PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

LEARNING
MODULE 05:
Aircraft
Control

AMT 4102 –
SUBSONIC/
APPLIED
AERODYNAMICS
Prepared by:
AERO FACULTY

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Ref no. Page
Stability and Control II 1, 2 and 3 4
Activity # 1 7
Activity # 2 8
Activity # 3 22
Rubric 23

TIME COMMITMENT FOR THIS MODULE

Title Time
Stability and Control II 50 mins
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5IkPWZjUQlw 139 secs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ovU3ziWkZWU 182 secs
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XxrdhJanotw 440 sec
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G3Mf1XsQZvs 341 secs
Activity # 1 30 mins
Activity # 2 20.63 mins
Activity # 3 40 mins
Quiz 60 mins
Assignment 90 mins

TABLE OF REFERENCES
References No.
CAE, Oxford Aviation ATPL Manual (4th Ed) 1
Jeppesen, JAA ATPL Manual 2
P. J. Swatton, Principles of Flight for Pilots 3

TABLE OF FIGURES
Fig. 1 - 5 Jeppesen, JAA ATPL Manual
Fig. 6- 7 P. J. Swatton, Principles of Flight for Pilots
Fig. 8- 27 CAE, Oxford Aviation ATPL Manual (4th Ed)

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 PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

This module is about the control of an airplane and how it relates to stability. As well,
to examine some control surfaces that are used in the aircraft in terms of its axes.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Program Learning Outcome [PLO]

Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]

PLO 3. An ability to
identify, explain, operate and
solve avionics maintenance Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]
CLO 5. Integrate appropriate
problems when it knowledge on stability and Topic Learning Outcomes
comes to troubleshooting;
select and apply appropriate
control by explaining their MLO 1. Examine the [TLO]
importance to each other. aircraft's axes by explaining
analytical methods and
modeling techniques. CLO 10. Determine the its relation to the control TLO 3: Describe reference
significance of mass surface, movement, and axes by relating it to the
PLO 4. An understanding balancing a control surface stability of the aircraft. control surface, aircraft
the laws rules and regulation by explaining how it prevents movement, and stability.
in maintaining safety of an MLO 2. Develop
flutter. familiarization of TLO 4: Examine
aircraft, and demonstrate
ability to read, comprehend CLO 11. Examine the controllability and stability by controllability and stability by
and apply information reference axes by explaining explaining how they affect correlating the connection
contain in CAA data sheets, its relationship to an aircraft's each other. between them.
manuals and publications movement, control surfaces, MLO 3: Determine different TLO 5. Explain the operation
plus aircraft manufacturers and stability. control surfaces on an of the control surface by
maintenance specification. CLO 12. Display a aircraft by explaining their relating it to the aircraft
PLO 5. Work effectively professional commitment to operation and the movement. Analyze the role
and become familiar with ethical practice through the importance of being of mass balance by
modern aviation electronics submission of class work, balanced. explaining its relevance on
tools and equipment analyze requirements, and activities. the control surface.
problems within the domains CLO 13. Display acquired
of aviation electronics as a knowledge and skills by
member of multidisciplinary incorporating it into future
teams. aircraft maintenance duties.
PLO 6. Indulgent and a
commitment to address
professional and ethical
responsibilities with
reference to their career in
the aviation electronics
technology and other
professional fields.
PLO 7. An ability to build
and lead teamwork and also HONESTY CLAUSE
communicate effectively
orally and in writing when “As members of the academic community, students are
working in avionics expected to recognize and uphold standards of intellectual and
maintenance
PLO 8. An understanding academic integrity. The state college assumes that as a basic
of the need for lifelong and minimum standard of conduct in academic matters, the
learning, an ability to learn students should be honest and that they submit for credit the
new developments in
science and technology, products only of their own efforts.
access information review
literature and make
conclusion.
Student’s Signature over Printed Name

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Aircraft Control

Controllability

This is the ability of the pilot to adjust the direction or attitude of the aircraft using the
flight control surfaces. Sufficient controllability with sufficient stability does not generally
exist. A high stability makes the aircraft resistant to adjustment and decreases its
controllability (i.e., good stability makes it more difficult for the pilot to control and maneuver
the aircraft). The lower limits of controllability also determine the upper limits of stability. No
aircraft is fully stable, but all aircraft must have desirable stability and handling
characteristics. Stability inherently happens when an aircraft is rotated or when a
combination of its axes is rotated. Good controllability must be available for taking off and
landing and for executing various maneuvers in flight.

There is a contradiction between stability and controllability. A high degree of stability

results in decreased controllability. The relationship between static stability and controllability
is illustrated in the following four examples.

The degrees of static stability is demonstrated by a ball positioned on different surfaces.

The positive static stability of the ball is seen in the trough in the given figure; if the ball is
pushed out of position at the bottom of the trough, there is an initial tendency to return to its
original position or equilibrium.
If the ball is to be "controlled" and held in a position of displacement, force must be given
in the direction of displacement to offset the inherent tendency to return to its original
position. The same stable tendency in the aircraft is equally resistant to displacement from
trim, whether by pilot control (stick force) or atmospheric disturbance.

Fig. 1: Positive Static Stability

The ball demonstrates the effect of increased static stability (forward movement of the
CG) on controllability in a steeper trough shown on the figure below. More force is needed to
"control" the ball to the same location of displacement when the static stability is increased.
In this way, a significant degree of static stability appears to make the aircraft less
controllable.

Fig. 2: Increased Static Stability

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

The proper proportion between static stability and controllability during the design of the
aircraft must be achieved since too much static stability (Forward CG position) decreases
controllability. The forward CG limit shall be set to ensure minimum controllability.

Fig. 3: Center of Gravity Limit

A ball demonstrates the effect of reduced static stability on controllability on a flat surface
shown in the figure below. If neutral static stability that is CG placed on the neutral point
occurs, the ball may be pushed out of control, and there is no tendency to return. A new
point of equilibrium is reached, and no force is required to maintain the displacement.

As static stability reaches zero, controllability increases to infinity, and the only
resistance to displacement is resistance to displacement motion, aerodynamic damping.
Decreased static stability (Aft CG movement) improves controllability for this purpose. If the
aircraft's stability is too low, the control deflections can result in an exaggerated
displacement of the aircraft.

Fig. 4: Neutral Static Stability

A ball on a hill shows the effect of static instability on controllability (CG at the back of the
neutral point). If the ball is pushed out of position at the top of the hill, the initial tendency is
for the ball to continue in the displaced direction. To "control" the ball at this location of the
displacement, the force must be applied opposite to the direction of the displacement.

Fig. 5: Neutral Static Stability

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

This influence will be evident from the unstable "feel" of the aircraft during the flight. If the
controls were deflected to raise the angle of attack, the aircraft would have to be 'kept' at the
higher angle of attack through a push force to prevent the aircraft from continuing in the
nose-up direction. The pilot would be supplying stability by attempting to preserve the
balance, which is unacceptable!

Airplane Axes and Planes of Rotation

The three axes of the airplane converge at the center of gravity (CG) and are those
around which the airplane moves in flight. These are the longitudinal, lateral, and normal
axes. If the forces are not balanced at any axis, an angular acceleration will occur, and the
airplane will rotate around that axis.

Fig. 6: Aircraft Reference Axes

The Longitudinal or Roll Axis

The horizontal straight line connecting the forward most point of the airplane
fuselage, the middle of the nose, to the middle of the rearmost point of the airplane fuselage,
is the longitudinal axis. It is also referred to as a roll axis because the airplane, in response
to the pilot's control input or as a result of an external disturbance, lowers one wing and
raises the other. Thus, it rotates or rolls around the longitudinal axis. Also, the stability about
the longitudinal axis (roll) is known as lateral stability. Aileron provides control about this
axis,

The Lateral or Pitch Axis

The lateral axis is a horizontal straight line traveling from one side of the airplane to
the other. It passes through the CG and at a perpendicular angle to the longitudinal axis. It is
the axis on which the airplane travels, in response to the pilot's control input or as a result of
an external disturbance, by raising or lowering the nose of the airplane. Thus, it pitches or
rotates around the lateral axis. Also, the stability about the lateral axis (pitch) is known as
longitudinal stability. Elevator provides control about this axis.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

The Normal or Yaw Axis

The normal axis of the aircraft is the vertical straight line that runs through the CG. It
is perpendicular to the other two axes. It is the axis on which the airplane moves its nose
horizontally or yaws in response to the pilot's control input or an external disturbance. Also,
the stability about the normal axis (yaw) is known as directional stability. A rudder provides
control about this axis.

Fig. 7: Aircraft Main Control Surface

For video illustration of airplane axes, please visit the link:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5IkPWZjUQlw

Activity # 1
Copy the problem first before answering the following questions on a clean paper.
Please write your name on the top left corner and your course, year level, and the
section below. Write “Activity # 1” at the top center of the paper
before the honesty clause. Write legibly. No erasures or alterations.
Place the honesty clause and your signature at the beginning of your work.
Outputs should be submitted on Google Classroom on
the dates designated by the instructor.

(1) Explain in your own word the three axes of flight

by identifying its importance to an aircraft.
(2) Differentiate airplane axes from cars in terms of control.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Activity # 2
Copy the problem first before answering the following questions on a clean paper.
Please write your name on the top left corner and your course, year level, and the
section below. Write “Activity # 2” at the top center of the paper
before the honesty clause. Write legibly. No erasures or alterations.
Place the honesty clause and your signature at the beginning of your work.
Outputs should be submitted on Google Classroom on
the dates designated by the instructor.

(1) Explain in your own word how controllability and stability are connected to each other.

The Elevators

Pitch control of the airplane about its lateral axis is carried out utilizing elevators. The
elevators are hinged control surfaces mounted on the horizontal tailplane, generally at the
rear of the aircraft. The elevators occupy a substantial proportion of the tailplane surface
area and usually consist of a single control surface on each tailplane acting in unison. The
pilot's forward movement of the control column (stick) will cause the elevators to go down,
and a backward movement will cause them to go up.
The effect produced by the elevators is to increase the camber of the tailplane when
the stick is pushed forward, which causes an increase of tailplane lift and an upward force on
the underside of the control surface that results in the airplane rotating about its lateral axis
through the CG and the nose being depressed. The opposite is true when the stick is pulled
back, the camber is decreased, and the lift produced is downward, which, when trimmed,
becomes the counterbalancing force needed for longitudinal equilibrium.

Longitudinal Control
Pitch control is typically accomplished by elevators or by all moving (slab) tailplanes,
and the controls must be adequate to stabilize the aircraft across its speed range at all
allowed CG positions and configurations and to provide a reasonable pitch rate for
maneuvers.

Effect of Elevator Deflection

Suppose the aircraft is in equilibrium at a steady speed with a neutral elevator. If the
elevator is deflected upwards, the tail will develop a download, starting pitching the aircraft
nose upwards. As the angle of attack increases, the download on the tailplane decreases,
and the aircraft approaches an equilibrium pitch position.
It will then remain in the pitch position, and the elevator will stay at the angle
selected. If the elevator is restored to neutral, the tail will establish an upload that will start to
pitch the aircraft down again. There will be a given pitch attitude for each elevator position at
a given CG position.

Direction of the Tailplane Load

The angle of the elevator needed for balancing depends on the IAS and the CG
location. Ideally, the elevator should be roughly neutral at usual cruising speeds and CG
positions. The tailplane will offer a download and, as a result, a nose-up pitching moment.
This will balance the nose-down moment produced by the wing with its center of pressure in
the aft.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

At higher than average speeds, the CP travels further back, offering a better nose-
down pitch and requiring a larger download from the tailplane. At higher speeds, however,
the aircraft's angle of attack will be reduced, requiring a lower elevator to provide the proper
tail load.

The CP moves forward at lower than normal speeds, and the wing and fuselage can
cause a nose-up pitching moment. The tailplane will be needed to give the balance upload.
At low speed, the aircraft will be at a high angle of attack, and the elevator will be pushed up
to reach that attitude.

Effect of Ice on the Tailplane

The tailplane is an airfoil, usually symmetrical, as it is necessary to produce both up

and downloads. It is set at an angle of incidence less than that of the wing. This means that
the elevator will not stall before the wing so that the control can be managed up to the stall. It
is usually influenced by the downwash of the wing, which decreases its effective angle of
attack.

Usually, the tail would be at a negative angle of attack, resulting in a download for
balance. If the ice forms on the leading edge of the tailplane, the outline of the airfoil will be
distorted, and the angle of the stall will be decreased. This could cause the tailplane to stall,
particularly if the downwash is increased due to the lowering of the flaps.

The Rudder

The use of a rudder achieves yaw control of an airplane on its normal axis. The
rudder, a hinged control surface, is mounted vertically on a post at the rear of the aircraft
known as the fin or vertical stabilizer. The rudder covers a surface area equal to or greater
than the surface area of the fixed vertical fin, and its deflection is controlled by the pilot's feet
pushing the horizontal bar. If the left foot is pushed forward, this causes the airplane to yaw
to the left and allows the rudder surface to move to the left, against which the airflow creates
a force that pushes the aircraft about its normal axis, acting through the CG, to the left. If the
right foot is moved forward, then the opposite is true.

Directional Control

The rudder accomplishes yaw control. The rudder is needed to:

o Maintain directional control with asymmetrical power.
o Correct for crosswinds on take-off and landing.
o Correct for adverse yaw.
o Recover from a spin.
o Correct for changes in propeller torque on single-engine aircraft.

Effect of Rudder Deflection

The aircraft will begin to yaw to the left if the rudder is deflected to the left. This is
going to produce a sideslip to the right. The sideslip airflow from the right, acting on the fixed
part of the fin, creates a side load to the left, which will counter the effect of the rudder. If the
yaw increases, this damping force will increase until the rudder force is balanced.

The aircraft would then avoid yawing and retain the angle of yaw, with the rudder
deflected to its original position. If the rudder is returned to a neutral position, both the fin

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

and the rudder will provide a force to the left that returns the aircraft to its original position
with zero yaw. Therefore, the given angle of the rudder corresponds to the given
displacement of the yaw.

Fin Stall

The angle of the sideslip is essentially the angle of attack of the fin, and, as with any
airfoil, there will be a critical angle at which it will stall. If the rudder is deflected in the
direction to correct the sideslip, the angle of the stall will be decreased.

Fig.27: Dorsal Fin

The stalling angle of the airfoil is influenced by its aspect ratio, which might increase
the stalling angle of the airfoil by decreasing its aspect ratio. This can be achieved by
mounting a dorsal fin shown in the figure above.

Asymmetric Thrust

In the case of a twin-engine aircraft, if the engine failure occurs, the thrust from the
working engine will induce a yawing moment. This has to be counteracted by the rudder.
The force of the rudder will differ with the speed squared, and so there will be a minimum
speed at which the force will be adequate to match the moment of the yawing of the engine.
This is the minimum control (VMC) speed.

The Ailerons

The control of the airplane on its longitudinal or roll axis is achieved with the use of
ailerons. The ailerons are hinged control surfaces mounted at the back of the wing, usually
at the wingtips, covering a comparatively small region of the wing surface. The sideways
movement of the control stick or the pilot's rotation of the control wheel allows one aileron to
go down and the aileron to go up on the other wing. The downward deflected aileron raises
the camber of the wing surface, increasing the lift, which causes the wing to be raised.

Simultaneously, the aileron on the other wing that is deflected upward generates a
downward force, which causes the wing to go down. Together, the forces created by the
ailerons rotate the aircraft about its longitudinal axis.

Lateral Control

Roll control is generally accomplished by ailerons or spoilers, or by a combination of

the two. The critical requirement for lateral control is to achieve a reasonable roll rate.
On the ground with the control wheel in a neutral position, both ailerons should be slightly
below the alignment of the wing trailing edge or "drooped."

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

When airborne, the lower pressure on the top surface will "suck" both ailerons to a
position precisely aligned with the wing trailing edge, thereby minimizing drag.

Effect of Aileron Deflection (Aerodynamic Damping)

In a steady-level flight with neutral ailerons, the lift on the two wings will be equal. If
the control wheel is rotated to the left, the left aileron will move up, and the right aileron will
move down. The up aileron will lower the left-wing lift, which will start to drop. The downward
movement of the wing generates a relative upward airflow, which increases its effective
angle of attack.

Fig.20: Aileron Deflection

The increased effective angle of attack of the down-going wing increases its lift
instead of the roll. It's called aerodynamic damping. The higher the roll rate, the higher the
damping rate. The figure shows that the higher the speed, the lower the increase in the
effective angle of attack for a given roll rate.
The roll rate, therefore, increases (aerodynamic damping decreases) with higher
speed for the aileron deflection. The aileron is regarded as a rate control as a given aileron
angle of deflection determines the roll rate, not the roll rate of deflection.

Effect of Wingspan on Rate of Roll

For a given roll rate, the rolling velocity of the wingtip will increase with the wingspan.
Aerodynamic damping will also be higher if the span is longer. Under the same conditions, a
small wingspan would have a more significant roll rate than a wide wingspan.

Adverse Aileron Yaw

The ailerons create a rolling moment by raising the lift on one wing and lowering it on
the other. The increased lift on the upward wing induces an increase in the induced drag,
while the decreased lift on the downward wing causes the decrease of the induced drag.
The drag difference on the two wings produces a moment of yawing opposite to a moment of
rolling, that is, a roll to the left produces a moment of yawing to the right. This is referred to
as the adverse aileron yaw.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Reducing Adverse Aileron Yaw

Fig.21: Differential Ailerons

Differential ailerons: the linkage of aileron causes the upward aileron to move
through a greater angle than the downward aileron shown in the figure above. This raises
the drag on the up aileron and reduces the drag on the down aileron, thereby reducing the
drag difference between the two wings.

Fig.22: Frise Ailerons

Frise ailerons: As shown in a figure these ailerons have an asymmetric leading edge.
The leading edge of the upward aileron protrudes below the lower surface of the wing,
creating a high drag. The leading edge of the downward aileron stays shrouded and
produces less drag.

Aileron-rudder coupling: In this system, the aileron and rudder controls are coupled
so that when the ailerons are deflected, the rudder shifts automatically to counteract the
adverse yaw.

Roll control spoilers: If roll spoilers are used to increase the roll rate obtained from
the ailerons, they will reduce the adverse yaw, while the downward wing will increase the
drag due to the spoiler being lifted.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Inboard Ailerons

Ailerons are usually placed at the tips of the wings to give the greatest rolling
moment to the force produced. However, this ensures that they are also capable of
producing the highest twisting loads on the wing. The wing is not a rigid structure, and any
twist will minimize the effectiveness of the aileron.

As speed increases, the downward aileron can give more wing twisting (lower
incidence of wingtip). Eventually, the speed will be reached where the decrease in the
incidence of the tip will result in a greater downforce than the up force created by the aileron.
This is called the high-speed "aileron reversal;" the wing is going down, not up, as the pilot
wanted. The ailerons could be mounted further inside to reduce this effect. Unfortunately,
this will reduce the effectiveness of aileron at low speed.

Fig.23: Inboard Ailerons

Alternatively, two sets of ailerons can be fitted; one set at the wingtips for use only at
low speeds when the involved forces are low, and one set inboard for use at high speeds
when the forces are higher and may cause greater structural distortion. Outboard (low
speed) ailerons are "locked out" as the flaps retracted.

Flaperons

Both the flaps and the ailerons occupy part of the trailing edge of the wing. The flaps
must be as large as possible for good take-off and landing results, and the ailerons must be
as large as possible for a reasonable roll rate.
However, the space available is small, and one alternative is to symmetrically droop
the ailerons to increase the area of the flap. They then move differently from the lowered
position to give lateral control. Another system is to use the moveable surfaces of the trailing
edge for the operation of both flaps and ailerons.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Roll Control Spoilers

Spoilers can be used to provide lateral control, in addition to or in place of ailerons.

Spoilers consist of movable panels on the upper wing surface, hinged at the forward edge,
which can be hydraulically lifted, as shown in the figure. The raised spoiler disturbs the
airflow over the wing and reduces the lift.

Fig.24: Spoiler

To provide lateral control, the spoilers rise on the wing with the upward aileron
(downward wing), proportional to the aileron input. They're already flush on the wing with the
down-going aileron. Unlike ailerons, spoilers cannot increase the lift, so a roll maneuver
managed by spoilers would always result in a net loss of lift. Some of spoiler advantages
are:

There is no adverse yaw: the raised spoiler raises the drag on the wing, but the yaw
is in the same direction as the roll.

Wing twisting is reduced: the aerodynamic force on the spoilers works further forward
than in the case of ailerons, decreasing the moment that tends to twist the wing.

At transonic speed, its efficiency is not diminished by shock-induced separation. It

could not produce a flutter. Spoilers should not occupy the trailing edge, which can then be
used for flaps.

Combined Aileron and Spoiler Controls

On a few aircraft, lateral control is entirely by spoilers, but in most applications,

spoilers operate in combination with ailerons. Ailerons alone may be insufficient to achieve
the required roll rate at low speeds when the dynamic pressure is low, and at high speeds,
they may cause excessive wing twisting and begin to lose efficiency if there is a shock-
induced separation
Spoilers may increase the roll rate, but they may not be necessary to work over the
entire speed range. In certain aircraft, spoilers are only needed at low speed, and this can be
accomplished by making them inoperative when flaps are retracted.

Speed Brakes

Speed brakes are devices designed to increase aircraft drag when it is necessary to
decelerate quickly or to descend quickly. Rapid deceleration is required if turbulence is
encountered at high speed to slow down as quickly as possible. A high rate of descent may

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

be needed to comply with the requirements of Air Traffic Control and, in particular if an
emergency descent is necessary.

Types of Speed Brake

Ideally, the speed brake can result in a rise in drag with no loss of lift or change in
pitching moment. The fuselage-mounted speed brake is ideally suited to comply with these
specifications, as shown in the figure.

Fig.25: Types of Speed Brakes

However, as the wing-mounted spoiler increases drag, it is convenient to use the

spoiler surfaces as speed brakes and the lateral control function. They are operated by a
separate lever in the cockpit to serve as speed brakes and activate symmetrically.

There is no speed limit for applying the speed brakes, but they will "blow back" from
the fully extended position at high speeds. Spoilers can still operate as a roll control when
used as speed brakes by shifting asymmetrically from the selected speed brake position.

An example is shown in the figure below. Speed brakes have been chosen, and then
a left turn is initiated. Depending on the speed brake selection and the roll input, the spoiler
surfaces on the wing with the upward aileron will remain deployed or modulate upward.

The spoiler on the wing surface with the down aileron will be modulated towards the
stowed position. Depending on the speed brake selection and the roll input, the spoiler
surfaces on the wing with the down-going aileron can be partially or wholly stored.

Fig.26: Speed Brakes

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Ground Spoilers (Lift Dumpers)

Aerodynamic drag, reverse thrust, and wheel brakes produce decelerating force
during the landing run. The performance of the wheel brake depends on the weight of the
wheels, but this will be decreased by any lift the wing produces. The lift can be reduced by
operating the speed brake lever to the lift dump position shown in the figure 23.
Both the drag of the wheel brake and the aerodynamic drag is increased, and the
landing run is shortened. In several aircraft types, additional spoiler surfaces are enabled
when the lift dumping is selected than when airborne. These land spoilers are rendered
inoperative in flight by switching on the undercarriage leg, which is controlled by the leg
extension after take-off.

Hinge Moments

If the aerodynamic force is acting on the control surface, it will attempt to rotate the
control around its hinge in the direction of the force. The moment is the result of force (F)
times the distance (d) from the hinge line to the center of pressure of the control surface.
This is called the hinge moment.

Fig. 8: Hinge Moment

To move the control surface to the necessary angular displacement and hold it in that
position, the pilot will have to overcome the hinge moment by applying the force (stick force)
to the cockpit control. The strength of the stick force would then depend on the hinge
moment size.

Control Balancing

The aerodynamic force of the controls will depend on the area of the control surface,
its angular displacement, and the speed of the aircraft. For large and fast aircraft, the
resulting aerodynamic force will give hinge moments/stick forces too strong for easy control
operation.
The pilot will need assistance in moving the controls under these conditions, and this
can be achieved either by using (hydraulic) driven flight controls or by using some form of
aerodynamic balance.

Aerodynamic Balance

Aerodynamic balance involves the use of aerodynamic forces on the control surface
to reduce the moment of the hinge/stick force and can be achieved in a variety of ways:

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Inset Hinge

If the distance (d) is decreased, the moment of the hinge will be reduced. The lower
the moment of the hinge, the lower the stick force, and the simpler it would be for the pilot to
move the controls. Setting the hinge back does not decrease the effectiveness of the control,
only the moment of the hinge.

If the aerodynamic force (F2) were to move forward of the hinge, there would be a
situation known as "overbalance." If the force went forward, a reduction would result in a
reversal of the stick force. This would be very risky, and the designer must ensure that the
aerodynamic force can never move forward of the hinge.

Fig.9: Inset Hinge

Horn Balance

The principle of the horn balance is similar to the inset hinge, in the sense of the part
of the surface is placed forward of the hinge line. Also, the forces on this part of the surface
give hinge moments that are in the opposite direction to the moments on the main part of the
surface. The overall moment is thus decreased, but the effectiveness of the control is not.

Fig.10: Horn Balance

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Internal Balance

This balance operates on the same concept as the inset hinge, except the
aerodynamic balance area is inside the wing.

Fig.11: Internal Balance

Movement of the control creates changes in the pressure of the airfoil, and these
changes of pressure are felt in the balance area. For example, if the control surface is
pushed down, the pressure above the airfoil is decreased, and the pressure below is
increased.

The decreased pressure is felt on the upper side of the balance 'panel' and the
increased pressure on the lower surface. As a result, the pressure differential on balance
gives a hinge moment that is the opposite of the hinge moment on the primary control
surface, and the overall hinge moment is decreased.

Balance Tab

Previous forms of aerodynamic balance operate by forcing some of the dynamic

pressure on the control surface to act ahead of the hinge line. The balance tab produces a
force acting on the trailing edge of the control surface, contrary to the force on the primary
control surface. The balance tab moves in the opposite direction to the control surface. If the
pilot moves the surface, the surface then moves the tab.

Fig.12: Balance Tab

In comparison to the previous types of balance, the balance tab will give some
reduction in the effectiveness of control, as the tab force is opposite to the control force.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Anti-balance Tab

The anti-balance tab shifts in the same direction as the control surface and improves
the effectiveness of control, but it will give more massive stick forces due to the increase of
the hinge moment. The pilot moves the surface, and the surface moves the tab.

Fig.13: Anti-Balance Tab

Servo Tab

The servo tab is deflected by pilot control input only; then, the aerodynamic force on
the tab shifts the control surface until the equilibrium point is achieved. If external control
locks are fitted to the control surface on the ground, the cockpit control will still be free to
move; thus, you must manually inspect any central locks that have been disabled before the
takeoff.
.

Fig.14: Servo Tab

Spring Tab

The spring tab is a variation of the servo tab so that the rotation of the tab is equal to
the applied stick force. Full tab assistance is reached at high speed when the forces of the
stick are highest. High dynamic pressure stops the surface from rising, so the pilot input
compresses the spring, and the tab pushes the surface.

Fig.15: Spring Tab

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

For video illustration of control surfaces, please visit the following links:
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ovU3ziWkZWU
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XxrdhJanotw
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G3Mf1XsQZvs

(Hydraulic) Powered Flying Controls

If the previous forms of aerodynamic balancing cannot provide the pilot's needed
assistance in pushing the controls, either power-assisted or fully powered controls must be
used.

Fig.16: Hydraulic Powered Flying Control

Power-Assisted Controls

With power-assisted flying control shown in the figure, only a certain proportion of the
force needed to oppose the moment of the hinge is given by the pilot; the hydraulic system
contributes most of the force.

Fig.17: Power Assisted Controls

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Fully Powered Controls

For larger and/or faster planes, the hinge moments are so wide that fully driven
controls must be used. In a fully powered control system, the pilot would not provide any
force to shift the control surface. The only force that the pilot offers is used to overcome the
system friction and move the servo valve; the hydraulic system of the aircraft provides all the
power needed to raise the control surface.

The figure shown indicates that the servo valve movement to the left allows the
hydraulic fluid to enter the left chamber of the PFCU. The PFCU's body will shift to the left,
its motion being transferred to the control surface. As soon as the PFCU body reaches the
point where the pilot positioned the servo valve, the PFCU body, thus, the control surface
stops moving.

The PFCU is now stuck in its new position by an "incompressible" liquid trapped on
both sides of the piston and will remain in that position until the servo valve is adjusted again
by the pilot. Aerodynamic loads on the control surface cannot shift the cockpit controls, so
powered flight controls are known as "irreversible" controls.

Artificial Feel (‘Q’ Feel)

Fig.18: Artificial Feel

With a fully-powered flight control, the pilot is unaware of the aerodynamic force of
the controls, so it is essential to add an "artificial" feel to prevent the aircraft from being
overstressed. As shown schematically in figure above, a system that is sensitive to dynamic
pressure (½ ρ V2) or ‘Q’ is used.

Pitot pressure is fed to one side of the chamber and the static pressure to the other,
which pushes the diaphragm under the influence of changing dynamic airspeed pressure
and causes "regulated" hydraulic pressure to provide resistance or "feel" to the pilot input
controls proportional to aircraft speed, just as in manual control. Also, the strength of the
stick should increase as the displacement of the stick increases.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Mass Balance

The mass balance is a weight attached to the control surface in front of the hinge.
Most of the control surfaces are mass balanced. The aim of this is to prevent the flutter of
the control surface. Flutter is an oscillation of the control surface due to the bending and
twisting of the structure under load.

If the CG's control surface is behind the hinge line, the inertia can cause the surface
to oscillate around the hinge line. Oscillations may be divergent and may cause structural
failure.

Fig.19: Mass Balance

Flutter can be avoided by applying weight to the control surface forward of the hinge
line. This takes the center of gravity of the control forward to the location on or slightly ahead
of the hinge, but always to the point needed by the designers. This decreases the moments
of the hinge and prevents the production of the flutter. The figure shows several traditional
weight balancing methods.

Activity # 3
Copy the problem first before answering the following questions on a clean paper.
Please write your name on the top left corner and your course, year level, and the
section below. Write “Activity # 3” at the top center of the paper
before the honesty clause. Write legibly. No erasures or alterations.
Place the honesty clause and your signature at the beginning of your work.
Outputs should be submitted on Google Classroom on
the dates designated by the instructor.

(1) Determine how mass balance works by explaining its

purpose and importance on control surfaces.
(2) Explain in your own words the control surfaces that allow
the aircraft to move along the three axes.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 05: Aircraft Control

Rubric
ASPECT EXCELLENT AVERAGE POOR POINTS COMMENTS
The content shows an in- The content failed to
depth understanding by discuss the topics and
The content shows some
providing a coherent and ideas in an accurate and
accuracy and detail
accurate explanation of detailed as possible.
Content explanation of the topics and
the topics and ideas. The content is a repeat
(35%) ideas. Shows somewhat
Shows originality by of the other individual’s
originality of its interpretation.
presenting ideas using its ideas and shows
interpretation. minimal effort.
35 33 30 pts 28 25 22 pts 20 18 15 10 pts
Ideas are placed in an
Ideas are not in an
organized and coherent Ideas are placed in an
organized and coherent
order and organized and coherent order
Development order and provide no
presented effectively but presented with a few valid
of Ideas supporting
by providing valid supporting information and
(35%) information and
supporting information and evidence.
evidence.
evidence.
35 33 30 pts 28 25 22 pts 20 18 15 10 pts
The topics provide valid Points does not make
Develops several points but
Reasoning points by showing strong meaningful or clear
shows few connections among
and Clarity connections among the connections among the
the different ideas provided.
(30%) different ideas provided. different ideas provided.
30 27 25 pts 22 20 18 pts 15 13 10 pts
TOTAL POINTS

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