Computers should be widely

available in a country and most people should have internet access so that

they can use it to interact with governments and politicians about issues that

are of major concern to them. If there is a huge digital divide problem in a

country, there may not be digital democracy and governments may not reach
 130

the millions of people they wish to reach when they post their information

on internet websites. The digital divide may therefore deprive people of

internet information as well as e-government services, so it has to be

reduced and, even better, eliminated. Some governments reduce the digital

divide by sending their information to the electorate via cellphones and also

via television, in what is known as internet TV or WebTV.

Digital divide The digital divide is often described as the difference between developed

and developing countries in terms of telecommunications (or ICT)

infrastructure and information services. It also refers to the differences in

telecommunications infrastructures and information services of urban and

rural areas in a country or especially in developing countries. (Visit the

internet to find out what the difference is between developing and developed

countries; you can go to the website of the World Bank, which classifies

countries in terms of their economic and development status.) Developed

countries have advanced communication services and their people have

adequate access to ICT (for example Britain, the US, the Republic of Korea,

Japan and Germany).

Most people residing in developing countries have little or absolutely NO

access to ICT, such as urban areas in South Africa and rural areas which have

no ICT access (urban-rural digital divide). Choi (2005:4) defines the digital

divide as ``disparities in access to information and devices across groups''. In

Choi's definition, ``information devices include telephones (either fixed-line

or mobile), personal computers, and the Internet''. Groups may vary by

context. The digital divide may be determined by economic status (rich

versus poor or haves versus have-nots), social class (white collar versus blue

collar), gender (man versus woman), age (young versus old), region (urban

versus rural) or sovereign nations (wealthy versus poor economies) (see, for

example, Van Dijk 2006; Fuchs & Horak 2008; Oyedemi 2009). Van Dijk

(2006:178) defines the digital divide as ``the gap between those who do and

do not have access to computers and the Internet''.

Some of the causes of the digital divide are economic and social inequalities

between people and countries. People who usually have computers and use

the internet are those that can afford to do so and that have an income (or a

job) and education (being literate as opposed to being uneducated or

illiterate). People need to be educated so that they can learn computer usage

or electronic skills.

ACTIVITY 7.7 Apply what you know about e-government

processes

Do you live in a rural area, township or small town located far from

government departments? Perhaps you do not have money right now to

travel to the city to visit the Department of Home Affairs to apply for

some personal documents, such as a passport or an identity document,

or other services such as a social grant for a child, a disabled person or

an elderly person. Is there any other government service that you wish
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to receive but you don't want to stand in long queues in some

government offices? Then if you have such needs, just visit the

government website and see how you can access these services and

apply for the services online.

If you are a South African citizen, visit the website www.services.gov.za/.

On this website, you will see several services offered by the South

African government, from tax returns to TV and postal services, from

labour issues and services to travel documents, from health and

education issues, from registrations of business, from thusong service

centres (TSCs) to intellectual property rights (especially if you are a

movie or music producer or any other artist), from export permits and

issues of permanent residence (if you are a foreign citizen wishing to be

a South African permanently) and many other public services. Just click,

click, click and apply.

7.6.1 Theoretical examination of the digital divide and its stages

A theoretical examination of the digital divide traces its origins to the social

inclusion policy agenda of the 1980s and 1990s (Selwyn 2004:341). The issue

of combating social exclusion and establishing an inclusive society now forms

the basis of policies in many countries (Selwyn 2004:343). A lot has improved

since 1999, in terms of access to ICTs and information by people in different

countries although there are still many people without digital technology,

access and skills.

ICT inequality (the digital divide) results in social polarisation and exclusion

because the poor who cannot afford to access and use ICTs are unemployed

and uneducated. They remain so since they are unemployable (because they

are uneducated and sometimes computer illiterate). The rich are upwardly

mobile, have ICT access and employ ICT for further personal advancement

and economic prosperity. Van Dijk (2006:183) terms this phenomenon ``the

Matthew effect'', which we discussed in a previous study unit. To refresh

your memory, it is based on the Bible verse from Matthew which says ``For

to everyone who has, more shall be given'' (Matt. 25:29). Interventions to

reduce the digital divide, such as ``telecentres, libraries, community ICT

centres and phone shops, should be deployed because reducing the divide

could assist toward the reduction of social ills, including illiteracy and poverty,

which are South Africa's major problems'' (Lesame 2009:447-450).

The digital divide is widely defined and understood as occurring in the stages

indicated in table 7.2:

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Table 7.2: Stages in the digital divide

Stages in dealing with the digital Infrastructure and ICT usage

divide

Formal or theoretical access to ICT Provision of ICT at home, community

and content and work settings

Effective or meaningful access to ICT Provision of ICT at home, community

and content and work; individual access provided

(by government, private sector or

other provider)

Use of ICT ICT and meaningful ICT usage

Engagement with ICT and content Users should exercise control and

choice over technology and employ

ICT to their advantage and develop-

ment. ICT content should be relevant

to the user and should, if possible, be

in the user's local language for

message effectiveness.

Outcomes of ICT usage (actual and Relevant content leads to positive

perceived) benefits arising from ICT usage and

these benefits range from production

Consequences of ICT usage (actual of new content, political, social, con-

and perceived) sumption, and savings. If ICT is not

relevant to the user, it may have a

negative or no impact on the user.

Users should therefore create their

own relevant content in the ICT

environment instead of consuming

existing irrelevant ICT content.

Adapted from Selwyn (2004:352)

Table 7.2 illustrates forms of activity that result from using ICT. These

activities are production, political, social, consumption and savings (Selwyn

2004:343±349). ``Production activity implies engaging in an economically or

socially valued activity, such as paid work, education or training and caring for

a family.''

Telecentres Telecentres engage in productive activity because they are providing

employment. Others offer educational services in the form of computer

literacy training (Lesame 2009:447±448). Social, economic and political

capital are strategic resources required to reduce the effects of the digital

divide by reducing the digital and information gaps between the information

poor and information rich, thus reducing digital exclusion and promoting

digital inclusion. ``Governments also use telecentres to provide government

services to telecentre users'' (Lesame 2009:425).

In South Africa, more productive activity could occur at telecentres if

telecentre managers and users were to gain access to social and economic
 133 COM3704/1

capital. Social capital means that individuals should want to use ICT for their

own benefit and should further use ICT to uplift themselves. Van Dijk

(2006:179) calls social capital ``motivational access'', which means that

people should be motivated to use ICT out of their own free will. Motivation

then depends on an individual and each individual should be encouraged to

access and use ICT meaningfully. Motivational access also requires that any

social, cultural and psychological fears or inhibitions to access and use ICT be

eliminated before accessing and using the ICT. Motivational and material

access are therefore important requirements for ICT access and skills

development. Innovation occurs after ICT users have acquired ICT skills and

mastered ICT usage.

Economic or finance capital means that finance should be accessible to

telecentre managers and users, which can assist these groups to make better

use of ICT, because through finance access can be gained to other human and

technological resources. Van Dijk (2006:179) terms this ``required economic

capital material access to ICT'', and regards it as crucial since it enables ICT

users to acquire skills required to understand and use ICT, ie strategic,

informational, operational and digital skills. These skills involve knowledge

required to use computer software and hardware so that people are

employable or can operate in the ICT sector and network society where

internet communication is crucial. Finance also provides access to

networking facilities and opportunities, which further open other personal

development opportunities. Political capital, or government support in

different ways, including finance, human resources and technology, is also

required and necessary to build ICT infrastructure in communities, thus

providing access to ICT.

Republic of A powerful example of political capital can be seen in the Republic of

Korea Korea, where the government provided ICT access to all Koreans and

further ``trained over 10 million people in IT skills'' (Forge & Bohlin 2008:299)

and provided broadband internet connections to 78% of Korea's 16 million

households by 2004. Korea `'now leads the world with more than 84 per

cent of the country 's 30 million Internet subscribers using digital subscriber

line (DSL) and cable modems'' (Forge & Bohlin 2008:299). Ko (2009) states

that Korea has digital inclusion as a major ICT policy as over 90% of

Koreans have internet access and use it on a daily basis.

 134

Digital inclusion Digital inclusion therefore depends on an individual getting themselves

connected to the internet via an internet service provider (ISP) and paying for

that service, based on interest and affordability of ICT usage. It is also driven

by governments who provide ICT access to everyone else who cannot afford

that connectivity and use on their own (for example, the urban and rural

poor). There are poor people in most developing countries and these people

require government support to access many services, not only computer,

education and internet services.

China China also exhibits political will to connect the whole country to telephones

and the internet. The Chinese government connected all its villages to

telecommunications networks by legislating that telecom service providers

should provide public phones in all villages. The Village Access Project was

also implemented, which ensured that more than 90% of Chinese villages

had access to telephones between 2004 and 2007 (Xia & Lu 2008:686).

Another Asian country that provides e-government services in visible ways to

most members of society is India.

Social activity means engaging in significant social interaction with family and

friends through ICT, and identifying with a cultural group or community.

Political activity involves participating in online political discussions, if access

to the internet is possible. The 2008 South Africa ICT access and usage study

revealed that mobile is not yet the total solution owing to low levels of access

to ICT (Gillwald & Stork 2008:1). A major area of concern is the low

penetration rate for the internet, as far as Oyedemi (2009) is concerned.

While in other African countries those without home internet use cybercafe
Âs

to get online, in South Africa this is achieved primarily through work and

school.

ICT access and usage has resulted in a reduction of the digital divide, although

to a limited scale. Economic and educational benefits have also been gained

as a result of ICT access and usage, but these have also been minimal.

``Savings activity means accumulating savings, pensions entitlements or

owning property '' (Selwyn 2004:351). Telecentre research by Benjamin

(2001) identifies savings made by local telecentre managers. For example,

Phalala and Mothapo telecentres in Limpopo were both ``making money,

supported in their community '' (Benjamin 2001:7). Although minimal, such

savings afforded the managers a minimum living wage to reduce poverty but

not live in luxury (see Lesame 2009). No pensions or property ownerships

have been identified as having resulted from owning or operating a local

telecentre, but emerging SME owners have been identified locally as owning

telecoms companies such as phone shops and web design companies. Also

new black economic empowerment (BEE) executives have invested in

empowerment stakes in previously state-owned telecoms companies (eg

Telkom South Africa).

Digital divide The digital divide existed in the 1970s and 1980s as well, except that at that

theoretical time it was known as the telecoms and information gap between the

model developed and developing countries. ``In the 1970s, the New World

Information and Communication Order (NWICO), an initiative of the United

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO),

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attempted to balance inequalities between the flow of technology and

information between developed countries (known as the centre) and

developing countries (the periphery) by establishing the NWICO. The

historical evolution of the NWICO related directly to the concept of free

flow of information between countries'' (Oosthuizen & Qakisa 1996:120±

123). It aimed at promoting information flow from the developing to the

developed countries, eg promotion of reporting of more positive news from

the developing countries and about the developing countries by global news

agencies was encouraged, as was the idea that developing countries

themselves should promote positive reporting about themselves in global

media.

After the NWICO, the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) was

developed, which aimed at finding new ways of addressing the digital divide,

beyond 2000. Between the NWICO and WSIS, regional ventures to address

Africa's position in the information society were developed in the 1990s,

including Africa's Information Society Initiative (AISI), an initiative of the

st
Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). ``The AISI was founded at the 21

session of the conference of African ministers of social and economic

development planning in Addis Ababa in 1995'' (Thapisa & Birabwa 1998:49±

52). At that conference, the African leaders took a resolution supporting the

adoption and usage of ICT for development by African countries. This

resolution led to the establishment of working groups that would consult

with ICT experts in Africa and beyond, with a view to devising strategic plans

and strategies aimed at implementing African ICT projects for development.

``Policies such as liberalisation and privatisation were adopted by African

governments, as a result of the ECA's promotion of the policies to member

countries. The ECA also promoted regional cooperation and fundraising for

the spread of ICT in Africa. The ECA stated in 1999 that Africa needs better

infrastructure to increase demand and lower costs'' (Africa Recovery

1999:17).

Global communication governance is characterised by neoliberalism of

Western countries at one end of the spectrum and communication rights of

developing countries and civil societies at the other. Neoliberalism is

characterised by fiscal austerity, the privatisation of state-controlled

programmes and liberalised markets without tariffs, subsidies and other

protections. On one hand markets are expanded through globalisation, and

``digital capitalism'' is promoted, while on the other labour standards,

consumer protections and public interest provisions are ignored (Pickard

2007:120±121). These market developments have also occurred in South

Africa since the South African telecommunications liberalisation policy was

released (see the Department of Communications website ± www.doc.gov.-

za ± and visit the site for more details on South Africa's ICT policies ± past,

present and future).

The NWICO promoted national sovereignty and argued for promoting

developing countries' access to mass media, communication technology and

information. It also promoted the voice of the South in the global information

highway and flow. WSIS, in Tunis, Tunisia, also aimed at assisting countries to
 136

devise strategies attempting to bridge the digital divide (Lesame 2009). The

first WSIS summit took place in Geneva, Switzerland, in 2003. Lobbying

groups pushed the promotion of women's access to ICT and training of

women in ICT skills, and development of regional and national ICT strategies

aimed at eliminating barriers inhibiting women's access to and usage of ICT

(Gurumurthy et al 2006:9).

WSIS WSIS furthered the neoliberal aim of reducing the digital divide between

North and South but debates struggled to provide final financing and

implementation solutions. However, WSIS succeeded in bringing together

governments of the North and South and international agencies to debate

issues on to the digital divide and propose new ICT interventions aimed at

reducing the divide, including (Gurumurthy et al 2006:9)

(a) ``providing women with access to mass media and ICT;

(b) training more women in the mass media and ICT sectors;

(c) developing communications and information networks that benefit

women;

(d) promotion of diverse and positive portrayals of women in media and

ICT content;

(e) promotion of positive values in media, such as peace, respect and non-

discrimination and

(f) promotion of ICT usage for development''

The second phase of the WSIS was aimed at focusing on the digital divide.

The digital divide relates to connectivity, and is not a cause but a symptom of

other divides, ie economic, gender, age, geographic and other divides. The

Four A theoretical framework provides a useful model for thinking about and

addressing the digital divide (Tongia 2006:2). The Four A's are awareness,

availability of ICT or accessibility to it, ability to use ICTs and affordability of

ICTs by users. These concepts are briefly described below:

(a) Awareness: People should gain knowledge about what ICT can be used

for, and should be open-minded about using it. In other words, this

refers to the social capital or motivational access discussed earlier in this

section, which individuals should possess if they are to employ ICT

effectively.

(b) Availability or accessibility: This means that ICT should be available to

users within reasonable proximity, with appropriate hardware and

software that users are able to use. Also, the necessary ICT training

should be available at an ICT centre. Telecentre staff should be well

trained to impart ICT skills to telecentre users and should also train

themselves periodically in ICT skills as the need arises.

(c) Ability to use ICT: This includes computer literacy, understanding of

computer language, ie what Van Dijk (2006:179) calls digital skills to

operate computers.

(d) Affordability: This means that people should spend only a few per cent of

their income on ICT usage (below 10%). In other words, ICT usage

should be made affordable by service providers. If ICT usage is

expensive, poorer members of society are unable to employ it.

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7.6.2 Addressing the digital divide

Reducing the digital divide requires that improvements be implemented in

processes of ICT provision or delivery. Tongia (2006:3) also proposes a four

C framework, which national governments, with assistance of the private

sector, could adopt in dealing with the digital divide. The four C's are

computing, connectivity, content and capacity development (or human

resources development of ICT skills training):

. Computing refers to the provision of computers to members of society,

whether at home, schools, telecentres or libraries.

. Connectivity indicates connectivity of people worldwide to telecoms

networks to enable them to access ICT services. Cellphones can assist in

speeding up connectivity.

. Content refers to relevant and meaningful ICT content for users. It is

advisable that ICT content be in local languages, for relevance and

effectiveness.

. Capacity refers to the need for ICT skills training for people employing

ICT. Governments and the private sector should play a leading role in this

regard because of their access to funding, new technology and

technological knowledge or innovation.

Telecentres are necessary to bridge the infrastructure and information gaps in

developing countries. For the digital divide to be bridged, it is also imperative

that developing country governments provide people with access to ICT.

Some examples of local ICT projects aimed at bridging the rural-urban digital

divide are the Department of Communication's wireless internet laboratories

(DoC-WILs), cyber-laboratories, post office information centres, also known

as public information terminals (PITs), internet provision to schools (eg E-

Rate), community digital hubs, satellite broadcasting classes to schools and

thusong service centres (Roodt & Conradie 2001; Tlabela 2001; Universal

Service Agency 2002, 2004, 2006a, 2006b; Universal Service and Access

Agency of South Africa 2008a, 2008b). South Africa, like other African

countries, continues to establish ICT access points although there is still some

way to go for many people to access ICT.

Developed countries do assist developing countries in the provision of this

access through projects like the Digital Opportunity Task Force (DotForce)

and NEPAD. DotForce is a World Bank programme, aimed at providing ICT

to people in the developing world. NEPAD is an African initiative supported

by business and African governments. What is apparent in the above

discussion is that parties with access to economic capital or funding should be

actively involved in providing ICT access at affordable costs to those residing

in developing countries. ICT centres should be located in close proximity to

users, and users should be provided with adequate ICT usage skills by those

who have adequate funding and ICT know-how. It is also imperative that ICT

content be in languages understood better by users, for message

effectiveness and positive impact.

 138

7.7 E-government theories

Theories usually explain what happens in real life. The same applies to

theories that explain how governments use the internet and other media to

communicate with civil society and vice versa. The following theories explain

processes of e-government (Van Dijk 2006:102±103):

Reinforcement One view of digital democracy is that ICT can be used for the reinforcement

of institutional of institutional politics, that is, ICT can be used to ``maintain government that

politics is in power in that power and issue government policy to the public''.

Classical Western The classical Western view of democracy or procedural view of democracy

view of regards the Constitution and other laws and rules as the foundations of

democracy democracy.

Competitive Competitive democracy is prevalent in countries with a two-party or a

democracy presidential system and this view suggests that parties and leaders compete

for the support of the electorate. In the competitive democracy view of e-

government, ICT is used for information and election campaigns.

Plebiscitary Plebiscitary democracy argues that ``political decisions have to be made

democracy through referenda or plebiscites''. This implies ``a preference for direct

democracy instead of representative democracy ''. ICT offers opportunities

to hold telepolls and telereferanda (or electronic polls/online voting and

electronic referenda).

Teledemocracy comes into play and is used when individuals are able to vote

online at a point or city of their residence at government-prepared and

designated voting stations to make their voice heard ± whether this is about

selecting a new national leader or any other aspect of society which directly

impacts on their lives.

Pluralist Pluralist democracy emphasises that ``democracy is not the will of the majority

democracy but arises as a result of changing coalitions of minorities''.

Participatory Participatory democracy supports ``socialization of politics, active citizenship

democracy and public participation in political debates through the use of new media

such as the Internet''.

Deliberative Deliberative democracy also suggests that people should use new media to

democracy deliberate on important issues and communicate with government officials,

or debate issues among themselves as members of political parties or those

of the public.

ACTIVITY 7.8 Theories and practices of e-government

Read sections 7.4 to 7.7 in chapter 7 in your prescribed book to

understand the theories explaining e-government. Think about these

theories for a while in terms of how they are played out by political

players such as politicians and others engaging in political battles in

reality and think of examples to explain your thoughts.

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7.8 Conclusive reflections

We have reached the end of this study unit. Reflect on the whole unit and

work through your writing journal about what issues are important in this

study unit. You found out that, among other uses and applications of new

media in society, we can observe in society the following practices and

developments when it comes to the role of new media in politics:

. New media offer possibilities for accessing government services via the

internet.

. Computer communication can facilitate political debates between

members of political parties and also between government officials and

the public.

. No suggestion is made in this study unit that computers can solve the

inefficiencies of governments computers are only communication tools

and therefore they facilitate communication between those communicat-

ing.

. Electronic democracy can be possible if most members of society have

access to and use computers for political communication effectively.

. The digital divide can be reduced if government has the political will to

reduce it and if members of society have the motivation to use computers

wisely to assist government to achieve their goals and also make

comments and contributions to government officials aimed at improving

government service delivery and promoting national unity and crime

prevention.

7.9 Discussion points

The following discussion points are important for when you want to make a

summary of the study unit, revise it and talk about these issues with your

study mates and other citizens:

. Does e-government facilitate effective communication between govern-

ment officials and citizens?

. Does electronic democracy (or digital democracy) exist in your country of

residence?

. Can the use of computer communication by citizens improve their

communication with their government, or president, or government

officials?

. What communication strategy is more useful or effective to better deal

with government inefficiency or the inability of local government officials

to deliver public services to communities, towns or rural areas: sending e-

mails to the government officials or the president, phoning the

presidential hotline or marching to the mayor's offices to deliver a

memorandum of demands and complaints?

. Will computer communication and/or electronic communications im-

prove communication between governments and members of the public?

. Do many people in your country use computers to communicate with

government officials? How about the use of telephones for this purpose?
 140

. Does the digital divide exist in your country? Elaborate.

. How can the digital divide be bridged or reduced, if not eliminated?

7.10 Suggested reading and other relevant websites

24.com 2009. Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ): Journo deaths hit

record. http:m.24/content/FullArticle.aspx?aid=f1045de9-1fdc-4c38-

a30d-115401aa43 [Accessed on 26 February 2010].

Balfour, F. 2010. Companies look beyond China's cold shoulder: Google's

departure may hasten attempts to find new bases for Asian expansion.

Business Day, 24 March:12.

BuaNews Online. 2010. www.buanews.gove.za

Canadian Government and Legal Information. 2010. www.aw/uh.edu/libraries/

fi/canada.htm

Chowdhury, M. 2008. The role of the internet in Burma's saffron revolution.

Internet and democracy case study series. Harvard: Harvard University,

The Berkman Centre.

City Press. 2010. Business. Google jabs at China's censorship wall: US

business' deafening silence on firm's war cry for internet freedom. 28

March:4.

Danitz, T & Strobel, WP. 1999. The internet's impact on activism: the case of

Burma. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 22(3):257±269.

Fuchs, C & Horak, E. 2008. Africa and the digital divide. Telematics and

Informatics, 25:99±116.

Gordon, J. 2007. The mobile phone usage in three critical situations.

Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media

Technologies, 13(3):307±319.

Government of Australia. 2010. www.service.sa.gov.au.

Karikari, K. 2004. Press freedom in Africa: challenges and opportunities. New

Economy, 11:184±186.

Latham, K. 2007. SMS, communication and citizenship in China's information

society. Critical Asian Studies, 39(2):295±314.

Montagnon, P. 2000. Information age may promote Asian democracy: Asians

less willing to accept authoritarianism. Business Day, 7 January:7.

Oorlog so in ruimte van internet gevoer. 1997. Bloemfontein: Instituut vir

Eietydse Geskiedenis: Die Universiteit van die Oranje-Vrystaat.

Oyedemi, T. 2009. Social inequalities and the South African ICT access policy

agendas. International Journal of Communication, 3:151±168.

Pitts, G. 2000. Democracy and press freedom in Zambia: attitudes of

members of parliament toward media and media regulation. Commu-

nication Law & Policy, 5(2):269±294.

South African Government Online. 2010. www.gov.za.

South African Government Services. 2010. www.services.gov.za.

South African yearbook. 2008/09. Communications. Pretoria: Government

Communications and Information Systems.

Staff Writer Sapa-AFP. 2010a. http://mybroadband.co.za/news/internet/

11986-Vietnam-rejects-Google-hacking-accu [Accessed on 07 April

2010].
 141 COM3704/1

Staff Writer Sapa-AP. 2010b. China-based hackers stole Indian national

security information http://mybroadband.co.za/news/internet/12003-Chi-

na [Accessed on 07 April 2010].

Staff Writer Sapa-AFP. 2010c. Yahoo! Sidestepped a report on email hacking

in China. http://mybroadband.co.za/news/internet/11957-Yahoo-sidesteps-

hacking-report.html [Accessed on 07 April 2010].

Sunday Times. 2009. China bans ``too real'' TV soapie. 27 December:6.

Timberlake, I. 2010. Web security attacks. http://mybroadband.co.za/news/

internet/11972-Political-blogs-hacked.html [Accessed on 07 April 2010].

Van Dijk, JAGM. 1999. The network society: social aspects of new media.

London: Sage.

Van Dijk, JAGM. 2006. The network society: social aspects of new media. 2nd

edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage.YouTube PresidencyZA's Channel. 2010.

www.youtube.com/PresidencyZA.

Zapiro. 2007. Cartoon. Mail&Guardian Online. 4 October. www.mg.co.za/

zapiro/fullcartoon/197 [Accessed on 20 April 2010].

References

Africa Recovery. 1999. Africa defines its electronic agenda: several countries

are working on their information infrastructure: more will follow.

December:17±20.

Barzilai-Nahon, K. 2006. Gaps and bits: conceptualising measurements for

digital divide/s. The Information Society, 22(5):269±278.

Benjamin, P. 2001. USA telecentre survey. Community: unity through

communication. South African Community Newsletter. Johannesburg:

Graduate School of Public and Development Management, University of

the Witwatersrand.

Benjamin, P & Dahms, M. 1999. Socialise the modem of production - the role of

telecentres in development. Johannesburg: Link Centre, University of

Johannesburg.

Choi, B. 2005. Digital divide in the APEC: myth and reality. Paper delivered at

the International Telecommunications Society Conference. Perth,

Curtin University of Technology.

Chowdhury, M. 2008. The role of the internet in Burma's saffron revolution.

Internet and democracy case study series. Harvard: Harvard University,

The Berkman Centre.

City Press. 2010. Google jabs at China's censorship wall: US business'

deafening silence on firm's war cry for internet freedom. 28 March:4.

Commonwealth Broadcasting Association. 2010. South African Broadcasting

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burg, 17±21 April.

Danitz, T & Strobel, WP. 1999. The internet's impact on activism: the case of

Burma. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 22(3):257±269.

Davison, R, Vogel, D, Harris, R & Jones, N. 2000. Technology leapfrogging in

developing countries: an inevitable luxury? Electronic Journal on

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Forge, S & Bohlin, E. 2008. Managed innovation in Korea in telecommunica-

 142

tions moving towards 4G mobile at a national level. Telematics &

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Fuchs, C & Horak, E. 2008. Africa and the digital divide. Telematics and

Informatics, 25:99±116.

Gillwald, A & Stork, C. 2008. ICT access and usage in South Africa.

Johannesburg: Link Centre, University of Witwatersrand.

Gordon, J. 2007. The mobile phone usage in three critical situations.

Convergence: The International Journal of Research into New Media

Technologies, 13(3):307±319.

Gurumurthy, A, Singh, PJ, Mundkur, A & Swamy, M. 2006. Gender in the

information society: emerging issues. New Delhi: The Asia-Pacific

Development Information Programme.

Hargittai, E. 2003. The digital divide and what to do about it. In Jones, C.

(ed). New economy handbook. New York: Elsevier.

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Ko, Y-S. 2009. New technologies in implementing e-government and

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University of South Africa.

Latham, K. 2007. SMS, communication and citizenship in China's information

society. Critical Asian Studies, 39(2):295±314.

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Hong Kong irks Beijing advertisers. Business Report, 23 March:25.

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countries. Pretoria: Van Schaik.

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(ICTs) in development: a case study of the role of telecentres in the

education of users. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

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Pretoria: University of South Africa.

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Telecentre.

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Journal of International Communication, 7(2):14±24.

Mashile, M. 2001. It's time to close the digital divide. City Press, 4 February:3.

Mbatha, BT, Adigun, MO & Kubeka, MPP. 2008. Mapping and auditing the

impact of Web based technologies within the civil services in Kwa-Zulu

Natal government: the case of uMgungundlovu District Municipality,

South Africa. Cape Town: Proceedings of the 10th Annual Conference

on World Wide Web Applications.

Mosco, V. 2009. Approaching digital democracy. New Media Society, 24

November:1±3.

MyeCitizen. www.myecitizen.sg/ec/existingUserCheck.do.

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endeavouring to the technologies needed to compete in the global

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Oosthuizen, LM (ed). Introduction to communication: journalism, press

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Oyedemi, TD. 2009. Social inequalities and the South African ICT access

policy agendas. International Journal of Communication, 3:151±168.

Pickard, V. 2007. Neoliberal visions and revisions in global communica-

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experiences in Asia and Latin America. The Electronic Journal of

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Roodt, J & Conradie, DP. 2001. A learning centre via information and

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Sapa-AP. 2010. Chinese Net users caught in middle of spat: Google move to

outwit censorship. The Star, 24 March:4.

Selwyn, N. 2004. Reconsidering political and popular understandings of the

digital divide. New Media & Society, 6(3):341±362.

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case of China. Telecommunications Policy, 32:686±696.

 144

Study unit 8

Broadcasting digital
migration
(Zandi Lesame)

Key to the Broadcasting Digital Migration

policy is the creation of millions of new jobs

countrywide ± South African Department of Communications (2010:2)

Overview

In this study unit we discuss the relationships between technology, market

developments and policy and regulatory initiatives. We analyse convergence

tendencies at a technological, policy and regulatory level in public broad-

casting services (PBS) internationally. The possible differences in convergence

and policy between developed and developing countries are also discussed.

We raise open questions and issues and give an overview of the different

regulatory possibilities that countries have. In the process we encourage you

to participate in constructive debates about the implications of new media on

broadcasting policy. You must be able to use the theoretical framework to

contribute to making decisions and policy in international broadcasting

through conventional media as well as new media technologies.

8.1 Introduction

There is no doubt that convergence and digital technology have changed the

way broadcasters around the world compile and produce news. Not only

have these developments improved how TV and radio programmes are

produced, but they have also ensured that more content is produced since

digital technology allows countries to have more bandwidth as well as

increased frequency spectrum. This may promote the production of more

TV programmes, as a result of more television channels made available by

broadcasting digital migration (BDM). The new programmes can also

promote the use of more languages in a country, if that country has many

official languages. For example in South Africa there are nine official

languages that national broadcasters should accommodate and produce

programmes in for all the country 's citizens. In this study unit we therefore
 145 COM3704/1

describe some of the latest technological transformations in broadcasting

which have been brought about by the advent of convergence as well as

digitisation of technology.

The South African Communications Department periodically explores ways

to transform broadcasting to benefit South Africans in better ways, and

migrating from analogue to digital broadcasting is one of these ways. ``In

2008, November, the South African government switched on the digital

signal and plans to switch off the analog signal in November 2011'' (South

African Department of Communications 2010:1). Additionally, over the next

few years South Africa will be transformed as broadcasting is digitised,

bringing more digital opportunities to radio listeners and TV viewers as

businesses such as entertainers and advertisers who use broadcasting

services on a daily basis and more radio and TV channels enter the market,

eg TopTV, as a result of expanded bandwidth and more available frequency

spectrum brought about by digital technology.

ACTIVITY 8.1 It's time to observe and compare broadcasting

technologies

1. Read sections 5.2 to 5.6 in your prescribed book to grasp some of

the crucial issues and concepts defining digital broadcasting and its

benefits to broadcasters as well the public that watches (TV) and

listens to (traditional radio and internet radio) broadcasting

channels. These sections form the basis of the chapter in the

textbook so make sure you understand the discussions in these five

sections.

2. Conduct some brief research in your country of residence to

establish what is meant by broadcast digital migration, what its main

purposes are and also its benefits to national broadcasting stations.

Many international broadcasters have changed their analogue

technology to digital technology. See figure 8.1 which shows

different broadcasting stations from different countries of the world

(do yourself a favour and find out from which countries these

broadcasters are, eg SABC is South African, SBS is an Australia

broadcasting station and BBC is the British Broadcasting Corpora-

tion from the United Kingdom). Explain the reasons for this

migration. You are welcome to speak to any international broad-

casters of your choice which are busy with BDM or have just

migrated from analogue to digital broadcasting. If you reside in

South Africa, you can also speak to officials in organisations which

have spearheaded BDM nationally, for example Digital Dzonga (see,

for example, the Digital Dzonga website at www.godigitalsa.co.za for

more information on digital broadcasting), the Department of

Communications (DoC) and the South African Broadcasting

Corporation (SABC) executives and technicians responsible for

BDM.

3. After doing some reading on these issues and major international TV

 146

stations, jot down some notes in your journal about what you have

learned.

8.2 Broadcasting digital migration

Convergence and digitisation have played a key role in determining ICT

services offered in the South African communications sector, including the

move from analogue to digital terrestrial broadcasting services. South Africa's

introduction of BDM in November 2008 by the late Minister of

Communications, Dr Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri, has enabled the provision of

digital broadcasting which allows broadcast stations such as the SABC to

broadcast more services as a result of more available spectrum and increased

bandwidth. BDM also enables improved international broadcasting of

international events such as the 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup. The South

African BDM policy, ushered in by the end of 2008, allows South Africans to

pay an amount for the digital set-up of their TV sets. This amount has been

reported to be about R700, in addition to the usual TV licence fees. The

analogue signal is expected to be cut off in November 2011 and five million of

South Africa's low-income families (in three years) will be subsidised by

government by 70% (about R490) towards the ownership of the set-top

boxes (STBs) in a financing scheme known as ``Scheme for Ownership

Support'' (SOS) (Boloka 2008:2).

Figure 8.1: International broadcasters (Commonwealth Broadcasting

Association 2010)
 147 COM3704/1

BDM is ``the process of converting the broadcast of television broadcasting

signals from analogue (old technology) to digital (new and fast technology

with high bandwidth)'' (Nyanda 2010). Speaking at the Digital Terrestrial

Television Standards Symposium in Midrand, Nyanda stated that the digital

broadcasting standard South Africa should adopt for the future should ensure

that broadcasting services are affordable and that this industry promotes

South Africa's socioeconomic goals. Another advantage of digital technology

is that it offers access to more channels which broadcast in multilanguages

and offer a variety of content. For example, in 2007 pay TV operator

MultiChoice launched new channels, Sony Entertainment and Style Network

on DStv, and new packages to target all income groups. See figure 8.2 for the

converged services that MultiChoice of South Africa offers to its consumers,

from print to DStv services. Also note how MultiChoice dominates the South

African communications industry in this regard (what is sometimes called

horizontal integration. Note that you can also use figure 8.2 to explain

convergence, which we explored in study unit 2). Additionally, digital

terrestrial television (DTT) ``allows for the introduction of high definition

television (HDTV), which provides for excellent quality, wide screen pictures

and advanced value added services'' (South African Department of

Communications 2008:1).

In 1985, Naspers and several other South African media companies formed

the electronic pay-media business M-Net. In 1993, M-Net was divided into

two companies: FilmNet and MultiChoice Limited. See the structure of

Naspers in figure 8.2 below.

Figure 8.2: Naspers structure and media services (Naspers 2010)

 148

Box 8.1 Naspers Company Multimedia Services

Naspers was incorporated in Cape Town on May 12, 1915 under

old South African laws. Naspers started as a printer and publisher of

newspapers and magazines in 1915. Later, book publishing opera-

tions were founded. Naspers' print media operations developed to

such an extent over the years that Naspers is now one of the

leading media groups in South Africa. With the advent of electronic

media, Naspers expanded its activities in the 1980s to incorporate

pay television (pay TV) and later Internet platforms. In 1985,

Naspers and several other South African media companies formed

an electronic pay-media business M-Net. In 1993, M-Net was

divided into two companies. The subscriber management, signal

distribution and cellular telephone businesses, together with a

holding in FilmNet (a pay television operator on Europe) were

placed into a new company called MultiChoice Limited (later named

MIH Holdings Limited). For more of Naspers' business interests and

ownerships in Europe and other regions of the world such as Asia,

especially China and Thailand, as well as Latin America, among

others, visit the Naspers Web site and read about what multimedia

services they offer with which companies and in which countries

(Naspers 2010). The Naspers website is located at

www.naspers.com.

Figure 8.3 below shows broadcasting (DTT) standards adopted by countries

in specific regions.

Figure 8.3: DTT broadcasting system by countries (Magazi 2009)

The digital migration process also ensured that huge bandwidth and the

massive data transmission requirements for the 2010 Soccer World Cup

were met because it allows for more television channels to be broadcast in

the same bandwidth than the one current analogue channel uses. Telkom

(see figure 8.4) provided the backbone of the communications network and

offered connectivity to all media centres via protected optic fibre routes and

satellite communications to FIFA Soccer World Cup 2010 stadiums.

 149 COM3704/1

Additionally, the communications network linked several organisations that

facilitated the 2010 FIFA Soccer World Cup. These organisations included

the Nasrec broadcasting centre in Johannesburg which connected broad-

casters in the country with others nationally and overseas, Sentech ± the

signal distributor, the 2010 World Cup Local Organising Committee chaired

by Danny Jordaan, FIFA offices nationally and overseas (Zurich in Switzer-

land), the SABC and other broadcasters such as e.tv (and others shown in

figure 8.1 of this study unit), the South African Football Association (SAFA),

global media and other communications services to companies operating in

the tourism and entertainment industries. Beyond 2014, South Africa will be

enjoying many TV channels as a result of the introduction of BDM in 2008 as

well the switch-off of the analogue signal in 2011 or 2013/14 at the latest.

Figure 8.4: Telkom backbone offering services to other communications

service providers (Magazi 2009)

Case study 8.1 Which broadcasting systems for South Africa?

In 2010, South Africans held a digital terrestrial TV standards symposium

or colloquium to discuss which system should be adopted by South Africa

as it moves forward. Many individuals, businesses and civil society groups

attended this symposium. Most of the people at the meeting felt it would

be appropriate for South Africa to use digital video broadcasting

technology (DVB-T) (which is used by M-Net and which is a European

standard) because it has already been used in the country and works well

for the country. Some people stated that it would be best for South Africa

to improve on the DVB-T standard and adopt a similar but improved

system, ie DVB-T2. Other people felt that the Brazilian or Japanese

standard should be adopted see figure 8.5 for the Japanese standard. The

decision would finally lie with the DoC to decide which system to adopt,

after consulting all relevant parties. Some of the groups who participated in

the colloquium were policymakers (ie the DoC), policy enforcers or the
 150

regulator (ICASA), technology distributors and manufacturers, broad-

casting content creators and producers, aggregators, funders and sponsors

of broadcasting programmes, academics and industry analysts, IP

specialists and lawyers, union members and executives and civil society

members. The then Minister for Communications in South Africa, Siphiwe

Nyanda (2010) opened the meeting with a short speech highlighting that

South African broadcasters should promote local culture (rich and diverse

as it is) and local languages. He also said that the future broadcasting

technology standard to be adopted by South Africa should, among other

things:

. be cheap and affordable for the country to adopt and operate

. provide a variety of services to members of the public

. offer new opportunities so that government will offer its services via

TV (mobile TV and e-government via TV)

. create new jobs for many South Africans

In the colloquium, countries such as Japan and Brazil showcased their

technologies, stating the advantages of each system for the country. Based

on what the Minister said, South Africa could be expected to not adopt an

expensive system and would also strive to adopt a broadcasting system that

would aim to satisfy the country's development needs.

Figure 8.5: Japanese broadcasting system (Japanese Internal Affairs and

Communications Ministry 2010)

ACTIVITY 8.2 Which future broadcasting technology system

for South Africa?

Read case study 8.1 and then answer the questions below.

Which broadcasting system do you think is best for South Africa in the

future, beyond 2012, and why? Find out about the advantages and

disadvantages of the different systems used in other countries and

 151 COM3704/1

regions in case study 8.1 above and make your decision. In your journal,

jot down the good and bad of each system.

Case study 8.2 Digital broadcasting technology systems

``The South African DoC caused an uproar in the broadcasting industry in

May 2010 when it announced its intention to consider the Japanese digital

broadcasting technology, called ISDB-T. This was seen as an about-turn

because the department had taken a decision in 2006 to use the European

technology called DVB-T'' (Gedye & Sole 2010:1). It emerged, from

Gedye and Sole's journalistic investigations, that Ngubane, the then

chairman of the SABC board, had ``met with the global ICT business

promotions director from the Japanese ministry of internal affairs and

communications, Satora Yanagishima, in February to discuss the possibility

of the SABC adopting the Japanese ISDB-T''. Brazil has also been

promoting its own system to South Africans and competing with Japan and

Europe in this regard. The crucial question: Is the Brazilian, or Japanese, or

European broadcasting technology best for South Africa and why?

Figure 8.6: Brazilian system for South Africa? (TechCentral 2010)

It also emerged that one of the reasons the SABC considered adopting the

Japanese ISDB-T was that the Southern African Development Community

(SADC) were going to use this system and the SABC wanted the SA

system to be in sync with the regional broadcasting systems of the

neighbouring SADC countries. Critics of the SABC, however, jumped on

the bandwagon and argued that the European DVB-T system was widely

used around the world and worked well in many countries. It also ensures

economies of scale which means that it is cheaper to adopt and use and

would be best for a developing country like South Africa which does not

have much money to spend. The critics further argued that the Japanese

technology system would cost South Africans millions of rands to purchase

and that its set-top boxes were also expensive, said to be costing $US200

(about R1 586). Most South Africans do not have R1 586 to spend on a

set-top box, so obviously a cheaper set-top box would be better. On the

other hand, the European system DVB-T was found to offer more
 152

technological benefits to the consumer while the Brazilian system does not

enable e-government services to be offered. The DoC, however, wanted to

adopt a broadcasting system allowing the delivery of e-government services

to South Africans who watch TV. ``A report, commissioned by South

Africa's National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) stated that the

Brazilian set-top boxes cost $US239 (R1 840) and also that most DVB-T

receivers cost less than half that price (R900). The NAB report sparked

outrage, also from other broadcasters, such as e.tv and M-Net, because the

latter broadcasters preferred the DVB-T standard which offers a myriad of

benefits to consumers, including entertainment, sport and so on The

Brazilian system is costly and there are no ISDB-T skills in South Africa''

(Keene-Young 2010:1).

ACTIVITY 8.3 Judge for yourself

Having read case study 8.2 above, consider the following questions:

1. Which broadcasting system do you think will be best for South

Africa and why?

2 Do you think the broadcasting system South Africa adopts should

work in sync with the broadcasting systems of the SADC region?

Why?

8.3 Visual radio and subscription television

Convergence between broadcast and mobile communications is the future.

All over the world the migration to digital broadcast transmission technology

has begun. Some of the countries that had already advanced in their

migration programmes in 2009 included France, the US, UK, Sweden and

New Zealand. In Finland and Mauritius, the analogue switch-off was already

completed by 2009. ``In Europe and Africa, a timeline has been agreed within

the framework of an International Telecommunications Union (ITU) treaty

(2013)'' (Nyanda 2009:1). In some of these countries mentioned above, after

June 2015 analogue television transmissions will no longer be protected from

harmful interference caused by digital TV transmissions. Therefore, it is vital

for countries to consider migrating to digital broadcasting transmission

before it is too late. Analogue TV transmissions will not be permitted to

interfere with digital TV transmissions.

Visual radio allows the end-user to view information on their cellphone

screen which is linked to the music track being played on the radio station.

This application is very useful and educational, but has to move beyond music

to education, health and other information clips. Literacy programmes will be

necessary on visual radio to reduce high South African illiteracy among the

youth and the elderly. Again, language will be crucial here to transport

information in mother tongues. Technology must be geographically relevant,

including in terms of pricing.

``About seven million South Africans (65%) had TVs in 2003; 730 000 were
 153 COM3704/1

digital TV subscribers (in 2003) and this figure was quite low '' (Lesame

2005:5). These figures have to rise to make information on TV available to

more people but the problem is the affordability of subscription TV to many

people. At about R500 (in 2010), this service is not affordable to most

people, although there are options which cost up to R260 or so per month

(Lesame 2006:5-7). Competition in the pay television market is most

welcome as this will force prices to drop and consumers will have more

companies to choose from as service providers, instead of depending on one

company that has the monopoly. See chapter 5 of the textbook about some

companies that entered this market in South Africa for the first time in 2010

to compete with veteran MultiChoice. TopTV (ODM) swiftly entered this

market in April/May 2010.

Therefore, subscription TV can reach millions if it is as accessible as

cellphones. Language will also play a crucial role in new subscription TV

stations because local people will subscribe to TV stations that broadcast

their languages.

ACTIVITY 8.4 Impact of globalisation on national

broadcasters

Study-read sections 5.7 to 5.10 in your textbook and write brief notes in

your journal about the following issues:

1. What is the impact of globalisation on national broadcasters?

2. Identify the differences between private and public broadcasters.

3. If you are a satellite TV subscriber, which broadcaster's services do

you like and enjoy best, MultiChoice's or TopTV's, and why?

8.4 Globalisation and the public broadcaster

The multiplicity of channels has added pressure to the public broadcasting

service (PBS) despite its unique and very important role of relaying the

socially purposeful media acting in the public interest. Its survival in the

increasingly transnational and convergence-driven arena is also confronted by

the following characteristics of globalisation:

. the diminishing sovereignty of national states

. the increasing integration of the world economy

. the technologically shrinking of time and space

. the emergence of new geographically dispersed yet locally based global

networks

. the establishment of a new framework for global governance

. the passing of received ideas about identity

``One of debates in international broadcasting today should be availability of

services and access of broadcasting and Internet services to many people,

and not the lack of information as the Internet can provide infinitely abundant
 154

information. In the broadcasting model, emphasis is placed on the receiver

and refers to the capacity to choose from the entire range of content on

offer. In the telecommunications model, emphasis is on the sender and

access refers to the capacity to use the means of communication to get one's

messages out. It is therefore necessary to get a hybrid conception of access

in the context of new media'' (Ngwenya 2008:3).

ACTIVITY 8.5 Globalisation and public broadcasting

. What is the role of public broadcasters in a country?

. Do you prefer the services of private broadcasters or those of

public broadcasters? Why?

Write your answers briefly in your journal.

New media therefore require people to have means of access both in their

capacity as receivers and consumers and as producers and senders of

messages. Therefore we should realise that as much as new media offer the

possibilities of infinite information flow and freedom of expression, access is

still a major challenge. Access can also be inhibited by corporate control

which is structured to maximise profit. The challenge then becomes a

governance issue. At this point it is clear that there is a need for policy that

promotes a new global approach to global media. The policy objectives

should provide an opportunity to counter market-inspired restrictions to

new media access and also a policy that promotes production of local new

media content by local companies which need to be established, if not

already in existence. The SABC is definitely inclined to the traditional PBS

perception that it has to represent the national as opposed to the foreign

(Ngwenya 2008).

8.5 Conclusion

This study unit and chapter 5 of the textbook have made it clear that

broadcasting and computer-related technology are less accessible to people

in most South African communities (this includes VOIP, internet in general, e-

mail, etc) and that what most South Africans own and use often is cellphones.

So communications service providers and other stakeholders and businesses

that wish to reach people should use broadcasting (eg WebTV) and cellphone

converged technologies to reach many, at less cost to services received.

Mobile broadcasting is, without any doubt, the way to go. What information

is broadcast for will be the key to bringing service providers revenue and

consumers knowledge and pleasure. If all these services and applications are

affordable, they can be accessed by millions and digital broadcasting can be

on its way to mass local consumption.

Globalisation has increased transmission of popular culture easily and

 155 COM3704/1

inexpensively from the developed countries of the North throughout the

world. Consequently, despite efforts of nationally based media to develop

local television, movie and video programmes, many media markets in Africa,

Asia and Latin America are saturated with productions from the US, Europe

and a few countries in Asia (especially Japan and India). Local critics of this

trend argue that this silences domestic cultural expression, reinforces the

reach of Western, ``alien'' culture and potentially homogenises (makes

similar) global values and cultural taste.

8.6 Reviewing and connecting the dots

In this study unit, we explored the advantages of broadcasting for consumers

and also for countries and regions, as well as digital broadcasting technology

(national, regional and international) and international broadcasters.

Reviewing what The material in this study unit should enable you to

you have studied

. explain the ``which'' and ``why '' of adopting digital broadcasting

technology

. consider criteria or reasons when adopting broadcasting technology for

any country to facilitate national development and promotion of culture

. recognise differences between private and public broadcasters

realise how globalisation impacts national broadcasting services

Make sure that you have written summaries of all your reflections as you will

be expected to submit evidence of them as part of your assignments.

References

Boloka, M. 2009. Making South Africa a global leader in harnessing ICTs for

socio-economic development. Pretoria: Department of Communications.

Commonwealth Broadcasting Association. 2010. South African Broadcasting

Corporation, Department of Communications and Commonwealth

Broadcasting Association (CBA) Conference, Hilton Hotel, Johannes-

burg, 17±21 April.

Digital Dzonga (South African). 2009. Go digital.

www.godigitalsa.co.za/digitaldzonga/about [Accessed on 24 August

2009].

Gedye, L & Sole, S. 2010. New storm breaks over Ngubane: questions raised

about SABC Chairperson Ben Ngubane's role in lobbying for the

adoption of Japanese digital broadcasting technology. Mail & Guardian

Online. 28 May:1±5. www.mg.co.za/article/2010-05-28-sabc-new-board-

old-chaos [Accessed on 9 June 2010].

Japanese Internal Affairs and Communications Ministry. 2010. Japanese digital

broadcasting technology. South African Digital Terrestrial Television

Standards Symposium, 29±30 April, Midrand.

Keene-Young, B. 2010. Let's drop the Brazilians. TechCentral.

 156

www.techcentral.co.za/slow-adoption-hampers-brazilian-digital-tv/14913/

[Accessed on 6 July 2010].

Lesame, NC. (ed). 2005. New media: technology and policy in developing

countries. Pretoria: Van Schaik.

Magazi, T. 2009. State of 2010 ICT readiness. Pretoria: Telkom Head Office.

Matsepe-Casaburri, I. 2008. Budget Vote Speech, Minister of Communications.

Cape Town: South African Parliament.

Naspers. 2010. Naspers structure, technology and media services. http://

www.naspers.com [Accessed on 2 April 2010].

Ngwenya, B. 2008. Globalisation and public broadcasting. Pretoria: University

of South Africa.

Nyanda, S. 2009. Broadcasting digital migration. Pretoria: Department of

Communications.

Nyanda, S. 2010. Digital Terrestrial Television Standards Symposium, 29-30

April, Midrand, South Africa.

SA presents communications strategy for 2010. 2006. South Africa the good

news.

www.sagoodnews.co.za/countdown_to_200/sa_presents_communications_-

stra [Accessed on 21 August 2008].

Sapa. 2008. Everyone can watch 2010 games free. The Times. 1 April.

www.thetimes.co.za/News/Article.aspx?id=737659 [Accessed on 9 Sep-

tember 2008].

Seale, L. 2008. Telkom ready for 2010 and Confederations Cup. Pretoria

News. 25 September: 6.

South African Department of Communications. 2008. Department of

Communications DoC 2008 in Review. Pretoria.

South African Department of Communications. 2010. Welcome to the digital

future! Broadcasting digital migration. Pretoria.

TechCentral. 2010. High prices hamper Brazilian digital TV migration.

www.techcentral.co.za/slow-adoption-hampers-brazilian-digital-tv/14913/

[Accessed on 9 September 2010].

Whydemocracy.net. 2010. http://whydemocracy.net [Accessed 17 April 2010].

 157 COM3704/1

Study unit 9

New media and

development
(Zandi Lesame)

''Unisa has invested R2 million on mobile service units (vans) to reach

students in rural areas across the country. The vans are equipped with roof-

mounted satellite dishes for broadband Internet connectivity and live video

streaming. They each have 20 `thin-client' Wi-Fi enabled laptops on board

for students to access all the necessary learning material via Unisa's

myUnisa Web site and e-library '' (Mosoma 2010:1).

9.1 Introduction

In this unit, we take a closer the African ICT backlog and explore ways of

improving the ICT infrastructure in this region with a view to improving

public access to and use of new media. We have established in previous study

units and also in the earlier chapters of the prescribed book that about 10%

of South Africans are estimated to have access to ICT, so obviously this figure

needs to be increased. However, with South Africa's successful hosting of the

FIFA 2010 Soccer World Cup, it is apparent that South Africa has world-class

broadcasting and telecommunications services ± and this was confirmed by

Danny Jordan (2010) of the World Cup Organising Committee, and many

other analysts of the competition.

Reflect for a moment on the stories and case studies in this module up until

now. Consider, again, all the case studies that demonstrated the role of

technology in developing individuals, especially in study unit 5, and analyse

those case studies as also being relevant to the topic in this study unit.

9.2 The role of technology in development

Technology has the capacity to improve lives if the people using it know how

best they can use that technology for their development. ``The conventional

view of technology and development is that the former is a product of the

latter. In fact, technological capacity is an essential component of

development'' (Juma et al 2001:637). There is over 20 years of accumulated

 158

cross-country evidence on the link between telecommunications provision

and economic growth (Forestier, Grace & Kenny 2002:623). Some studies

have found a positive correlation between telecommunications deployment

and economic growth (Hardy 1980; Saunders et al 1994; Madden & Savage

1998; Nandi 2002). Madden and Savage (1998:174) state that investment in

telecommunications infrastructure has the potential to improve national

productivity and economic growth. ``Economy wide gains occur through the

reduction of transport and transaction costs, improved marketing informa-

tion and the accelerated diffusion of information and knowledge. Micro-

studies of countries including Bangladesh, Botswana and Zimbabwe reveal

that there is some evidence that provision of telephony has a dramatic effect

on the income and quality of life of the rural poor'' (Madden & Savage

1998:174). ``Historically, telecommunications rollout only benefited the

wealthy but emerging evidence shows the role of the Internet in poverty

relief and improving the quality of life variables including infant mortality and

literacy. Although telecommunications development has been found to be

one of the factors that affect economic growth, its contribution has varied

between countries at different stages of development'' (Shiu & Lam 2008:4).

Chibber (2002: 52) states that ``economists and world leaders have realized

and accepted that telecommunications plays an important role for economic

and industrial growth in less developed countries. The main reasons for very

slow improvement in telecommunications in rural areas, are lack of financial

resources, inaccessibility due to poor roads or transportation, unreliable or

no power supply and low revenue per line''.

The Indian telecommunications situation and problems identified by Chibber

(2002) are similar to those of South Africa and the inhibitors of rural

telephony development in India are also similar to those in South Africa. The

assumptions of the exogenous growth theory, which argues that it will take

time for technology to have a significant impact on economic development,

seem to be more applicable to South Africa, which has many social and

economic problems to deal with while simultaneously attempting to build the

ICT infrastructure. South Africa is also battling with and focusing on building

basics such as education, creating employment, reducing poverty and

developing the economically deprived rural areas.

We are not suggesting in this study unit that technology solves society's

problems, but it can assist in solving them. Neither does ICT offer a panacea

for all development problems. ``However, detailed analysis and experience

around the world reveals ample evidence that, used in the right way and for

the right purposes, ICT can have a dramatic impact on achieving specific

social and economic development goals as well as play a key role in broader

national development strategies'' (Bourdeau de Fontenay & Beltran 2008:17).

The real benefits lie not in the provision of technology per se, but rather in its

application to create powerful social and economic networks by dramatically

improving human communication and exchange of information. ICT can be

adopted both selectively and innovatively to directly enhance the welfare of

the poor, since interfaces can be designed to reveal little about the

individual's social class. In fact, ICT has already assisted the poor and this is
 159 COM3704/1

illustrated by mobile communications and its significant contribution to

personal and economic growth, improved personal communication and the

reduction of the digital divide in African and Asian countries (Matsepe-

Casaburri 2006; Barzilai-Nahon 2006; Ki-Moon 2007; Coward 2008; Fuchs &

Horak 2008; Xia and Lu 2008).

ACTIVITY 9.1 Telecommunications infrastructure in your

country

What are your thoughts on the ICT and telecommunications

infrastructure of your country of residence? Do you think they are

developed or advanced? Why do you say so? Reflect your views in your

journal and ensure that you conduct research (briefly) on this subject

before you finalise writing your views in the journal.

9.3 Technology use and impact in developing countries

There are many stories in literature about how people in developing

countries have used technology to improve their lives. For example, in

Ghana, telecentres help to compensate for low penetration of phone lines

through public access to telecom facilities, generate profit for owners and

contribute to regional development through the provision of telecom access

(Falch & Anyimadu 2003:35). The Ghanaian telecentres are also formidable

businesses as some offer several types of businesses, eg the su-su (a type of

informal banking system), renting of video cassettes, gift shops, restaurants

and the contribution of the telecentres in economic development ``is indeed

indisputable'' (Falch & Anyimadu 2003:35). This example of Ghana is similar

to many other stories which we have read about of how technology has

improved people and communities. While looking at the positive side of

technologies on communities, it is also important to understand that

everything can have a good and a bad side, technology included. Therefore, a

balance should be struck by those using technology to ensure that it serves

the interests of those people it is supposed to develop.

ACTIVITY 9.2 Have you used technology to develop a certain

community?

Before completing this study unit, spend some time reflecting on what

you can do, using technology, to assist a group of people in some

community to pursue development goals. Do you know, around your

own community, of any ICT or technology projects that are developing

people or members of that community? Make of all this information

available and jot it down in your journal, starting with the contribution

that you can make (or that you have made) towards the use of

technology to develop some community; then focus on the other

project that has been or is being implemented to develop other

 160

individuals to improve their lives. What are the implications of the latter

project for you? Describe where you see yourself in the next few years,

and whether you will be working with technology for community or

national development.

9.4 Conclusion

In this study unit we explored the role of technology in development issues

and also in developing countries. Technology cannot solve problems alone

but people should use it to make efforts aimed at solving social problems,

especially those such as poverty and unemployment. The context in which

technology is used is therefore important. Evidence from other countries has

shown that technology projects can improve education and health and also

contribute to business development and improvement. Some practical

examples of how technology is actually developing people in different

countries are also provided in the case studies in study unit 5.

9.5 Reviewing and connecting the dots

The message of this study unit is clear: Technology can contribute positively

to community and people development, if it is used or implemented

correctly and effectively towards the achievement of such development.

Make sure that you have written summaries of all your reflections as you will

be expected to submit evidence of them as part of your assignments.

We have reached the end of part 2 of the study guide. The following sections

contain parts 3 and part 4, which deal with policy issues concerning new

media. In part 3 and the next study units we will introduce you to and

explore negative ways in which new media are used.

References

Barzilai-Nahon, K. 2006. Gaps and bits: conceptualising measurements for

digital divide/s. The Information Society, 22(5):269±278.

Bourdeau de Fontenay, A & Beltran, F. 2008. Inequality and economic

growth: should we be concerned by the digital divide? Paper delivered

at the 17th Biennial Conference of the International Telecommunica-

tions Society, Montreal, 24±27 June.

Chibber, NK. 2002. Overcoming rural-urban digital divide in South Asian

developing countries. Paper delivered at the 14th Biennial Conference of

the International Telecommunications Society, Seoul, 18±21 August.

Coward, C. 2008. Why do telecentres deserve ongoing attention? Telecentre

Magazine. www.cis.washington.edu/2008/121/telecentres-deserve-atten-

tion [Accessed on 13 January 2009].

 161 COM3704/1

Falch, M & Anyimadu, A. 2003. Tele-centres as a way of achieving universal

access - the case of Ghana. Telecommunications Policy, 27(1-2):21±39.

Forestier, E, Grace, J & Kenny, C. 2002. Can information and communication

technologies be pro-poor? Telecommunications Policy, 26(11):623±646.

Fuchs, C & Horak, E. 2008. Africa and the digital divide. Telematics and

Informatics, 25:99±116.

Hardy, AP. 1980. The role of the telephone in economic development.

Telecommunications Policy, 4:278±286.

Hudson, HE. 2006. From rural village to global village: telecommunications for

development in the information age. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.

Independent Development Research Centre. 2001. Developing the fruits

[video recording]. Halfway House.

Ivala, EN. 2000. The internet and distance education. Communicatio,

26(1):24±30.

Jordaan, D. 2010. South Africa's world-class telecommunications infrastructure.

Interview by Jenny Chrys Williams on Radio 702. Johannesburg.

Juma, C, Fang, K, Honca, D, Huete-Perez, J, Konde, V & Lee, SH. 2001.

Global governance of technology: meeting the needs of developing

countries. International Journal of Technology Management, 22(7/8):629±

655.

Ki-moon, B. 2007. Information economy report 2007-2008. New York and

Geneva: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.

Lesame, NC. 2009. The role of information and communication technologies

(ICTs) in development: a case study of the role of telecentres in the

education of users. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Madden, G & Savage, SJ. 1998. Central and Eastern Europe telecommunica-

tions investment and economic growth. Information Economics and

Policy, 10:173±195.

Matsepe-Casaburri, I. 2006. Foreword to the ICT Research Bulletin. Pretoria:

Department of Communications.

Mosoma, D. 2010. Rolling out to rural students. Focus: staff newsletter.

May:1.

Nandi, B. 2002. Role of telecommunications in developing countries in the

21st century. Paper presented at the 14th Biennial Conference of the

International Telecommunications Society, Seoul, 18±21 August.

Saunders, RJ, Warford, JJ & Wellenius, B. 1994. Telecommunications and

economic development. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Shiu, A & Lam, P-L. 2008. Causal relationship between telecommunications

and economic growth: a study of 105 countries. Paper presented at the

17th Biennial Conference of the International Telecommunications

Society, Montreal, 24±27 June.

Xia, J & Lu, TJ. 2008. Bridging the digital divide for rural communities: the

case of China. Telecommunications Policy, 32:686±696.

 163 COM3704/1

PART 3

Negative uses and

consequences of new media
on society

(Zandi Lesame)
 164

Contents

Overview

Critical questions

Key concepts

STUDY UNIT 10: NEW MEDIA AND CYBERCRIME

Overview

10.1 Introduction

10.2 What is cybercrime?

10.3 Types of cybercrime

10.4 Cyberlaw

10.5 Reviewing and connecting the dots

10.6 Resources for further enrichment

References

STUDY UNIT 11: INTERNET ADDICTION DISORDER

Overview

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Types of IAD

11.3 Signs and symptoms of IAD

11.4 Why the internet is additive

11.5 Prevention and treatment of IAD

11.6 Reviewing and connecting the dots

11.7 Resources for further enrichment

References
 165 COM3704/1

Overview

Part 3 consists of two study units. Both offer insights into how media can be

used in negative ways by members of society and the impact of this on

society. In these units we aim to offer you advice about what to do and what

not to do while using computer networks and also while you are online. In

life everything has disadvantages and we feel that we should share with you

the negative side of technology in these two units so that you will be careful

of how you use new media for personal and business purposes

Critical questions

In focusing on how you can take up the responsibility of social engagement

on the internet and other related communication networks in order to

engage in responsible and better interactions with other people, we

encourage you to consider the following questions:

1. In what way do other people and organisations use the internet to

commit crime? What can I learn from these cases and stories?

2. What can I offer as an internet user and a democratic citizen of a

country to combat internet crime?

3. What do laws state about crime committed over networks and on the

internet?

4. What is cybercrime?

5. What types of cybercrimes are there?

6. How can cybercrime be identified and prevented?

7. What should people do when they encounter instances of cybercrime?

8. What is internet addiction disorder (IAD)?

9. What are the types of internet addiction disorder?

10. What are the symptoms and remedies of IAD?

11. How can people deal with IAD?

12. What are the negative consequences of internet addiction?

Key concepts

Key concepts that you may find useful in this part of the study guide include

the following:

. cybercrime

. internet addiction disorder

. cyberlaw

. cyberbullying

. phishing/spoofing

. telecommunications fraud

. cyberstalking

. hacking

. spamming
 166

. sexual predators

. identity theft

. psychological symptoms

. cybersex

. cyber-relational addiction

. information overload

. internet gaming

. physical symptoms

. pathological internet use

 167 COM3704/1

Study unit 10

New media and

cybercrime
(Blessing Mbatha)

Overview

The study units in parts 1 and 2 of the module provided you with a broader

understanding of media concepts. In a nutshell, we defined new media and

provided the historical overview of media, old and new. We also explained

convergence of media as it is the key to the development of new media and

the dramatic changes in which media operate today. In these units, we

offered insights into different new media operational in the information

society and what individuals and organisations use these media for.

We are sure that you will agree that everything comes with its advantages

and disadvantages. New media are no exception. Much has been said about

positive consequences of new media. However, very little has been

mentioned about their negative consequences. Thus, in part 3 of the

module we discuss different types of negative consequences posed by new

media to our welfare and suggest precautionary measures we should take to

combat and avoid such consequences. In study unit 10 we identify different

types of cybercrimes and also the precautionary measures we can take to

fight or prevent those crimes. In study unit 11 we discuss internet addiction

disorder as another negative consequence posed by new media to our

welfare.

10.1 Introduction

It is an absolute fact that we live in an internet age, and socialising is

extremely easy today. Communicating to people around the world is a

matter of a few clicks on the internet. To take a typical example, the use of

social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter and MXit have beyond a

doubt changed the way many people communicate nowadays. The internet

has facilitated easy access to information across the globe, making life easy.

However, if you look at this internet age from a different point of view, you

will realise that it has in fact bred many illegal and unethical practices. While
 168

some use the internet for gaining information, others use it for destruction of

sensitive data. While some use the Web as a communication platform, others

derive pleasure from intruding on the internet privacy of individuals and seek

enjoyment from breaching internet security. Well-trained fingers are no

longer simply used to pick pockets or steal merchandise, but can also be

used to execute scams by pressing buttons on a keyboard or clicking buttons

on a mouse. Traditional pyramid schemes have induced greedy investors to

become victims of online fraud. Internet auction fraud has also accounted for

significant losses for online buyers who suffer non-delivery of merchandise as

well as misuse of credit card information.

10.2 What is cybercrime?

The internet offers a wealth of information, entertainment, tools and access

to the world for millions of users. As a New Media Technology student you

probably know that very well. However, it also fosters an underground

world of crime filled with fraud, scams, theft and even perversion.

Let's look at the following definitions of cybercrime in order to make sure

that we are on the same page here.

ACTIVITY 10.1 Defining cybercrime

Read the definitions of cybercrime in chapter 10 of the textbook. Also

read the following other definitions to understand how it is defined by

other people:

. Goessl (2009) and Withers (2009) define cybercrime as a criminal

act which is committed by using the internet and a computer.

. Symantec (2008) and Granville (2003) define cybercrime as any

crime that is committed using a computer or network, or hardware

device.

. Payne (2009) and Aggarwal et al (2010) describe cybercrime as any

act that would be against the law in the physical world that takes

place on the internet. Cybercrime can include things such as identity

theft, scams designed to steal money, hacking and viruses making to

wreak havoc on computer systems, child pornography and

paedophilia.

Now that you know what cybercrime is, consider the definitions above

and discuss your personal and real-life experience of cybercrime. If you

haven't personally experienced cybercrime, discuss somebody else's

experience. Alternatively, use the internet to search internet fraud cases

and discuss any two of your choice. Note that there are plenty of

cybercrime cases on the internet. Should you have no internet access,

consider using newspapers and you can also visit a library of your

choice, as it might also help in this regard. Make sure that you do

something.
 169 COM3704/1

We hope that you now understand what cybercrime is all about and that you

can apply your own knowledge to define it. A simple definition for you at this

stage is a form of crime in which the internet or computer is used as a

medium to commit crime. The term ``cybercrime'' is often associated with

cracking or malicious hacking of a computer network. However, through

new media use it has become the all-inclusive term for a number of

computer related crimes.

10.3 Types of cybercrime

Now, let's look at different types of cybercrimes and how they affect our

lives.

Case study 10.1 Banks lose billions to scams

 170

Case study 10.2 Banks dealing with phishing scams

 171 COM3704/1

Case study 10.3 Identity theft costs people dearly

 172

ACTIVITY 10.2 Reflecting on case studies 10.1, 10.2 and 10.3

Consider all three case studies above and reflect on the following

questions:

1. Identify the types of cybercrimes discussed in the articles.

2. Discuss the dangers posed by these cybercrimes.

3. What precautionary measures can you take to protect yourself from

the cybercrimes discussed in the articles?

Note your answers to the above questions in your journal.

With our new and technologically infused world, is it any wonder that

cybercrime is becoming increasingly popular? The most well-known form of

cybercrime comes in the form of criminals stealing credit card information

and other sensitive information through various ways such as phishing, fake

e-mails, fake bank log in websites, key-loggers, and brute force hacking. Most

of these techniques designed to get personal information, credit card

numbers, and bank account information can be stopped by simple

precautions such as verifying that the site you are about to log into is in

fact the real site, ignoring and deleting all e-mails that seem suspicious, too

good to be true, or claim to be from a bank or other company that holds

sensitive information as these organisations will never contact you asking for

your login information or account numbers.

ACTIVITY 10.3 Apply what you have learned so far about

cybercrime

There are different types of cybercrimes that you need to be aware of

so that you can take precautionary measures. Read chapter 10 in your

prescribed book which is a section on types of cybercrimes and answer

the question below.

Your prescribed book indicates that the internet has facilitated easy

access to information across the globe, making life easy. However, if you

look at this internet age from a different point of view, you will realise

that it has in fact bred many illegal and unethical practices.

Based on the above statement, write brief notes in your journal,

critically reflecting on what the different types of cybercrime are.

10.3.1 Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying is one cybercrime that internet users need to be aware of.

Cyberbullying is rife in many developed countries but in other African

countries it has just begun, and still in its early stages. Therefore, it is wise to

be aware of the dangers which you may encounter and precautions that may

be taken.
 173 COM3704/1

ACTIVITY 10.4 Cyberbullying

1. In your own words define cyberbullying.

2. Have you personally experienced any cyberbullying? If yes, what

happened and how did you handle the situation? If not, you can use

any example from the library, the internet, newspaper, television

and so on, or you can relate the experience of someone you know

who has been exposed to cyberbullying. What happened to the

person and how was the problem solved?

3. Briefly write your observations and comments on cyberbullying in

your journal. What practical solutions can you think of to combat

this problem?

4. Also read the textbook about the harmful effects of cyberbullying on

those bullied.

10.3.2 Phishing

Phishing Phishing is one of the most dangerous cybercrimes. Research shows that

many people have lost their money through this crime and it continues to be

a problem for many internet users. As a New Media Technology student it is

important that you know about all the threats new media are posing to their

users, while at the same time not forgetting its positive consequences.

Example 1: You may receive an e-mail message from a bank saying that you

should access your bank and double-check your details. If you are suspicious

of the message or it looks fishy, do not respond to it and contact your bank

immediately, especially if you did not contact your bank wanting to update

your own details.

Example 2: You can get an e-mail supposedly from the South African

Revenue Service (SARS) stating that you have a ``tax refund'' and that you

should visit a particular website and add your banking details there. Don't

click on the link to the website and do not visit it, because when SARS want

to say something to you, they send you mail to your postal or physical

address. You could also phone SARS and check whether they have sent the

mail before doing anything else because the online thieves just want your

banking details so that they can steal or phish your money.

Also take note of the following:

. Phishers, pretending to be legitimate companies, may use e-mail to

request personal information and direct recipients to respond through

malicious websites.

. Phishers tend to use emotional language using scare tactics or urgent

requests to entice recipients to respond.

. The phish sites can look remarkably like legitimate sites because they tend

to use the copyrighted images from legitimate sites.

. Requests for confidential information via e-mail or instant message tend to

not be legitimate.

. Fraudulent messages are often not personalised and may share similar
 174

properties like details in the header and footer.

ACTIVITY 10.5 Phishing

Consider the following questions and jot down a few comments in your

journal about them:

1. In your own words define phishing.

2. Have you ever experienced phishing (ie have you ever received

suspicious e-mails)? What did you do?

3. If you have never received any such e-mails, assume that you do.

What would you do?

4. What precautionary measures would you take?

5. Describe in your journal what the government of your country is

doing to fight cybercrime.

In essence, phishing is the act of someone attempting to acquire sensitive

information like usernames, passwords and credit card details by disguising

themselves as a trustworthy source. Phishing is carried out through e-mails

or by luring the users to enter personal information through fake websites.

Criminals often use websites that have the look and feel of some popular

websites, which makes the users feel safe entering their details there.

The hazards of phising need to be reflected somehow as they also reflect in

the prescribed book. Remember that in the introduction of this study unit we

indicated that the internet makes it easy to access information across the

globe. However, it has also bred many illegal and unethical practices.

10.4 Cyberlaw

Many countries have implemented cyberlaws and cyberjurisdictions as a way

of combating cybercrimes. For example, in 2010 South Africa developed a

cybersecurity policy to strengthen efforts aimed at curbing cybercrime.

ACTIVITY 10.6 Cyberlaw

Read chapter 10 in your prescribed book on cyberlaw to understand

what it involves and what its purposes are.

As indicated in your prescribed book, the last century has seen an

explosion in terms of the transfer of information using new media such

as radios, telephones, televisions, networks, cellphones, computers etc.

It has truly been an information revolution. In particular, the pace of

development from the 1970s to the present day has been almost too

frenetic to comprehend. Computers have been and will continue to be

at the core of all information technology advancements.

With the above in mind, reflect on the following questions:

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1. Why is cyberlaw important?

2. Discuss the cybersecurity policy of your country and indicate what it

entails. If your country does not have cybersecurity laws, discuss the

cybersecurity of any country of your choice.

3. Write brief notes on the above issues in your journal.

According to John (2009), we are just beginning to see the tip of the iceberg

when it comes to cybercrime. As incidents increase, the need for a unified

form of control and punishment becomes more urgent. Without such tools

for managing cybercrime, the World Wide Web could become a very

dangerous and frightening place to visit.

10.5 Reviewing and connecting the dots

In this study unit, and also in chapter 10 in the textbook, you learned about

the meaning and types of cybercrimes. We should all be aware of them in this

internet age and also learn about how to protect ourselves against such

crimes. We have also looked at cyberlaw and offered you some advice on

how you can avoid being caught in the phishing net. We also advised you

about the following issues:

. The internet has made access to information across the globe easy. It has

also resulted in many illegal and unethical practices.

. While some use the internet for gaining information, others use it for

destroying sensitive data. While some use the Web as a communication

platform, others derive pleasure from intruding on the internet privacy of

individuals and seek enjoyment from breaching internet security.

You furthermore became aware of protective measures and laws we can use

to protect ourselves and our privacy from internet criminals.

In the next study unit you are introduced to another negative consequence of

new media called internet addiction disorder, which also has some negative

consequences for society.

Make sure that you have written summaries of all your reflections as you will

be expected to submit evidence of them as part of your assignments.

10.6 Resources for further enrichment

In case you did not know, our intention is to see you emerging victorious in

this fascinating and most important module in the internet era. Thus, we

strongly recommend that you read widely and you can use the following

information sources to supplement the information we have already given

you:
 176

. Liu, W, Aggarwal, S & Duan, Z. 2009. Incorporating accountability into

internet email. Journal of Digital Forensic Practice, 2(4):209±220.

. Winslett, MT, Seamons, KE, Hess, A, Jacobson, J, Jarvis, R, Smith, B & Yu,

L. 2002. Negotiating trust on the Web. Internet Computing, 6(6):30±37.

References

Aggarwal, S, Duan, Z, Jones, F & Liu, W. 2010. Trust-based internet

accountability: requirements and legal ramifications. Journal of Internet

Law: 3±15.

Bells, L. 2009. What is phishing? www.helium.com [Accessed on 12 May

2010].

Dinev, T. 2006. Why spoofing is serious internet fraud. Communications of the

ACM, 49(10):77±82.

Goessl, L. 2009. What is cybercrime? www.helium.com [Accessed on 20 May

2010].

Granville, J. 2003. Dot.con: the dangers of cyber crime and a call for

proactive solutions. Australian Journal of Politics and History, 49(1):102±

109.

Honolulu. 2009. Internet and computer fraud.

www.honolulu.gov/prosecuting/computer_fraud.htm

[Accessed on 14 June 2010].

HowStuffWorks. 2008. How web pages work.

www.howstaffworks.com [Accessed on 14 June 2010].

John, K. 2009. Cyber crime. www.helium.com [Accessed on 14 June 2010].

Kraut, S. 2009. MySpace hoax: can cyber bullying be controlled?

www.helium.com Accessed on 15 May 2010].

Lee, M. 2009. What is phishing? www.helium.com [Accessed on 15 May 2010].

Magor, CS. 2007. UK teachers whine about cyber-bullying, again.

www.uberreview.com/2007/09/uk-teachers-whine

McMullan, JL & Perrier, DC. 2007. Controlling cyber-crime and gambling:

problems and paradoxes in the mediation of law and criminal

organization. Police Practice and Research, 8(5):431±444.

Mtshali, N. 2010. Identity theft costs her dearly. Star, 26 May:12.

Oak, M. 2008. Types of computer crimes. www.buzzle.com/articles/types-of-

computer-crimes.html[Accessed on 15 May 2010].

Pakhare, J. 2007. Advantages and disadvantages of the internet. www.buz-

zle.com/articles/advantages-disadvantages-internet.html

[Accessed on 16 May 2010].

Payne, M. 2009. What is cyber crime? www.helium.com/items/1162514-cyber-

crime-hackers-child-pornography-law-enforcement-myspace-phishing-

fraud-identity-theft [Accessed on 16 May 2010].

Pondered.org. 2006. The advantages and disadvantages of the internet.

www.pondered.org/the_internet.html [Accessed on 15 May 2010].

Pretoria News Weekend. 2010a. Banks lose billions to scams. 5 June:1.

Pretoria News Weekend. 2010b. Banks offer new software to keep phishers

out of your account. 5 June:1.

 177 COM3704/1

Sinha, J. 2008. The hazards of phishing. www.buzzle.com/articles/the-hazards-

of-phishing.html [Accessed on 20 May 2010].

Symantec. 2008. What is cyber crime. www.symantec.com/norton /cybercrime/

definition.jsp [Accessed on 20 May 2010].

Withers, J. 2009. About cyber crime. www.ehow.com/about_5394879_cyber-

crime.html [Accessed on 20 May 2010].

 178

Study unit 11

Internet addiction
disorder
(Blessing Mbatha)

To be human is to make mistakes. To make mistakes is to learn and to be

humble.

To forgive and ask forgiveness is the beginning and continuity of relationship.

Charity begins at home, but you can only share what is inside of you.

Ethics is about dignity, caring and respect.

Overview

In study unit 10 we looked at different types of cybercrimes and also advised

you on what precautionary measures you can take to fight or prevent those

crimes. In this study unit we discuss internet addiction disorder as another

negative consequence posed by new media to our welfare. In addition, we

explore different types of internet addiction and offer you guidance on how

you can escape from this addiction.

11.1 Introduction

This study unit acts only as a guide: you must read chapter 11 entitled

``Internet Addiction Disorder'' in your prescribed book in order to complete

this study unit successfully. You will notice that at some points in this study

unit you will be asked to refer to a specific section in your prescribed book:

please pay attention to these instructions. You must, however, read and study

the entire chapter and not only the sections referred to here.

As a New Media Technology student, you should know that along with all the

benefits the internet brings, problems of excessive use are also becoming

apparent, such as neglect of academic studies, work and domestic

responsibilities, disruption of relationships, social isolation and financial

problems. Internet addiction disorder (IAD) is a growing problem facing

today 's society and it destroys many families, couples and individuals, both

young and old. Internetaddictionhelp (2007) and Young (1998) point out that

``Internet addiction does not only threaten the psychological well-being of

individuals, but quite possibly the entire social fabric''.

 179 COM3704/1

Many researchers have defined internet addiction differently. However, they

all agree that internet addiction is excessive use of the internet which leads to

interference with normal functioning. Read the following definitions and see

how different authors have defined internet addiction. Read through these

definitions carefully a number of times before you attempt to complete the

activity at the end of this section.

. According to Beard (2002) and Internetaddictionhelp (2007), ``Internet

Addiction is an uncontrolled Internet-related behaviour which interferes

with or impairs normal functioning, and causes severe emotional distress

for the individual, their family, friends, or their loved ones''.

. Mental Disorders (2007) describes IAD as the ``problematic use of the

Internet, excessive computer use that interferes with daily life, including

the various aspects of its technology, such as electronic mail (e-mail) and

the World Wide Web''.

. Bursten and Dombeck (2004) state that ``IAD can best be described as

spending too much time online such that it adversely affects marriages,

family and social life, work, and psychological and physical well-being of a

human being (the addict)''.

. Springfield Middle School (2004) defines IAD as ``a relatively new term

used to describe when a person becomes `addicted' to the time he or she

spends online''.

ACTIVITY 11.1 Understanding IAD

People who are addicted to the internet unintentionally make the

cyberworld an important part of their lives. As indicated by

Internetaddictionhelp (2007) and Griffiths (1995), the internet becomes

their primary organising structure, and the sufferers of internet

addiction are frequently willing to sacrifice almost everything else in

order to preserve and continue their unhealthy behaviour.

1. After reading chapter 11 of the textbook, write some brief notes in

your journal stating describing what IAD is.

2. Now that you know what internet addiction is, compile your own

definition of this concept so that it is easily understandable to you.

3. In addition, provide your personal experience to support your

definition. Should you have no personal experience, you are allowed

to use somebody else's experience as an example. The main idea is

that you must have something to write about.

11.2 Types of IAD

In this section, we look at the types of IAD.

 180

ACTIVITY 11.2 Some types of IAD

Read chapter 11 in your prescribed book and then reflect on the

questions below.

. Discuss different types of internet addiction.

. Do you agree or disagree that constant and excessive use of the

internet can be addictive. Support your argument with sound

examples.

Unlike other addictions, the various aspects of internet addiction could be

further categorised into individual groups. While they all share the same

medium, the internet, each group has its unique and distinct character-

istics.

Cybersexual Mbatha (2009) notes that ``individuals who suffer from cyber-sexual addiction

addiction typically are either engaged in viewing, downloading, and trading online

pornography or involved in adult fantasy role-play chat rooms''.

Figure 11.1, which illustrates cybersex addiction, says it all.

Figure 11.1: Cybersex addiction (Motivated Photos 2010)

The Centre for Internet Addiction Recovery (2006) notes that ``cybersex

addiction is a specific sub-type of Internet addiction 1 in 5 Internet addicts are

engaged in some form of online sexual activity (primarily viewing cyber-porn

and/or engaging in cybersex)''.

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ACTIVITY 11.3 Let's look closer to home

Read in your prescribed book the section on cybersex and reflect on

the question below.

. How can cybersex/cyberporn be treated?

Make some suggestions on this issue in your journal.

An addiction will always be an addiction. Thus even treating cybersex

addiction is very complicated. It requires special care, as complete

abstinence from the computer is not always possible in today 's technological

world. Addicts often need a computer for work or school, making the

temptation to return to online sex just a mouse click away.

Cyber-relational As discussed in your prescribed book, individuals who suffer from cyber-

addiction relational addiction become over-involved in online relationships or may

engage in virtual adultery. Online friends quickly become more important to

the individual often at the expense of real-life relationships with family and

friends.

ACTIVITY 11.4 What do you think?

Reflect on the following questions in your Journal:

1. What is cyber-relational addiction?

2. What is your personal take on those people who use the internet as

a way of establishing new relationships? Is it good or bad? Justify

your answer.

3. What are the possible dangers posed by cyber-relational addiction?

The advent of the internet has seen a significant rise in the number of people

who communicate with one another. As a result, many relationships have

been built online. Also of note is that the way we communicate has also

changed dramatically. There is a lot that we can find on the internet.

Research shows that many internet users participate in social sites such as

Facebook, MXit and MySpace to name but a few. Also, because of these

social networking sites, there has been a dramatic rise in the number of

people who are addicted to the internet.

Information You will probably agree that the wealth of data available on the internet has

overload created a new type of compulsive behaviour regarding excessive Web surfing

and database searches. As a New Media Technology student you should

know that very well, given the number of assignments you have done since

you enrolled for your studies.

 182

ACTIVITY 11.5 Information overload

According to Young (2009), some people spend most of their time

searching and collecting data from the internet. In addition, she notes

that ``obsessive compulsive tendencies and reduced work productivity

are typically associated with this behaviour''.

Some argue that there is no such thing as information overload

addiction. Do you agree or disagree?

Remember that this issue is discussed at length in your prescribed book.

Write a brief answer to this question in your journal.

ACTIVITY 11.6 Internet gaming addiction

According to Help-guide (2008), there are two types of compulsive or

problem gamblers. Their behaviours may be similar, but they gamble for

very different reasons.

1. Define internet gaming addiction.

2. Research shows that many people, more especially in China, have

lost their lives through playing online games excessively. Tell us your

personal experience of internet gaming addiction or somebody

else's experience if you have not been a victim of this yourself.

Remember, you may not be aware that you are addicted or that

your friend is addicted. But we hope that after you have read the

definition of internet gaming, you will understand what it means.

Refer to chapter 11 in your prescribed book to answer this question.

Computer Computer addiction is also termed ``obtrusive gaming''. A study by

addiction Thelanaddiction (2008) indicates that there are different types of internet

addiction and that ``they are equally dangerous for psyche and health'' as

well. Furthermore, ``computer games that can be played without access to

the Internet can also become addictive to someone'' (Thelanaddiction 2008).

It is worth pointing out that according to Goodman (1993) and

Thelanaddiction (2008), ``in the 80s, computer games such as Solitaire and

Minesweeper were programmed into computers and researchers found that

obsessive computer game playing became problematic in organizational

settings as employees spent most days playing rather than working''. It

should be noted that these games are not interactive nor played online.

11.3 Signs and symptoms of IAD

It is true that most illnesses show symptoms indicative of their existence and

IAD is no exception. Being able to recognise the various aspects of a person's

 183 COM3704/1

behaviour is important in catching all the hints and notions of the presence of

IAD.

You probably know that that spotting the symptoms early would help the

treatment process before the victim gets progressively more addicted. Most

internet addicts have similar and predictable behavioural patterns.

ACTIVITY 11.7 Symptoms

Read chapter 11 in your textbook about signs and symptoms of IAD and

then write in your journal what these symptoms are. Also mention IAD

warning signs and symptoms for people suffering from IAD.

Refer to your prescribed book to tackle this question successfully.

Studies in the past have shown that there are definite warning signs in people

who are addicted to the internet (Cyber junkies 2009; Centre for Internet

Addiction Recovery 2006). Some warning signs are more obvious than

others.

Grohol's It is very interesting to know how other people become dependent on the

alternative internet for their daily living. Current statistics show that many people all

theory over the world spend most of their time on social networking sites. Thus,

today we have what we call Facebook addiction. Grohol (2003) developed a

model to explain why people use the internet to a great extent. This theory

purports that the behaviours we are observing are phasic (in other words,

they are a phase people go through). So those of you who are addicted to

Facebook and MXit need not worry!

Read about Grohol's model of pathological internet use in your prescribed

book (chapter 11).

Figure 11.2: Grohol's model of pathological internet use (Grohol 2003)

 184

Let's simplify the above model for you.

This model illustrates that there is a new user and an existing user.

Remember, here we are talking about internet users. A new user is

somebody who has never used the internet before, while an existing user is

somebody who is already using the internet.

New activity: This new activity is what you do on the internet for the first

time. For example, your friend tells you about Facebook which is something

you have never used before. You try it, you find it interesting and then you

start using it.

Stage I: After you joined Facebook and found it interesting, you become

obsessed with it. Some people are always on Facebook, which results in IAD.

You should know that for a person to be diagnosed with IAD, they must be

unable to get past this stage.

Stage II: In this stage, once you realise that Facebook is taking too much of

your time or you feel that it controls you, you must stop using it.

Stage III: This is the last stage. After you have successfully stopped using

Facebook, your life will be normal again or your internet use will go back to

normal again. Thus, IAD is defeated.

ACTIVITY 11.8 Grohol's model

With the above explanation of Grohol's model of pathological internet

use in mind, discuss your personal experience or somebody else's

experience of internet addiction in relation to the model discussed

above. In your discussion you should include all three stages of the

model.

Think broadly and be creative, which you should be able to do at this

level of study. Note that this model is discussed critically in your

prescribed book.

11.4 Why the Internet is addictive

There are quite a number of reasons why the internet is so addictive.

Research shows that at this stage no one really knows exactly which factors

are most significant in contributing to internet addiction.

ACTIVITY 11.9 Apply what you now know

Many authors have written a lot on factors that contribute to the

addiction of the internet.

Read this section (why the internet is addictive) in your textbook and

reflect in your journal on the question below.

 185 COM3704/1

. In your own understanding, what could be the factors that

contribute to the addiction of the internet?

Remember, this is just a guide; more information on why the internet is

addictive can be found in the prescribed book.

11.5 Prevention and treatment of IAD

You will probably agree that prevention is better than cure, no matter what is

being prevented. Thus, it is of the utmost importance to know how to

prevent IAD.

Many studies on have shown that IAD is one of those addictions that is very

difficult to treat, especially when an addict does not consider themselves sick.

ACTIVITY 11.10 Apply what you now know

Read chapter 11 in your prescribed book and reflect on the following

question:

. Identify the preventive measures of IAD as indicated in your

textbook. Remember, you are more than welcome to air your

personal feelings about this.

All the information you will need is in your prescribed book. If a person

knows that they have difficulty with other forms of addictive behaviour,

they should be cautious in exploring the types of applications that are

used on the internet.

ACTIVITY 11.11 Treating IAD

Read the section on treating IAD in your prescribed book and reflect on

the question below in your journal. Research shows that some

professionals in this field (internet addiction) advocate abstinence from

the internet as way of combating it.

. How can internet addiction be treated?

You are welcome to give your own opinion. You need to tell us what

you think is the best way to treat internet addiction because there has

to be a way.

11.6 Reviewing and connecting the dots

In this study unit we explored internet addiction disorder and its implications

for internet users. We also discussed the different types of IAD, symptoms of
 186

IAD, problems caused by IAD and Grohol's model of pathological internet

use. We attempted to give you ideas and opinions of different people on IAD.

IAD is real, more or less. It is also true that there are people out there who

use the internet as a means of escape in much the same way as a drug addict

gets high, and do so for a myriad of reasons and in a wide variety of ways.

However, as we have seen, it is not at epidemic proportions. Just because

you stay up too late playing games or download lots of pornographic material

or have seven bids on e-Bay going at one time does not make you an addict;

it makes you a person with internet access. Addiction, then, is more than a

question of excess; to be an addict, the internet must rule your life.

The pursuit of happiness is our inalienable right.

± From the movie: The pursuit of happiness

starring Will Smith

___________________________________________________

Make sure that you have written summaries of all your reflections as you will

be expected to submit evidence of them as part of your assignments.

11.7 Resources for further enrichment

If you are interested in reading more about some of the issues discussed in

this study unit, you can consult some of the books that are mentioned here

and that are meant only for personal enrichment.

Marc, E, Pratarell, I, Blaine, L & Browne, MS. 2002. Confirmatory factor

analysis of internet use and addiction. Cyber Psychology & Behavior,

5(1):54±74.

Nalwa, K & Anand, A. 2003. Internet addiction in students: a cause of

concern. Cyber Psychology & Behavior, 6(6):654±656.

Riittakerttu, K, Lintonen, T & Rimpela, A. 2004. Internet addiction?

Potentially problematic use of the internet in a population of 1218

year-old adolescents. Addiction Research and Theory, 12(1):89±96.

References

Addiction-treatments. 2008. Addiction treatments.

www.addiction-treatments.com/ [Accessed on 03 March 2009].

Beard, KW. 2002. Internet addiction: current status and implications for

employees. Journal of Employment Counseling, 39(1):2±11.

Bloxham, A. 2008. Internet addiction is a `clinical disorder'. www.telegraph.-

co.uk/news/uknews/2152972/Internet-addiction-is-a-clinical-disorder.html

[Accessed on 4 May 2009].

Bursten, J & Dombeck, M. 2004. Introduction to internet addiction.

www.mentalhelp.net [Accessed on 02 February 2009].

Centre for Internet Addiction Recovery. 2006. Cybersex/cyberporn addic-

tion. www.netaddiction.com/default.aspx [Accessed on 15 May 2009].

 187 COM3704/1

Cyber junkies. 2009. History of an addiction. www.slais.ubc.ca/COURSES/

libr500/03-04t2/www/C_Hill/vulnerable.htm [Accessed on 20 February

2009].

eBay.ca 2010. Don't miss the top selling. http://cgi.ebay.ca

[Accessed on 02 February 2010].

Goodman, A. 1993. Diagnosis and treatment of sexual addiction. Journal of

Sex and Marital Therapy, 17:225±246.

Griffiths, M. 1995. Technological addictions. Clinical Psychology Forum, 71:14±

19.

Grohol, JM. 2003. Professional development, pathology and online therapy.

In J. Gackenbach (ed), Psychology and the internet. San Diego, CA:

Academic Press.

Help-guide. 2008. Gambling addiction and problem gambling. www.helpgui-

de.org [Accessed on 27 May 2009].

Indianchild. 2001. Symptoms of internet addiction. www.indianchild.com

[Accessed on 02 February 2009].Internetaddictionhelp. 2007. What is

internet addiction? www.internetaddictionhelp.com/index.php [Accessed

on 29 September 2009].

Kaye, S. 2002. Internet addiction. www.slais.ubc.ca/courses/libr500/02-03-wt1/

www/S_Kaye/ [Accessed on 29 September 2009].

Mbatha, BT. 2009. Researching the impact of internet addiction disorder

(IAD) in government departments in KwaZulu-Natal. Proceedings of

the 11th Annual Conference on World Wide Web Applications, Port

Elizabeth, 2±4 September.

Mental Disorders. 2007. Internet addiction disorder. www.minddisorders.com/

index.html [Accessed on 12 July 2009]

Motivated Photos. 2010. Cybersex. www.motivatedphotos.com/?id=14786

[Accessed on 14 March 2010]

Netaddiction.com. 2010. Internet addiction disorder. www.netaddiction.com

[Accessed on 12 February 2010].

Springfield Middle School. 2004. Chat rooms. www.sps.lane.edu [Accessed on

12 September 2009].

Thelanaddiction. 2008. Types of internet addiction. www.thelanaddiction.com/

types_of_internet_addiction.html [Accessed on 12 April 2009].

Unrealitymag. 2009. Internet addiction. http://unrealitymag.com [Accessed on

12 April 2009].

Wordpress. 2010. Are you a Facebook addict? http://kikomatching.word-

press.com/2009/10/ [Accessed on 02 February 2010].

Young, K. 2009. Compulsive surfing. www.netaddiction.com/index.php?op-

tion=com_content&view=article&id=62&Itemid=85

Young, KS. 1998. Caught in the net. New York: Wiley.

 189 COM3704/1

PART 4

New media: present and

future policy perspectives

(Zandi Lesame)
 190

Contents

Overview

Critical questions

Key concepts

STUDY UNIT 12: NEW MEDIA: PRESENT AND FUTURE POLICY

PERSPECTIVES

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Regional and international perspectives on ICT or new media policy

12.3 Theories on telecommunications and new media policy formula-

tion

12.4 Government's role in new media services and ICT provision

12.5 Evaluating universal service and universal access to new media

services

12.6 Evaluating the effectiveness of ICT policy on society

12.7 Conclusion

12.8 Reviewing and connecting the dots

References

About endings and new beginnings

 191 COM3704/1

Overview

Part 4 concludes this study guide. This part has one study unit (12) which

defines what ICT policy is and the purpose of such a policy. We mention

regional ICT policies but these policies differ dramatically in each region as

technology changes and as nations define their social and economic goals.

General ICT policies dominant across countries and regions are mentioned in

this study unit as well as future ICT policy predictions or forecasts.

Each country (for example Australia, Canada, South Africa) and region (such

as SADC and the EU) has an ICT policy or policies. Each policy is based on

economic capability and political and socioeconomic needs of each country

and region. In this study unit we explore the need and urgency for ICT policy

at national and international levels. Governments (and the private sector

when invited by government) usually identify the goals of each ICT policy and

determine how these goals will be achieved and by whom. We therefore

provide a critical analysis of strategies employed by governments towards

formulating and pursuing ICT policy.

Critical questions

To conclude this study guide, we focus on the following ICT policy issues and

main questions:

1. What is ICT policy?

2. What is liberalisation?

3. What is privatisation?

4. What is meant by regional ICT policy and what is the regional policy of

the region in which you live?

5. What is universal service and universal access?

6. How is the future of ICT policy viewed?

Key concepts

As we did in the other study units, we have to delineate the important

concepts used in this final study unit so that you should pay particular

attention to them. These concepts include the following:

. ICT policy

. broadband policy

. cybersecurity policy

. liberalisation

. privatisation

. universal service and universal access

 192

Study unit 12

New media: present and

future policy perspectives
(Zandi Lesame)

12.1 Introduction

In this study unit we focus on what policy entails in the new media sector and

how it is formulated and implemented by governments. We present ICT

policy case studies of various countries to illustrate processes of policy

formulation. ICT policy and ``strategy should be determined by the reality of

our people's needs. These needs are among others, our human resource

development, ICT growth and competitiveness and the upliftment of the

underdeveloped rural areas. Our strategic objective is to encourage social

access to technologies with a people centred, development-oriented

paradigm. Our people should be empowered to access information and

knowledge to bring about social transformation and cohesion'' (Nyanda

2010a:1±2). Nyanda also reiterated that it is necessary, in order to ensure

that goals set in ICT policies are achieved in good time, ``to nurture, promote

and establish public and private partnerships as well as mobile international

assistance, civil society, labour and academia participation''.

12.2 Regional and international perspectives on ICT or new

media policy

On the international front, Van Dijk (1999:231-233) states that ICT policy

should pursue the following values:

. economic welfare

. regional policy

. sustainable employment

. labour productivity

. producers pushing consumers

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Examples of ICT regional policies and structures (or bodies) include the

following:

. ``South Africa is an integral part of Africa. At the level of ICT integration of

policy and systems South Africa creates an environment that is

economically beneficial to all Africa's people, especially those in Southern

Africa. In that spirit, South Africa has hosted several African ICT policy

formulation conferences and forums, also hosted by the African Union

(AU) Communications and Information Technology meetings held in

South Africa over a number of years at Ministerial level. The Oliver

Tambo Declaration which was adopted at one of these AU meetings

called for the promotion of integration of African policy and systems,

sharing of human resources, harmonisation of ICT regulations within the

continent and sharing of infrastructure where possible, to address

accessibility and the cost to communicate'' (Nyanda 2010a:9).

. The ``Addis Ababa Declaration of 2010 adopted by the AU Heads of

State and Government attended by President Jacob Zuma was another

summit that re-enforced the principle of the Oliver Tambo Declaration of

2009 and took a further decision to develop an African Cyber-framework

by 2012'' (Nyanda 2010a:7) see South Africa's cyberfraud policy

(proposed in 2010) on the government website under Documents.

. During his tenure as president of South Africa, former President Thabo

Mbeki facilitated and established the New Economic Partnership for

African Development (NEPAD), along with other African presidents.

One of NEPAD's goals is to promote the development of ICT access and

access to information by African people wherever they are (Mbeki 2005;

2007).

. South Africa participates in the World Telecommunications Develop-

ment Conference (WTDC) every year as part of developing South

Africa's telecommunications policy and infrastructure development

endeavours and programmes and improving the ICT policy that is already

in place and implemented in the country.

. South Africa participates in the International Telecommunications

Union (ITU) Plenipotentiary every year. This event also aims to

improve expertise and information from the ITU about ICT infrastructure

and policy that South Africa could find useful to achieve South Africa's

development aims (Nyanda 2010a:9).

ACTIVITY 12.1 It's time to reflect on new media policy as we

move into the future

1. In your journal, reflect on what the ICT policy of your country and

region is. How has this policy benefited you and your immediate

community and country? If the policy has not had a positive impact

on you and/or your immediate community, how do you propose the

policy should be changed in the future to meet your communication

needs and those of the people in your immediate community? Let

the government know about your suggestions and recommenda-

tions for policy amendments.

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2. Consider one ICT policy in your country, perhaps a broadband

policy, or a cybersecurity policy, an ICT language or content
policy or even the latest broadcasting policy. If you do not know

these policies, consult policymaking officials of the government

department responsible for formulating national communications

policy and enquire about these policies or find the policies on the

government department's website. You could also check out the

laws of the country pertaining to communications and make use of

one of the most recent laws.

3. Make brief notes, after reading and analysing the policy you have

selected, on the following issues:

. Give a brief summary of the policy goals or why it was

developed.

. Who benefits from the implementation of the policy, how and

why?

. What are the achievements of the policy so far?

. How can this policy be improved to better serve society's

development needs?

Bear in mind that policy changes, but while it changes it should not be a ruse

(a hoax or a public stunt just tricking the public). It should solve societal

problems and develop a country 's people.

12.3 Theories on telecommunications and new media

policy formulation

The information provided in the textbook about these theories is very

relevant and important, so read it carefully and understand all these theories

discussed there. Other theories used to explain how telecommunications

and/or ICT policy should be developed include the following. You may also

use them while explaining how ICT policy is developed (in theory and also in

practice by governments and other relevant stakeholders in many countries

of the world) (Boeringer 1996:1±9):

. The democratic theory suggests that policy is formulated democratically,

with all the influential and not so influential groups in society participating

in these processes.

. Pluralist theorists embrace the democratic ideal, where a spectrum of

participants is involved in policy formulation processes, eg different

groups such as labour, politicians, academics, civil society organisations

and others can be represented in policy formulation debates and

conferences.

. Corporatist theorists embrace the idea that power and authority in the

policy formulation process are vested in particular groups, namely labour,

business and the state.

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. Capture theory also provides a critique of corporatist theory. It highlights

the susceptibility of government institutions to corporate influence.

. Political economic theorists claim that fundamental political and economic

issues exist which inform policymaking, and that there is always an

interaction between politics and economics when decisions are being

made (Braman 1998). Political economic theorists believe that there are

people who, with particular interests and ideologies, set the agenda and

what they include and exclude is fundamental to policymaking.

There are several other theories that explain processes of ICT policy

formulation but we will only mention the above at this stage.

ACTIVITY 12.2 ICT policies: fact or fiction?

The information provided in the textbook about these theories is very

relevant and important, so read it carefully and understand all these

theories discussed there. After reading about the theory, assess if you

can apply it in practice by answering these questions:

1. Which ICT policies in your country were developed by following the

assumptions of the theories stated above?

2. Why do you say that the policies you have mentioned in (1) above

have been developed by following the principles of the theories that

you have stated? Write the reasons and your explanation in your

journal.

12.4 Government's role in new media services and ICT

provision

The former South African Minister of Communications, Siphiwe Nyanda

(2010b:1-2) stated in 2010 that the role of government is to formulate

policies aimed at regulating the communications sector and ensure, among

other issues and development goals, that broadcasting ``meets its objectives,

such as contributing towards the fight against social ills that continue to

ravage society such as HIV and AIDS; and provides coverage of the 2010

FIFA World Cup to three billion people worldwide''. In short, Nyanda

identified two of the roles of government in communications: telecommu-

nications and broadcasting, and formulating policies for the sector. These

policies are in turn enforced by a regulator.

Nyanda (2010b:1-2) further commented that some of the latest policies

developed by his department included the

. Post Bank Bill (aimed at assisting the Post Office to manage its finances

efficiently)

. the Local Content Strategy (aimed at developing local content and

information in local media and broadcasters)

. the ICASA Amendment Bill (aimed at strengthening ICASA)

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. the Public Service Broadcasting Bill (which seeks to align the public

broadcasting system with the developmental goals of the country, and to

provide an optimum funding model for the public broadcaster, the SABC)

. the Electronic Communications Amendment Bill (which seeks to

align ministerial directives, clear up ambiguity on some definitions and

further include the creation of strategic support structures such as the

Tariff Advisory Council, among others

A stable ICT regulatory regime is necessary to address key ICT development

challenges (Nyanda 2010a:6). According to Nyanda (2010), industry

regulator ICASA should focus critically on the following:

. regulatory certainty

. liberalisation of the communications industry, especially the telecommu-

nications and broadcasting sub-sectors of the industry

. promotion of the ICT sector and that of small businesses in the ICT sector

. aligning its structure, leadership and culture with the strategy licensing for

new services

. achieving universal service and access

ICT, technology and policy trends as predicted by Van Dijk (2006:58±60)

include the following:

. ``Miniaturisation. Moore's Law explains this development. Moore's Law

states that mobile and wireless technology will spread the network

society to the most remote places and the deepest pores of the world''

(Van Dijk 2006:58±59). If you think about Moore's Law, it is true in the

case of developing countries where almost everyone, in rural and urban

areas, has a cellphone and most people these days in developing countries

are using them for advanced services such as mobile banking see case
study 12.1.
. ``Nanotechnology. Biotechnology. Portability of technology as new digital

technologies become smaller and smaller but have abundant broadband

and space to store information.

. Embedded technology. Ubiquitous computing. Objects exchange info

without human interaction. Mobile and wireless technology. Return to

satellite technology after cable. Wireless limited. Scarcity of frequencies.

Geographical reach. Use in transport and leisure time. Metcalfe's Law.

Metcalfe's Law states that the usefulness or utility of a network equals the

square of the numbers of users'' (Van Dijk 2006:59).

. ``Broadband technology. Guilder's Law. According to George Guilder, the

memory and processing capacity of chips doubles every 18 months'' (Van

Dijk 2006:59).

. Enormous influence on the use of computers and their networks. New

usage patterns emerge. Use of computers and the internet is embedded

in everyday life. Broadband is no longer for the elite but widely available

to most people. Online activities substitute offline activities and certain

environments.
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New laws are developed by other theorists as new media continue to be

used by people and businesses for different purposes in different countries.

12.5 Evaluating universal service and universal access to

new media services

The policies of universal service and access are clearly explained and

explored in your prescribed book. Read the textbook about the meanings of

the policies and explain the strategies of measuring and achieving them. If you

need more information on the policies, consult the internet or the

government, or government agency promoting these policies in your

country of residence for more information on them.

Governments and their agencies usually define these policies and their goals,

and change the definitions according to country needs and development

goals every two to five years, depending on how many ICT services have

been deployed, where and to whom.

ACTIVITY 12.3 Universal or not-so-universal ICT access?

1. Read section 12.3 in your textbook and write notes in your journal

or make a summary of what the policies of universal service and

universal access to communications services are and how these two

policies are measured in your country.

2. Has the country you used in question 1 above achieved the US and

UA goals it set for itself? If not, why not? If so, what are the US and

UA levels (per 100 population) of the country you referred to?

3. If your country does not have the policies, what policy does your

country promote in the new media sector?

4. Write a few notes on that policy in your journal.

12.6 Evaluating the effectiveness of ICT policy on society

The following areas of concern are important when considering whether

new media or ICT policies have been effective in society:

. examining whether initial problems or symptoms that the policy aimed to

solve have been reduced (and by how much if reduced) or eliminated

. determining whether the government is doing enough to solve existing

ICT problems and deficiencies

. assessing increased access to new media or ICT by members of the public

. assessing increased ICT usage by members of society

. determining increased levels of literacy and knowledge of members of

society as a result of the access to new media and/or ICT

. examining increased ICT skills and abilities in citizens, as well as the effect
 198

of the use of ICT nationally on national work productively, GDP and

economic development

. evaluating whether people better enjoy life as a result of their use of new

media or ICT

If ICT policy has achieved some or most of the objectives stated above, we

can argue that the policy has been effective towards national goals. If not,

then the policy is more of a ruse.

Can you imagine how much of the state resources and national taxes it

would use up if government were busy developing policies in this sector that

do not meet their goals for many years?

As we have seen, formulating new media policy in the right ways is as

important as implementing that policy so that it benefits communities and the

country. The policy should not just be nice-looking on paper; its objectives

should be achievable as well as achieved, although this achievement may not

take a few years for some countries because of budgetary or financial

constraints on governments.

12.7 Conclusion

Each country and region (such as SADC and the EU) have ICT policies. Each

policy is based on economic capability and political as well as socioeconomic

needs of each country and region. Governments (and the private sector

when invited by government) usually identify the goals of each ICT policy and

determine how these goals will be achieved and by whom (including ICT

service providers) and also specifies the role of the regulator in those

processes. It is crucial that countries and regions set achievable universal

service and universal access goals and ensure that strategies employed to

achieve these goals are practical and attainable.

Service providers should assist governments in making sure that most

members of society have access to ICT and that ICT services are affordable

to many people. These two strategies are some of the ways of ensuring

communication ubiquity or advances in wireless technology such as cellular

networks, personal communications systems and rural radio subscriber

systems which have the capacity to offer affordable means of reaching rural

customers and urban areas without very expensive infrastructure in

developing countries. Low-cost wireless services may also replace wire-

line in industrialised countries as the primary means of personal access.

Wireless broadband technologies can cover not only buildings and campuses

but also neighbourhoods and villages. ``Terrestrial wireless and satellite

technologies make possible communication anywhere, anytime'' (Hudson

2006:4).
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12.8 Reviewing and connecting the dots

Reviewing what In this study unit, we explored the important of having national new media

you have studied and/or ICT and ensuring that the policy supports the country 's development

goals and improves national GDP. The material in this study unit should

enable you to

. sense the ``when'' and ``how '' of implementing ICT policy and when to

know when policy has failed to achieve its objectives and perhaps

formulate new national policy if need be

. employ tools to facilitate policy formulation and implementation in the

ICT sector

. realise how old policies may constitute the rise of new policies aimed at

ensuring better futures

After considering these issues and their practical implications, make sure that

you have written summaries of all your reflections as you will be expected to

submit evidence of them as part of your assignments.

We have reached the end of part 4 of the module and that means we have

reached the end of this study guide too. Make sure you keep up to date with

ICT policy developments in your country and region and also in different

countries which are leaders in the new media technology sector because

policy changes often and governments are continuously changing ICT policies

to meet national, social and economic goals.

In part 4, we emphasise futuristic ICT policy developments aimed at social

and economic development of communities and countries, based on national

development goals. National development goals, although aimed at solving

local problems, can be influenced by international development goals, eg the

UN's 2014 Millennium Development Goals which have influenced many a

country 's development initiatives and implementation strategies. Countries

should work towards achieving these goals within their borders.

References

Boeringer, K. 1996. Policy formulation. Sydney: Macquarie University.

Braman, S. 1998. Policy formulation. Pretoria: University of South Africa.

Department of Foreign Affairs. New Economic Partnership for African

Development (NEPAD). Pretoria.

Gillwald, A. 1998. Convergence, regulation and the public interest. Johannes-

burg: Africa Telecom '98.

Gurumurthy, A, Singh, PJ, Mundkur, A & Swamy, M. 2006. Gender in the

information society: emerging issues. New Delhi: The Asia-Pacific

Development Information Programme.

Hudson, HE. 2006. From rural village to global village: telecommunications for

development in the information age. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum

Associates.
 200

Mbeki, T. 2002. New Economic Partnership for African Development (NEPAD)

for African Development. Ottawa: G8 Summit.

Mbeki, T. 2005. Presidential State of the Nation Address. Cape Town: South

African Parliament.

Mbeki, T. 2007. State of the Nation Address of the President of South Africa.

Cape Town: South African Parliament.

Ministry of Communications. 2000. South African Independent Communica-

tions Authority Act 13 of 2000. Pretoria.

Mosco, V. 1988. Toward a theory of the state and telecommunications policy.

International telecommunications: what is price policy? Journal of

Communication, Winter:107±124.

Nyanda, S. 2010a. Minister of Communications budget vote speech: ICT for

accelerated service delivery and empowerment! Cape Town: South African

Parliament.

Nyanda, S. 2010b. Minister of Communications, Minister Nyanda's address at

the Commonwealth Broadcasting Association Conference. Sandton,

Johannesburg, 19 April.

NEPAD at Work. 2002. Business Day, 7 June 7:11.

Petrazzini, BA. 1995. The political economy of telecommunications reform in

developing countries: privatization and liberalization in comparative

perspective. Westport: Praeger.

South African Department of Communications. 1996a. Telecommunications

Act 103 of 1996. Pretoria: Government Printer.

South African Department of Communications. 1996b. White Paper on

Telecommunications Policy. Pretoria: Government Printer.

South African Department of Communications. 2001. Telecommunications

policy directions.

http://docweb.pwv.gov.za/docs/policy/telpoldir.html [Accessed on 30 September

2008].

South African Department of Communications. 2005. Electronic Commu-

nications Act 25 of 2005. Pretoria: Government Printer.

South African Department of Communications. 2009a. Annual report 2008/

09. Pretoria.

South African Department of Communications. 2009b. Draft broadband policy

of South Africa. Pretoria.

South African Department of Communications. 2010. Draft cybersecurity

policy of South Africa. Pretoria.

South African Presidential National Commission on Information Society and

Development. [sa]. www.pcn.gov.za [Accessed on 28 July 2009].

Van Dijk, JAGM. 1999. The network society: social aspects of new media.

London: Sage.

Van Dijk, JAGM. 2006. The network society: social aspects of new media. 2nd

edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

About endings and new beginnings

``Umntu ngumntu ngabantu'', ``Motho ke motho ka Batho'' an African proverb

meaning no man is an island you are a person because of others.

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Before we end, there are a few very important tasks to be performed if we

are serious about the emphasis in this module on new media technology.

Before revising the contents of the prescribed book and this study guide, let's

take a moment to think about the study units and recapture what they have

taught you as part of this module's learning outcomes. This will help you to

understand what each study unit focuses on and also to recall the most

important issues that we raised in each study unit.

Study unit 1 This study unit formed the introduction to the module and set the tone for

the whole module. We discussed in detail the differences between old and

new media and we explained which activities occur in new media, mostly

online media such as social networks and social media. We explained

convergence, digitisation and differences between analogue and digital media

since they form the basis of new media technology.

Study unit 2 In this study unit we provided a much broader but simpler view of social

media and also discussed the consequences and implications of these media

on old media such as the press and television, and mainly newspapers and

magazines. The aim was to ensure that you thoroughly understand the main

differences between old (traditional) and new (digital) media so that you have

an in-depth understanding of the forms of new media.

Study unit 3 In this study unit, we discussed the internet and revisited how this technology

developed. Internet milestones over the years were identified and internet

service provider business relationships relations were explored against the

background of anti-competitive practices that induce some governments to

regulate the provision and use of the internet within their national borders.

Differences between countries in aspects of internet service provision were

also assessed. You can compare information about the development and

regulation (even lack of that regulation) of the internet in countries that you

are interested in.

Study unit 4 The internet has many fascinating positive uses and consequences for users

and society at large. In this study unit we examined the positive side and uses

of the internet by all users, big (organisations, companies and governments)

and small (individuals). It is crucial that you understand these positive effects

of internet usage on societies because we live in the information society, and

you will most probably be affected by the internet, for example you may do

internet banking.

Study unit 5 In this study unit we examined the role played by ICT in the life of individuals

towards building the national economy and facilitating international trade.

Many ICT projects have also improved the lives of women and youth both

educationally and economically, while also advancing the lives of those

already participating in business and the health sector. It is imperative,

therefore, that developing countries deploy ICTs in their own geographical

areas widely and cheaply, so that most members of society are able to access

them for the socioeconomic development of many. This includes those who

are uneducated. It is about time that ICT opportunities are created for

everyone, regardless of the size of their pocket, geographical location or

place of residence, educational qualification or economic class and country of

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origin. New media have the capacity to erode these differences and offer

knowledge to everyone, anywhere and any time.

Study unit 6 You found out in this study unit how you can produce content by using your

cellphone and other new media, as well as how you can distribute that

content to audiences, whether online, through broadcasting channels or via

other cellphones. You also learnt that with the assistance of cellphones and

other data-capturing and information-producing technologies, you can also

produce and market your own information for social usage and critical

analysis. The focus and content of that information, be it a video or a movie,

depend entirely on you, a producer and a prodsumer.

Study unit 7 This study unit dealt with the meanings of e-government and some of its

applications and manifestations, including electronic governance and digital

democracy. We covered theories and models explaining e-government,

providing real-life examples of political activities and events that demonstrate

e-government in action in different countries around the world. E-

government may be a reality in some countries but not yet in others.

However, the latter countries could be working towards the achievement of

making e-government services widely accessible in their countries.

Study unit 8 In this study unit we discussed the relationships between technology, market

developments and policy and regulatory initiatives. We analysed convergence

tendencies at a technological, policy and regulatory level in public broad-

casting services and broadcasting digital migration internationally. The

possible differences in convergence and policy between developed and

developing countries were also discussed. We raised open questions and

issues and gave an overview of the different regulatory possibilities that

countries have. In the process we encouraged you to participate in

constructive debates about the implications of new media on broadcasting

policy and to use the theoretical framework to contribute to making

decisions and policy in international broadcasting through conventional media

as well as new media technologies.

Study unit 9 In this study unit we explored the role of technology in development issues

and also in developing countries. Technology cannot solve problems alone

but people should use it to make efforts aimed at solving social problems,

especially those such as poverty and unemployment. Evidence from other

countries has shown that technology projects can improve education and

health and also contribute to business development and improvement. Some

practical examples of how technology is actually developing people in

different countries were also provided.

Study unit 10 In this study unit we analysed the concept of cybercrime. We also assessed

how cyberlaw and cyberjurisdiction play a role in dealing with cybercrimes,

and provided you with cybersurvival tips, such as how you can avoid being

caught in the phishing net. Obviously, the internet has facilitated easy access

to information across the globe, making life easy. However, it has also bred

many illegal and unethical practices. While some use the internet for gaining

information, others use it for the destruction of private and sensitive data.

While some use the Web as a communication platform, others derive

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pleasure from intruding on the internet privacy of individuals and seek

enjoyment from breaching internet security. You learned about such issues in

this study unit and how to deal with them.

Study unit 11 In this study unit we audit the negative uses of ICT or new media by

members of society. Crime occurs offline as well as online and this unit offers

insights into what people do wrong online and how these activities can be

identified and curbed. Internet users are also advised about how to ensure

that they do not fall victim to internet crime, be they young or old.

Study unit 12 Each country and region has an ICT policy or policies. Each policy is based on

economic capability and political as well as socioeconomic needs of each

country and region. We explored the need and urgency for ICT policy at

national and international levels. Governments (and the private sector when

invited by government) usually identify the goals of each ICT policy and

determine how these goals will be achieved and by whom. We provided a

critical analysis of strategies employed by governments towards setting and

pursuing ICT policy.

All these study units offered you practical case studies of all the issues dealt

with, to make your reading easy and enjoyable while driving the main points

home. The activities also make your study an easy one and ensure that you

revise sections of the work well that you did not understand before.

Activity revision and synopsis of the module

1. In trying to integrate all your learning in the module, we ask you to

outline at least two important issues explored in each study unit and

provide appropriate examples of these issues. When you come to write

the exams and assignments you will then be familiar with the issues and

have some readily available examples that you can use in your future

discussions.

2. Revisit the stories and case studies that we presented in all the study

units in this module.

3. Choose three case studies that you identify with in this study guide, or

those that you agree with. State the reasons and supporting evidence

(from your own brief research) of why you agree with the case studies.

Do the same with any two other case studies that you disagree with.

Note your views in your journal.

Endings signal ``Every new beginning comes from some other beginning's end.'' Are you ready

beginnings for the new beginning after the 12 study units in this module?