Dynamics of Machinery

V semester
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Prepared by
Dr K Viswanath Allamraju
Prof V.V.S.H. Prasad
​
 Unit-I: Precisional Motion

• Staticforceanalysis
– Staticequilibrium
– Equilibrium of twoand three force members
– Members with two forces andtorque
– Freebody diagrams
– principle of virtual work
• Staticforce analysisof
– four barmechanism
– slider-crank mechanismwith and without friction.

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 Gyroscope

• A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining

orientation, based on the principles of angular momentum.
• Mechanically, agyroscope is a spinning wheel or disk in which
the axle is free to assume any orientation. Although this
orientation does not remain fixed, it changes in response
toan external torque much less and in a different direction
than it would without the large angular momentum associated
with the disk's high rate of spin and moment of inertia.

• Since external torque is minimized by mounting the device in

gimbals, its orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless of any
motion of the platform on which itis mounted.

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Gyroscope

7
 Gyroscope

A mechanical gyroscope is essentially a spinning wheel or

disk whose axle is free to take any orientation. This
orientation changes much less in response to a given
external torque than it would without the large angular
momentum associated with the gyroscope's high rate of
spin.

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9
 PROPERTIES OF GYROSCOPES

Gyroscopes have two basic properties:

Rigidity and Precession
These properties are defined as follows:
RIGIDITY: The axis of rotation (spin axis) of the gyro wheel
tends to remain in a fixed direction in space if no force is
applied to it.
PRECESSION: The axis of rotation has a tendency to turn at a
right angle to the direction of an applied force.

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PROPELLER ROTATES ANTICLOCKWISE

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 Effect of Gyroscopic Couple on a Naval Ship

•Steering is the turning of a complete ship in a curve towards

left or right, while it moves forward.
•Consider the ship taking a left turn, and rotor rotates in the
clockwise direction when viewed from the stern, as shown
inFig.
•The effect of gyroscopic couple on a naval ship during steering
taking left or right turn may be obtained

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Stabilityof aFourWheelDriveMovinginaCurvedPath

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Stabilityof aFourWheelDriveMovinginaCurvedPath

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Stabilityof aTwoWheelDriveMoving inaCurvedPath

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Unit-II Clutches, Brakes and Dynamometers

• A clutch is designed with the following requirements

– Allow the vehicle to come to a stop while the
transmission remains in
gear
– Allow the driver to smoothly take off from a dead stop
– Allow the driver to smoothly change gears
– Must not slip under heavy loads and full engine power

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 Types of clutches

Positive clutches
When positive drive is required then positive clutches
are used. The simplest type of positive clutch is the jaw
clutch which transmits the torque from one shaft to
another shaft through interlocking jaws.

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 Single plate clutch

Single plate clutch

It consists of various elements
 pressure plate,
 friction plate (clutch plate),
 driving shaft,
 splined driven shaft,
 splined hub,
 brass bush etc.

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Multi plate clutch

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Centrifugal clutch

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 Brakes

• Brake is a device by means of which an artificial frictional resistance

is applied to a moving body in order to retard or stop the motion of
a body. During braking process, the brake absorbs either kinetic
energy or potential energy or both by an object.
(a) Single block or shoe brake Construction
• It consists of blocks which are pressed against the surface of a
rotating drum by means of lever. The friction between friction
lining on the block and drum retards the rotation of the drum. The
block or shoe is made up of softer material than the rim of the
drum.
•The material of the block for light and slow vehicles is wood and
rubber and for heavy and fast vehicles it is cast steel.

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Shoe brake

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b) Pivoted block brake
• Construction
• A pivoted block brake is shown in figure. Unlike single block
brake, in this the shoe is pivoted to lever to get uniform wear.

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cDouble block or shoe brake
This load produces the bending of the shaft. It can be prevented by
using a double block or shoe brake having two blocks on the two
sides of the drum.

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 Band brake Construction

(
It consists of a rope, belt or flexible steel band lined with
frictional material which is wrapped partly round the drum.
Working
When band is pressed against the external surface of drum,
the frictional force between drum and band will induce
braking torque on the drum.
There are two types of band brake,
(a) Simple band brake
(b) Differential band brake

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(a) Simple band brake
Construction
In this brake one end of the band is attached
at the fulcrum of the lever while the other end is at
a distance 'b' from fulcrum
(b) Differential band brake
In a differential band brake, neither end of the
band is attached to the fulcrum of the lever.
The two ends of band are attached to the two points on
opposite side of the fulcrum as shown in figure
The lever AOC is pivoted at fulcrum '0' and two ends of band
are attached at points A and B.

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 Dynamometers

Definition:
•Dynamometer is a device which is used to measure the
frictional resistance. By knowing frictional resistance we can
determine the torque transmitted and hence the power of the
engine.
Types of dynamometers:
1)Absorption dynamometer: Prony brake dynamometer Rope
brake dynamometer Hydraulic dynamometer
2) Transmission dynamometer: Belt transmission dynamometer
Epicyclic dynamometer
Torsion dynamometer

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Prony brake dynamometer

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Rope brake dynamometer

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Unit-III Turning moment diagram

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Turning Moment(Or Crank Effort) Diagram (TMD)

• Turning moment diagram is a graphical representation of

turning moment or torque (along Y-axis)versus crank
angle(X-axis)for various positions of crank.
• Uses of TMD
1. The area under the TMD gives the work done per cycle.
2. The work done per cycle when divided by the crank angle
per cycle
gives the mean torque Tm.

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 FLYWHEEL

• Flywheels are used in IC engines, Pumps, Compressors & in

machines performing intermittent operations such as punching,
shearing, riveting, etc.
• A Flywheel may be of Disk type or Rim Type Flywheels help in
smoothening out the fluctuations of the torque on the
crankshaft & maintain the speed within the prescribed limits.

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 Governors

The function of governor is to regulate the speed of an engine

when there are variation in the load
Eg. When the load on an engine increases, its speed decreases,
therefore it is necessary to increase the supply of working fluid &
vice-versa. Thus, Governor automatically controls the speed
under varying load.
Types of Governors:
The governors may broadly be classified as
1)Centrifugal governors
2)Inertia governors
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When the load on the engine decreases, the engine and governor
speed increased, which results in the increase of centrifugal force
on the balls. Thus the ball move outwards and sleeve rises
upwards. This upward movement of sleeve reduces the supply of
the working fluid and hence the speed is decreased. In this case
power output is reduced.

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Fc x h = W x r
mr 2 x h = m.g.r
h = g / 2
When g is in m/s2 and  is in rad/sec, then h is in mtrs.
If N is the speed in r.p.m. then
 = 2N / 60
H = 9.81 / (2N / 60)
= 895 / N2 mtrs.

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 The porter governor is a modification of a Watt’s governor,
with central load attached to the sleeve. The load moves up
and down the central spindle. This additional downward force
increases the speed of revolution required to enable the balls
to rise to any predetermined level.

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The Proell governor has the balls fixed at B & C to the
extension of the links DF & EG, as shown. The arms FP & GQ
are pivoted at p & Q respectively.

Consider the equilibrium of the forces on one half of

the governor. The instantaneous centre (I) lies on the
intersection of the line PF produced and the line from the D
drawn perpendicular to the spindle axis. The perpendicular
BM is drawn on ID

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 It is a spring loaded governor, consists of two bell crank levers
pivoted at the pts. O, O to the frame. Frame is attached to the governor
spindle and therefore rotates with it. Each lever carries a ball at the end
of the vertical arm OB & a roller at the end of horizontal arm OR. A
helical spring in compression provides equal downward forces on two
rollers through collar on the sleeve. The spring force may be adjusted
by screwing a nut up or down on the sleeve.

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 Unit-IV Balancing

Why Balancing is necessary?

• The high speed of engines and other machines is a common
phenomenon now-a-days.
• It is, therefore, very essential that all the rotating and reciprocating
parts should be completely balanced as far as possible.
• If these parts are not properly balanced, the dynamic forces are
set up.
• These forces not only increase the loads on bearings and stresses
in the various members, but also produce unpleasant and even
dangerous vibrations.

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Balancing of Rotating Masses

• Whenever a certain mass is attached to a rotating shaft, it exerts

some centrifugal force, whose effect is to bend the shaft and to
produce vibrations in it.
• In order to prevent the effect of centrifugal force, another mass is
attached to the opposite side of the shaft, at such a position so as to
balance the effect of the centrifugal force of the first mass.
• This is done in such a way that the centrifugal force of both the
masses are made to be equal and opposite.
• The process of providing the second mass in order to counteract the
effect of the centrifugal force of the first mass, is called balancing of
rotating masses.

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• Consider a disturbing mass m1 attached to a shaft rotating at
ω rad/s as shown.
• Let r1 be the radius of rotation of the mass m1 (i.e. distance
between the axis of rotation of the shaft and the centre of
gravity of the mass m1).
• We know that the centrifugal force exerted by the mass m1
on the shaft,This centrifugal force acts radially outwards and
thus produces bending moment on the shaft.
• In order to counteract the effect of this force, a balancing
mass (m2) may be attached in the same plane of rotation as
that of disturbing mass (m1) such that the centrifugal forces
due to the two masses are equal and opposite.

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 1. When the plane of the disturbing mass lies in between
the planes of the two balancing masses
• Consider a disturbing mass m lying in a plane A to be balanced
by two rotating masses m1 and m2 lying in two different
planes L and M as shown in Fig.
• Let r, r1 and r2 be the radii of rotation of the masses in planes
A, L and M

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2. Graphical method

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Balancing of Reciprocating masses

• Various forces acting on the reciprocating parts of an engine.

• The resultant of all the forces acting on the body of the engine due
to inertia forces only is known as unbalanced force or shaking
force.
• Thus if the resultant of all the forces due to inertia effects is zero,
then there will be no unbalanced force, but even then an
unbalanced couple or shaking couple will be present.

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FR = Force required to accelerate the reciprocating parts.
FI = Inertia force due to reciprocating parts,
FN = Force on the sides of the cylinder walls or normal force
acting on the cross-head guides, and FB = Force acting on the
crankshaft bearing or main bearing.
•Since FR and FI, are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction, therefore they balance each other.
•The horizontal component of FB (i.e. FBH) acting along the line
of reciprocation is also equal and opposite to FI .
•This force FBH = FU is an unbalanced force or shaking force and
required to be properly balanced.

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Unit-V Vibrations
• Defined as oscillatory motion of bodies in response to
disturbance. Oscillations occur due to the presence of a
restoring force
• Vibrations are everywhere:
• Human body: eardrums, vocal cords, walking and running
• Vehicles: residual imbalance of engines, locomotive wheels
• Rotating machinery: Turbines, pumps, fans, reciprocating
machines, Musical instruments
• Excessive vibrations can have detrimental effects:
• Noise,Loosening of fasteners,Tool chatter,Fatigue failure
• Discomfort
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Fundamentals

• In simple terms, a vibratory system involves the transfer of

potential energy to kinetic energy and vice-versa in
alternating fashion.
• When there is a mechanism for dissipating energy
(damping) the oscillation gradually diminishes.
• In general, a vibratory system consists of three basic
components:
• A means of storing potential energy (spring, gravity)
• A means of storing kinetic energy (mass, inertial
component)
• A means to dissipate vibrational energy (damper)
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 • This can be observed with a pendulum:
• At position 1: the kinetic energy is zero and the
potential energy is mgl(1  cos  )

• At position 2: the kinetic energy is at its

maximum
• At position 3: the kinetic energy is again
zero and the potential energy at its
maximum.
• In this case the oscillation will eventually stop
due to aerodynamic drag and pivot friction 
HEAT
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Degrees of Freedom

The number of degrees of freedom : number of independent

coordinates required to completely determine the
motion of all parts of the system at any time.
Examples of single degree of freedom systems:

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 Classification of Vibration

• Free and Forced vibrations

• Free vibration: Initial disturbance, system left to
vibrate without influence of external forces.
Forced vibration: Vibrating system is stimulated by
external forces. If excitation frequency coincides
with natural frequency, resonance occurs.
• Undamped and damped vibration:Undamped
vibration: No dissipation of energy. In many cases,
damping is (negligibly) small (steel 1 – 1.5%).
However small, damping has critical importance when
analysing systems at or near resonance. Damped
vibration: Dissipation of energy occurs - vibration
amplitude decays. 65
 Classification of Vibration

• Linear and nonlinear vibration

• Linear vibration: Elements (mass, spring,
damper) behave linearly. Superposition
holds - double excitation level = double
response level, mathematical solutions
well defined.
• Nonlinear vibration: One or more element
behave in nonlinear fashion (examples).
Superposition does not hold, and analysis
technique not clearly defined.

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 Spring Elements

• Pure spring element considered to have negligible mass

and damping
• Force proportional to spring deflection (relative motion
between ends):
F  k x
• For linear springs, the potential energy storedU  1 k  x 2
2
is:
• Actual springs sometimes behave in nonlinear
fashion
• Important to recognize the presence and
significance (magnitude) of nonlinearity
• Desirable to generate linear estimate
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keq =k1 + k2

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k1 1  k2 2  keq t

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 Damping Elements

• Absorbs energy from vibratory system  vibration amplitude

decays.Damping element considered to have no mass or
elasticity. Real damping systems very complex, damping
modelled as:
• Viscous damping:Based on viscous fluid flowing through
gap or orifice.Eg: film between sliding surfaces, flow b/w
piston & cylinder, flow thru orifice, film around journal
bearing. Damping force  relative velocity between ends
• Coulomb (dry Friction) damping:Based on friction between
unlubricated surfaces.Damping force is constant and
opposite the direction of motion

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Harmonic Motion

dx
  A cos( t )
dt
and
d 2x
   2 A sin( t )    2 x
dt 2

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• Cycle: motion of body from equilibrium position 
extreme position  equilibrium position  extreme
position in other direction  equilibrium position .
• Amplitude: Maximum value of motion from
equilibrium. (Peak – Peak = 2 x amplitude)
• Period: Time taken to complete one cycle
1 
f  
 2
2
 


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 Free undamped vibration single DoF

• Single DoF:
• mass treated as rigid, limped
(particle)
• Elasticity idealised by single spring
• only one natural frequency.
• The equation of motion can be derived
using Newton’s second law of motion
• D’Alembert’s Principle,
• The principle of virtual displacements F( t )   kx  mx

and,The principle of conservation of or
  kx  0
mx
energy.
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Free undamped vibration single DoF

x( t )  Acos( n t )  B sin( n t )
or
x( t )  Aeint  Be int
alternatively,if we let s  in
x( t )  C e  st
x( t 0 )  A  x0 initial displacement
x( t 0 )  Bn  x0 initial velocity

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Free undamped vibration single DoF

x
x( t )  x0 cos( n t )  o sin( n t )
n
1
 2 2
 x0n 
2  x0 
if we let A0   x0     and   a tan   then
  n    xo 
x( t )  A0 sin( n t   )

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Free undamped vibration single DoF

k
n 
m
mg
sin ce k 
 st
g 1 g
n  or f n 
 st 2  st

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 Free undamped vibration single DoF

Natural frequency :
mgd
n 
Jo
sin ce for a simple pendulum
g
n 
l
J
Then, l  o and since J o  mko2 then
md
gd ko2
n  2 and l 
ko d
Applying the parallel axis theorem ko2  kG2  d 2
kG2
l d
d
Let l  GA  d  OA

g g g
n   
ko2 / d l OA
 kG2 
The location A  GA   is the " centre of percussion 
 d 
 77
 1  Al 
U max  A X 2 and Tmax     n X
2 f
2 2
2 g 
2 1  Al 
U max  Tmax  A X     2 f 
n X
2 2
2 g 
1  2g 
fn   
2  l 

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 Free single DoF vibration + viscous damping

F  cx c  damping cons tan t or coefficient  Ns / m 

Applying Newton' s second law of motion to obtain the eqn.of motion :
  cx  kx
mx or   cx  kx  0
mx
If the solution is assumed to take the form :
x( t )  Ce st where s  in
then : x( t )  sCe st and x(  t )  s 2Ce st
Substituting for x, x and x in the eqn.of motion
ms 2  cs  k  0
The root of the characteristic eqn. are :
2
c  c 2  4mk
     
c c k
s1,2  
2m 2m  2m   m 
The two solutions are :
x1( t )  C1e s1t and x 2 ( t )  C 2 e s2 t

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Free single DoF vibration + viscous damping

2
 cc   k  k
    0 or cc  2m  2mn  2 km
 2m   m  m

c c c cc
  or    n
cc 2m cc 2m
The roots can be re  written :

 
2
c  c  k
s1,2             2  1  n
2m  2m   m 
And the solution becomes :
    2 1  t     2 1  t
  n   n
x( t )  C1 e    C2 e  

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 Free single DoF vibration + viscous damping

x( t  0 )  x0 and x( t  0 )  x0

Then
x0  n x0
C1'  x0 and C'2 
1   2n
Therefore the solution becomes

   
 x0  n x0 
nt 
x( t )  e  x0 cos 1   2nt  sin 1   2nt 
 1   n
2


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Forced (harmonically excited) single DoF vibration –
undamped.

  kx  F0 cos( t )
mx

F0
x( t )  xh ( t )  x p ( t )  C1 cos( n t )  C2 sin( nt )  cos( t )
k  m 2

 st
x( t )  Acos( n t   )  2
cos( t ) for  / n  1

1  
 n 
 st
x( t )  Acos( n t   )  2
cos( t ) for  / n  1

1  
 n 
where A and  are functions of x0 and x0 as before.
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Forced (harmonically excited) single DoF
vibration – Damped.

X 1  2 r 
   a tan  
 st 1
 1  r2 
 2 2 2 2
 1  r    2 r  
 

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 Forced (harmonically excited) single DoF
vibration – Damped.
F0
X  X / F0 is called the RECEPTANCE ( Dynamic compliance )

 k  m  ic 
2

multiplying the numerator & deno min ator on the RHS by k  m 2  ic  
and separating real and imaginary components :
 
 k  m 2
c 
X  F0   i
2 2

 k  m
2 2
c 
2 2
 k  m 2 2

c  
 
applying the complex relationships : x  iy  Aei where A  x 2  y 2 and   a tan  
y
x
The magnitude of the response can be written as :
F0  c 
X e i where   a tan  
1
 k  m 2 

k  m 2 2
 c 
2 2 2
 

And the steady  state solution becomes :
F0
xp( t )  1
ei( t  )

  2 2 2
2
 k  m 2
c  

84
Response due to base motion (harmonic)

k( x  y )

c( x  y )

y( t )  Y sin( t )

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Response due to base motion (harmonic)

  c( x  y )  k( x  y )  0
mx
If y( t )  Y sin( t ) the eqn.of motion becomes :
  cx  kx  cy
mx   ky
 cY cos( t )  kY sin( t )
 A sin( t   )
 c 
where A  Y k  ( c )
2 2
and   a tan   
 k 

86
 Response due to base motion (harmonic)

Y k 2  ( c )2
xp( t )  1
sin( t  1   )

 k m 2 2
 c 
2 2 2
 

c  c 
where   a tan    and 1  a tan  
 k   k  m 2 
The solution can be simplified to :
x p ( t )  X sin( t   )
where
1 1
  2   2
X  k  ( c )
2 2
  1  ( 2 r ) 2

   Displacement Transmissibility
2 2 2
Y
 k m 2 2
 c  
 
 1  r 
2 2
 ( 2 r ) 

and
   
 mc 3
 2 r 3
  a tan  a tan  2
  
 k k  m 2  ( c )2 
  1  ( 4 2
 1)r 
87
 Rotating Imbalance Excitation

F( t )  me 2 sin(  t )
The eqn. of motion is :
Mx  cx  kx  me 2 sin(  t )
and the steady  state solution becomes :
 me   2 
 
x p ( t )  X sin(  t   )  Im    H( i ) e i( t ) 
M 
  n  
The response amplitude and phase are given by :
2
me 2 me    MX r2
X 1
   H( i ) or  1
 r 2
H( i )
M  n me

 2 2
 2



2 2 2 2
2
 k  M    c    1  r   2 r  
 c   2 r 
  a tan    a tan  
 k  M 2   1  r2 

88
SDoF systems – General forcing functions – Nonperiodic

• When the forcing function is arbitrary and nonperiodic

(aperiodic) it cannot be represented with a Fourier series
• Alternative methods for determining the response must
be used:
• Representation of the excitation function with a
Convolution integral
• Using Laplace Transformations
• Approximating F(t) with a suitable interpolation
method then using a numerical procedure
• Numerical integration of the equations of motion.

89
• Convolution integral
• Consider one of the simplest nonperiodic exciting
force: Impulsive force: which has a large magnitude F
which acts for a very short time t.
• An impulse can be measured by the resulting change
in momentum:

Im pulse  F t  mx2  mx 1

where x1 and x2 represent the velocity of the lumped mass before and after the impulse.

90
 t  t
F
  F dt
t
and a unit impulse is defined as
t  t
f  lim
 t 0
 F dt  Fdt  1
t
x(t  0)  0 and x(t  0)  0 or x(t  0  )  0 and x(t  0  )  0
e nt
x( t )  g( t )  sin d t 
md

91
Two DOF systems

92
93
• No. of DoF of system = No. of mass elements x number of
motion types for each mass
• For each degree of freedom there exists an equation of motion
– usually coupled differential equations.
• Coupled means that the motion in one coordinate system
depends on the other
• If harmonic solution is assumed, the equations produce two
natural frequencies and the amplitudes of the two degrees of
freedom are related by the natural, principal or normal mode
of vibration.

94
• Under an arbitrary initial disturbance, the system will
vibrate freely such that the two normal modes are
superimposed.
• Under sustained harmonic excitation, the system will
vibrate at the excitation frequency. Resonance occurs
if the excitation frequency corresponds to one of the
natural frequencies of the system

95
Two DOF systems

96
97
 m1x1  c1x1  k1 x1  c2 ( x2  x1 )  k2 ( x2  x1 )  F1
m2x2  c2 ( x2  x1 )  k2 ( x2  x1 )  c3x2  k3 x2  F2
or
m1x1  ( c1  c2 )x 1  c2x2  ( k1  k2 )x1  k2 x2  F1
m2x2  c2x1  ( c2  c3 )x 2  k2 x1  ( k2  k3 )x2  F2

98
 Mode shapes of Undamped System

• Equations of motion

m1x1  ( k1  k2 )x1  k2 x2  0
m2x2  k2 x1  ( k2  k3 )x2  0
 
 m1 2   k1  k2  X 1  k2 X 2  cos( t   )  0
 
 
 k2 X 1  m2 2   k2  k3  X 2  cos( t   )  0
 
As these equations must be zero for all values of t, the cosine terms cannot be zero. Therefore:

 
m1 2   k1  k2  X 1  k2 X 2  0

 
 k2 X 1  m2 2   k2  k3  X 2  0

99
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