Unit-IV

Editing, Coding and Data Presentation

Introduction:
The main objective of editing is to detect possible errors and irregularities. The task of
editing is a highly specialized one and requires great care and attention. Negligence in
this respect may render useless the findings of an otherwise valuable study. Editing data
collected from internal records and published sources is relatively simple but the data
collected from a survey need excessive editing.
While editing primary data, the following considerations should be borne in mind:
(a) The data should be complete in every respect
(b) The data should be accurate
(c) The data should be consistent, and
(d) The data should be homogeneous.
Data to possess the above mentioned characteristics have to undergo the same type of
editing which is discussed below:

a. Editing for Completeness:

While editing, the editor should see that each schedule and questionnaire is complete in all
respects. He should see to it that the answers to each and every question have been furnished.
If some questions are not answered and if they are of vital importance then the informants
should be contacted again either personally or through correspondence. Even after all the
efforts it may happen that a few questions remain unanswered. In such questions, the editor
should mark ‘No answer’ in the space provided for answers and if the questions are of
vital importance then the schedule or questionnaire should be dropped.
b. Editing for Consistency:
At the time of editing the data for consistency, the editor should see that the answers to
questions are not contradictory in nature. If they are mutually contradictory answers, he
should try to obtain the correct answers either by referring back the questionnaire or by
contacting, wherever possible, the informant in person. For example, if amongst others, two
questions in questionnaire are (a) Are you a student? (b) Which class do you study and the
reply to the first question is ‘no’ and to the latter ‘tenth’ then there is contradiction and it
should be clarified.
c. Editing for Accuracy:
The reliability of conclusions depends basically on the correctness of information. If the
information supplied is wrong, conclusions can never be valid. It is, therefore, necessary for
the editor to see that the information is accurate in all respects. If the inaccuracy is due to
arithmetical errors, it can be easily detected and corrected. But if the cause of inaccuracy is
faulty information supplied, it may be difficult to verify it and an example of this kind is
information relating to income, age etc.
d. Editing For Homogeneity:
Homogeneity means the condition in which all the questions have been understood in the
same sense. The editor must check all the questions for uniform interpretation. For example,
as to the question of income, if some informants have given monthly income, others annual
income and still others weekly income or even daily income, no comparison can be made.
Therefore, it becomes an essential duty of the editor to check up that the information
supplied by the various people is homogeneous and uniform.
Choice between Primary and Secondary Data:
As we have already seen, there are a lot of differences in the methods of collecting Primary
and Secondary data. Primary data which is to be collected originally involves an entire
scheme of plan starting with the definitions of various terms used, units to be employed,
type of enquiry to be conducted, extent of accuracy aimed at etc. For the collection of
secondary data, a mere compilation of the existing data would be sufficient. A proper choice
between the type of data needed for any particular statistical investigation is to be made
after taking into consideration the nature, objective and scope of the enquiry; the time and
the finances at the disposal of the agency; the degree of precision aimed at and the status
of the agency (whether government- state or central-or private institution of an
individual).
In using the secondary data, it is best to obtain the data from the primary source as far as
possible. By doing so, we would at least save ourselves from the errors of transcription
which might have inadvertently crept in the secondary source. Moreover, the primary source
will also provide us with detailed discussion about the terminology used, statistical units
employed, size of the sample and the technique of sampling (if sampling method was used),
methods of data collection and analysis of results and we can ascertain ourselves if these
would suit our purpose.
Now-a-days in a large number of statistical enquiries, secondary data are generally used because
fairly reliable published data on a large number of diverse fields are now available in the
publications of governments, private organizations and research institutions, agencies,
periodicals and magazines etc. In fact, primary data are collected only if there do not exist
any secondary data suited to the investigation under study. In some of the investigations
both primary as well as secondary data may be used.
Diagrammatic representation
Diagram will give the idea of the data, its pattern, its shape in an easier way than tabulated
data. The data presented through Diagram is the best way of appealing to the mind visually.
There are various types of diagram in literature. One common type of classification of
diagram is based on dimension namely one dimensional, two dimensional, three
dimensional. Keeping the limitations of this book and frequent usage in social research this
is restricted to only one-dimensional diagram only.

Important diagram discussed are 1. Simple bar diagram 2. Multiple bar diagram 3. Sub
divided bar diagram 4. Percentage bar diagram 5. Pie diagram 6. Structure diagram.

Simple Bar Diagram:

This is related to one characteristic only. It is commonly used and better for representation
of qualitative data. The characteristic will be presented on X- Axis and the corresponding
values the Y-axis. Bars are simply vertical and length of the bars are proportional to their
corresponding values. In this, only length will be considered and width is uniform for all
bars and gap between each bar is identical. The diagram usually shows a comparison
between different categories. Although the diagram can technically be plotted vertically or
horizontally, the most usual presentation for a bar graph is vertical. The bars may be on
positive side as well as negative sides depending on the values of the variables.

Example 1: Following are the gross revenue of a company XYZ in the year
2013,2014,2015.

Draw a simple bar diagram.

Solution: Identify years on X-axis with same width and separated by equal gaps.
Consider Revenue on Y-axis with suitable scale. Draw a bar against each year whose
height is proportional to the corresponding revenue.

Multiple Bar Diagram:

Multiple bar diagram facilities comparison between more than one phenomena. By multiple
bars diagram two or more sets of inter-related data are represented by side by sidebars for
each phenomenon. The technique of simple bar chart is used to draw this diagram for each
sets but the difference is that one will use different shades, colors, or dots to distinguish
between different phenomena. This is also called compound bar or cluster bar diagram.

Example 2: Following are the information on marital status of employees in three

companies A, B, C in the year 2015. Draw suitable diagram.

Solution:
Consider Companies on X-axis and employees on Y-axis. Plot the Companies A, B, C with
some width on X-axis separated by some equal gaps. Width of each company must be
suitable for erecting three bars one for married, one for unmarried and one for divorced and
widowed. Draw three bars three bars one for married, one for unmarried and one for
divorced and widowed against each company whose height is proportional to the
corresponding number.
Sub Divided Bar Diagram:
Sub-divided or component bar chart is used to represent data in which the total magnitude
is divided into different components. In this diagram, first we make simple bars for each
class taking total magnitude in that class and then divide these simple bars into parts in the
ratio of various components.
Example 3: Construct a sub divided bar diagram to the following data on family
expenditure.

Solution:
Consider Years with some width on X- axis and separate years by equal space. Consider
expenditure on Y-axis with suitable scale. Plot a bar whose height is proportional to the total
of all items together against each year. Now sub-divide the bar according to sun expenditure
items.
Percentage Bar Diagram:
Percentage Bar diagram is nothing but a Sub-divided bar chart drawn on percentage basis.
To draw this bar diagram, express each component as the percentage of its respective total.
In drawing percentage bar diagram, bars of length equal to 100 for each class are drawn at
first step and sub-divided in the proportion of the percentage of their component in the
second step. The diagram so obtained is called percentage bar diagram or percentage staked
bar chart. This type of diagram is useful to make comparison.

Example 4: Construct a Percentage bar diagram to the following data given in example 3.

Solution:
Consider Years with some width on X- axis and separate years by equal space. Consider
expenditure on Y-axis. Convert all the values in each year in to percentages. Then total for
each year will be 100. Plot a bar whose height is proportional to 100 each year. Now sub-
divide the bar according to percentages of the sun expenditure items.

Pie Diagram:
A pie chart (or a circle chart) is a circular statistical graphic, which is divided into slices to
illustrate numerical proportion. In a pie chart, the arc length of each slice (and consequently
its central angle and area), is proportional to the quantity it represents. Pie charts are
generally used to show percentage or proportional data. The size of the slice in the circle
represents the proportion of the components out of the total. Pie charts are good for
displaying data for around 6 categories or fewer.
Example5: The following table shows the areas in millions of square miles of oceans of the
world. Draw Pie chart for the same.

Solution:
Total area is 152.9. Now convert the values in to degrees by equating 152.9 as 360 degrees.
Then the corresponding values in degrees are 70.8 x360/152.9 =167; 41.2 x360/152.9 =97;
28.5 x360/152.9=67; 7.6 x360/152.9=18; 4.8 x360/152.9=11. These values are plotted on a
circle and separated with different colours/ shades.

Graphical representation:
This is another technique of visual presentation like diagrammatic representation. However,
Diagrams are more suitable to illustrate the data which is discreet, while continuous data is
better represented by Graphs. This is two dimensional. The values on both the X-axis and on
Y-axis are proportional to the variables. Important and commonly using graphs are 1.
Histogram 2. Frequency polygon and frequency curve and 3.Ogives (Cumulative frequency
curves)

Histogram:
In this graph, data is represented by plotting the series of rectangles. As the data to be
plotted is having class intervals and frequencies (Continuous frequency distribution)
(Grouped Data), consider class intervals on X- axis and the frequencies on Y- axis according
to a suitable scale. Unlike the bar diagram in which only length of the bar only material and
not the width (one dimensional), a histogram is two dimensional (as already mentioned), in
which both the length and width are important. A histogram is a set of rectangles or vertical
bars proportional to the frequency of the class interval against that class interval. Each
rectangle is joined with the other and the blank spaces between the rectangles would mean
that the category is
empty and there are no values in that class interval (zero frequency for that class interval). In
case of open-end class interval distributions, one cannot construct Histograms. If the class
intervals are not of equal size the height of the rectangles should be proportional to the ratio
of frequency of the class interval and the length of that class interval.

Example 6: The following table gives the monthly income in rupees per family in a working
locality. Draw Histogram for the same.

Solution: Consider Monthly earnings on X- axis and No. of families on Y-axis with
suitable scale. Erect rectangles against each class intervals proportional to the
corresponding frequencies.

Frequency Polygon and Frequency Curve:

In constructing the frequency polygon Class intervals are taken on X-axis and frequencies
are taken on Y axis with suitable scale. Then the frequencies of the class intervals are plotted
against the midpoint of that class interval. Joining these points in order, by straight line gives
the frequency polygon. Joining those points in order with help of a smoothed curve gives the
frequency curve.

Example7: For the data given in example 6, draw frequency polygon and frequency
curve.
Solution: Consider Monthly earnings on X- axis and No. of families on Y-axis with suitable
scale. Plot frequency of each class interval against the midpoint of that class interval. Join
those points by straight lines in order gives the frequency polygon. Join those point by a
smoothed curve gives the frequency curve.
Ogives (Cumulative frequency curves):
There are two types of Ogives. One is less than ogives (less than cumulative frequency
curve) and other is more than ogives (more than cumulative frequency curve). These are
graphical representation of cumulative frequency distributions. To construct such graphs one
has to define less than cumulative frequency and more than cumulative frequency from the
frequency distribution. Less than frequency of a class interval is the frequency which is less
than the upper limit of that class interval. Similarly, more than cumulative frequency of a
class interval is frequency which is more than the lower limit of that class interval. In this
process the less than cumulative frequency of the first class interval is its frequency only
where as for the last class interval the total frequency. The more than cumulative frequency
of the first class interval is the total frequency where as for the last class interval the
frequency of that class interval only. In constructing these graphs, the class intervals are
taken on X-axis and the cumulative frequencies on Y-axis with suitable scale. The graph
between less than cumulative frequencies against its upper limits is called less than
cumulative frequency curve or less than ogive. The graph between more than cumulative
frequencies against its lower limits is called more than cumulative frequency curve or more
than ogive

Example8: For the data given in example 6, draw cumulative frequency curves.
Solution:

Consider Monthly earnings on X- axis and cumulative frequencies of the No. of families on
Y-axis with suitable scale. Plot the less than cumulative frequency of the class interval
against its upper limit and join those points by a smoothed curve. This gives the less than
cumulative frequency curve. Plot the more than cumulative frequency of the class interval
against its lower limit and join those points by a smoothed curve. This gives the more than
cumulative frequency curve.
Introduction to Report Writing
This unit deals with report writing. Research report is considered a major component of the
research study for the research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented
and/or written. As a matter of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed
and conducted research study, and the most striking generalizations and findings are of little
value unless they are effectively communicated to others. The purpose of research is not
well served unless the findings are made known to others. Research results must invariably
enter the general store of knowledge.
All this explains the significance of writing research report. There are
people who do not consider writing of report as an integral part of the research process. But
the general opinion is in favour of treating the presentation of research results or the writing
of report as part and parcel of the research project. Writing of report is the last step in a
research study and requires a set of skills somewhat different from those called for in respect
of the earlier stages of research. This task should be accomplished by the researcher with
utmost care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of experts for the purpose.

Types of Reports
Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the length and
the form are largely dictated by the problems at hand. For instance, business firms prefer
reports in the letter form, just one or two pages in length. Banks, insurance organisations and
financial institutions are generally fond of the short balance-sheet type of tabulation for their
annual reports to their customers and shareholders. Mathematicians prefer to write the
results of their investigations in the form of algebraic notations. Chemists report their results
in symbols and formulae. Students of literature usually write long reports presenting the
critical analysis of some writer or period or the like with a liberal use of quotations from the
works of the author under discussion. In the field of education and psychology, the favourite
form is the report on the results of experimentation accompanied by the detailed statistical
tabulations. Clinical psychologists and social pathologists frequently find it necessary to
make use of the case-history form.

Book-reviews which analyze the content of the book and report on the author’s
intentions, his success or failure in achieving his aims, his language, his style, scholarship,
bias or his point of view. Such reviews also happen to be a kind of short report.
 The reports prepared by governmental bureaus, special commissions, and similar
other organisations are generally very comprehensive reports on the issues involved. Such
reports are usually considered as important research products.

Similarly, Ph.D. theses and dissertations are also a form of report-writing, usually
completed by students in academic institutions. The above narration throws light on the fact
that the results of a research investigation can be presented in a number of ways viz., a
technical report, a popular report, an article, a monograph or at times even in the form of
oral presentation. The method(s) of presentation to be used in a particular study depends on
the circumstances in which the study arose and the nature of the results.

A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required
whether for recordkeeping or for public dissemination. A popular report is used if the
research results have policy implications. We give below a few details about the said two
types of reports:

TECHNICAL REPORT
In the technical report the main emphasis is on (i) the methods employed, (it) assumptions
made in the course of the study, (iii) the detailed presentation of the findings including their
limitations and supporting data. A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the
problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required,
etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For
instance, in sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size,
sample selection, etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitations. If
secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of
a survey, the manner in which data were collected should be fully described.
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and presentation of
the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be fully
narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over
several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from
the results be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
8.Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and
the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.
The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a technical report; the
order of presentation may not necessarily be the same in all the technical reports. This, in
other words, means that the presentation may vary in different reports; even the different
sections outlined above will not always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any
particular report. It should, however, be remembered that even in a technical report, simple
presentation and ready availability of the findings remain an important consideration and as
such the liberal use of charts and diagrams is considered desirable.
Popular Report
The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The
simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical, particularly
mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with
large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is another
characteristic feature of the popular report. Besides, in such a report emphasis is given on
practical aspects and policy implications. We give below a general outline of a popular
report.
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of
most practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of
the study is made in this section of the report.
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with
the specific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques
used, including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of
the report.
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the
study are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of
illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is
presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is
entirely meant for general public.

There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be prepared. The
only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy
implications from the operational point of view, avoiding the technical details of all sorts to
the extent possible.

Parts of Reports
Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough about
the study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of its
methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this
purpose there is the need of proper layout of the report. The layout of the report means as to
what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report
should comprise
1. Preliminary pages;
2. The main text; and
3. The end matter.
Let us deal with them separately

1. Preliminary Pages
In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and date, followed by
acknowledgements in the form of ‘Preface’ or ‘Foreword’. Then there should be a table of
contents followed by list of tables and illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody
interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the report.

2. Main Text
The main text provides the complete outline of the research report along with all details.
Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then
follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page.
Each main section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report
should have the following sections: (i) Introduction; (ii) Statement of findings and
recommendations; (iii) The results; (iv) The implications drawn from the results; and (v)
The summary.

(i) Introduction: The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to

the readers. It should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e.,
enough background should be given to make clear to the reader why the problem
was considered worth investigating. A brief summary of other relevant research
may also be stated so that the present study can be seen in that context. The
hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major concepts employed
in the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report. The
methodology adopted in conducting the study must be fully explained. The
scientific reader would like to know in detail about such thing: How was the
study carried out? What was its basic design? If the study was an experimental
one, then what were the experimental manipulations? If the data were collected
by means of questionnaires or interviews, then exactly what questions were
asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule is usually given in an appendix)?
If measurements were based on observation, then what instructions were given to
the observers? Regarding the sample used in the study the reader should be told:
Who were the subjects? How many were there? How were they selected? All
these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of generalizability
of the findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In
addition to all this, the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary lines
be demarcated. The various limitations, under which the research project was
completed, must also be narrated.
(ii) Statement of findings and recommendations: After introduction, the research
report must contain a statement of findings and recommendations in non-
technical language so that it can be easily understood by all concerned. If the
findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in the
summarised form.
(iii) Results: A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data
in the form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next
step in writing the main text of the report. This generally comprises the main
body of the report, extending over several chapters. The result section of the
report should contain statistical summaries and reductions of the data rather than
the raw data. All the results should be presented in logical sequence and splitted
into readily identifiable sections. All relevant results must find a place in the
report. But how one is to decide about what is relevant is the basic question.
Quite often guidance comes primarily from the research problem and from the
hypotheses, if any, with which the study was concerned. But ultimately the
researcher must rely on his own judgement in deciding the outline of his report.
“Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he states clearly the problem with which
he was concerned, the procedure by which he worked on the problem, the
conclusions at which he arrived, and the bases for his conclusions.
(iv) Implications of the results: Toward the end of the main text, the researcher
should again put down the results of his research clearly and precisely. He
should, state the implications that flow from the results of the study, for the
 general reader is interested in the implications for understanding the human
behaviour. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below:
(a) A statement of the inferences drawn from the present study which may be
expected to apply in similar circumstances.
(b) The conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate
generalizations of the inferences drawn from the study.
(c) Thc relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised
by the study along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide
answers for them.
It is considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which
summarises and recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn
from the study should be clearly related to the hypotheses that were stated in the
introductory section. At the same time, a forecast of the probable future of the
subject and an indication of the kind of research which needs to be done in that
particular field is useful and desirable.
(v) Summary: It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very
brief summary, resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major
findings and the major conclusions drawn from the research results.

3. End Matter
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data such as
questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones.
Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of
names, places and topics along with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which
they are mentioned or discussed) should invariably be given at the end of the report. The
value of index lies in the fact that it works as a guide to the reader for the contents in the
report.

Presentation of Reports
There are very definite and set rules which should be followed in the actual preparation of
the research report or paper. Once the techniques are finally decided, they should be
scrupulously adhered to, and no deviation permitted. The criteria of format should be
decided as soon as the materials for the research paper have been assembled. The following
points deserve mention so far as the mechanics of writing a report are concerned:

1. Size and physical design: The manuscript should be written on unruled paper 812″ × 11″
in size. If it is to be written by hand, then black or blue-black ink should be used. A margin
of at least one and one-half inches should be allowed at the left hand and of at least half an
inch at the right hand of the paper. There should also be one-inch margins, top and bottom.
The paper should be neat and legible. If the manuscript is to be typed, then all typing should
be double-spaced on one side of the page only except for the insertion of the long
quotations.

2. Procedure: Various steps in writing the report should be strictly adhered (All such steps
have already been explained earlier in this chapter).

3. Layout: Keeping in view the objective and nature of the problem, the layout of the report
should be thought of and decided and accordingly adopted (The layout of the research report
and various types of reports have been described in this chapter earlier which should be
taken as a guide for report-writing in case of a particular problem).
4. Treatment of quotations: Quotations should be placed in quotation marks and double
spaced, forming an immediate part of the text. But if a quotation is of a considerable length
(more than four or five type written lines) then it should be single-spaced and indented at
least half an inch to the right of the normal text margin.

5. The footnotes: Regarding footnotes one should keep in view the followings:
(a) The footnotes serve two purposes viz., the identification of materials used in
quotations in the report and the notice of materials not immediately necessary to the body of
the research text but still of supplemental value. In other words, footnotes are meant for
cross references, citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation or
explanation of a point of view. It should always be kept in view that footnote is not an end
nor a means of the display of scholarship. The modern tendency is to make the minimum use
of footnotes for scholarship does not need to be displayed.
(b) Footnotes are placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference or
quotation which they identify or supplement ends. Footnotes are customarily separated from
the textual material by a space of half an inch and a line about one and a half inches long.
(c) Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, usually beginning with 1 in each
chapter separately. The number should be put slightly above the line, say at the end of a
quotation. At the foot of the page, again, the footnote number should be indented and typed
a little above the line. Thus, consecutive numbers must be used to correlate the reference in
the text with its corresponding note at the bottom of the page, except in case of statistical
tables and other numerical material, where symbols such as the asterisk (*) or the like one
may be used to prevent confusion.
(d) Footnotes are always typed in single space though they are divided from one
another by double space.

6. Documentation style: Regarding documentation, the first footnote reference to any given
work should be complete in its documentation, giving all the essential facts about the edition
used. Such documentary footnotes follow a general sequence. The common order may be
described as under:
(i) Regarding the single-volume reference
1. Author’s name in normal order (and not beginning with the last name as in a
bibliography) followed by a comma;
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Pagination references (The page number).
Example John Gassner, Masters of the Drama, New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1954, p.
315.
(ii) Regarding multivolumed reference
1. Author’s name in the normal order;
Interpretation and Report Writing 355
2. Title of work, underlined to indicate italics;
3. Place and date of publication;
4. Number of volume;
5. Pagination references (The page number).
(iii) Regarding works arranged alphabetically For works arranged alphabetically
such as encyclopedias and dictionaries, no pagination reference is usually needed. In such
cases the order is illustrated as under:
Example 1 “Salamanca,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th Edition.
Example 2 “Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin,” Dictionary of national biography. But if there
should be a detailed reference to a long encyclopedia article, volume and pagination
reference may be found necessary.
(iv) Regarding periodicals reference
1. Name of the author in normal order;
2. Title of article, in quotation marks;
3. Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics;
4. Volume number;
5. Date of issuance;
6. Pagination.
(v) Regarding anthologies and collections reference Quotations from anthologies or
collections of literary works must be acknowledged not only by author, but also by the name
of the collector.
(vi) Regarding second-hand quotations reference In such cases the documentation
should be handled as follows:
1. Original author and title; 2. “quoted or cited in,”; 3. Second author and work.
Example J.F. Jones, Life in Ploynesia, p. 16, quoted in History of the Pacific Ocean
area, by R.B. Abel, p. 191.
(vii) Case of multiple authorship If there are more than two authors or editors, then
in the documentation the name of only the first is given and the multiple authorship is
indicated by “et al.” or “and others”. Subsequent references to the same work need not be so
detailed as stated above. If the work is cited again without any other work intervening, it
may be indicated as ibid, followed by a comma and the page number. A single page should
be referred to as p., but more than one page be referred to as pp. If there are several pages
referred to at a stretch, the practice is to use often the page number, for example, pp. 190ff,
which means page number 190 and the following pages; but only for page 190 and the
following page ‘190f’. Roman numerical is generally used to indicate the number of the
volume of a book. Op. cit. (opera citato, in the work cited) or Loc. cit. (loco citato, in the
place cited) are two of the very convenient abbreviations used in the footnotes. Op. cit. or
Loc. cit. after the writer’s name would suggest that the reference is to work by the writer
which has been cited in detail in an earlier footnote but intervened by some other references.

7. Punctuation and abbreviations in footnotes: The first item after the number in the footnote
is the author’s name, given in the normal signature order. This is followed by a comma.
After the comma, the title of the book is given: the article (such as “A”, “An”, “The” etc.) is
omitted and only the first word and proper nouns and adjectives are capitalized. The title is
followed by a comma. Information concerning the edition is given next. This entry is
followed by a comma. The place of publication is then stated; it may be mentioned in an
abbreviated form, if the place happens to be a famous one such as Lond. for London, N.Y.
for New York, N.D. for New Delhi and so on. This entry is followed by a comma. Then the
name of the publisher is mentioned and this entry is closed by a comma. It is followed by the
date of publication if the date is given on the title page. If the date appears in the copyright
notice on the reverse side of the title page or elsewhere in the volume, the comma should be
omitted and the date enclosed in square brackets [c 1978], [1978]. The entry is followed by a
comma. Then follow the volume and page references and are separated by a comma if both
are given. A period closes the complete documentary reference. But one should remember
that the documentation regarding acknowledgements from magazine articles and periodical
literature follow a different form as stated earlier while explaining the entries in the
bibliography. Certain English and Latin abbreviations are quite often used in bibliographies
and footnotes to eliminate tedious repetition. The following is a partial list of the most
common abbreviations frequently used in report-writing (the researcher should learn to
recognise them as well as he should learn to use them):
anon., anonymous
ante., before
art., article
aug., augmented
bk., book
bull., bulletin
cf., compare
ch., chapter
col., column
diss., dissertation
ed., editor,edition, edited.
ed. cit., edition cited
e.g., exempli gratia: for example
eng., enlarged
et.al., and others

8. Use of statistics, charts and graphs: A judicious use of statistics in research reports is
often considered a virtue for it contributes a great deal towards the clarification and
simplification of the material and research results. One may well remember that a good
picture is often worth more than a thousand words. Statistics are usually presented in the
form of tables, charts, bars and line-graphs and pictograms. Such presentation should be
self-explanatory and complete in itself. It should be suitable and appropriate looking to the
problem at hand. Finally, statistical presentation should be neat and attractive.

9. The final draft: Revising and rewriting the rough draft of the report should be done with
great care before writing the final draft. For the purpose, the researcher should put to himself
questions like: Are the sentences written in the report clear? Are they grammatically correct?
Do they say what is meant’? Do the various points incorporated in the report fit together
logically? “Having at least one colleague read the report just before the final revision is
extremely helpful. Sentences that seem crystal-clear to the writer may prove quite confusing
to other people; a connection that had seemed self-evident may strike others as a non-
sequitur. A friendly critic, by pointing out passages that seem unclear or illogical, and
perhaps suggesting ways of remedying the difficulties, can be an invaluable aid in achieving
the goal of adequate communication.”6

10. Bibliography: Bibliography should be prepared and appended to the research report as
discussed earlier.

11. Preparation of the index: At the end of the report, an index should invariably be given,
the value of which lies in the fact that it acts as a good guide, to the reader. Index may be
prepared both as subject index and as author index. The former gives the names of the
subject-topics or concepts along with the number of pages on which they have appeared or
discussed in the report, whereas the latter gives the similar information regarding the names
of authors. The index should always be arranged alphabetically. Some people prefer to
prepare only one index common for names of authors, subject-topics, concepts and the like
ones.
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