VARC1000 - CAD 48 To 74

CAT ARTICLE DOSE – 48
The topic of the humanities being in crisis is not new. For example in Culture and Anarchy (Arnold [1889] 1994),
Matthew Arnold argued for the authoritative power of ‘culture’, which would transcend political, religious, or social
divisions, as a solution to the political confusion, crises, and riots of his time. Gerald Gaff believed that Arnold
‘established the categories and the grammar through which we think about cultural crises’(Gaff qtd. in Donoghue
2008, p. 20).
Today, scholars such as Stefan Collini (2017) argue that the ‘issue’ with the humanities, in part, concerns the university
itself—that, within the last two decades, and with the rise in neoliberal models and priorities, we have lost a sense of
what universities are. In his Speaking of Universities, Collini observes the surge in the number of universities in the UK
which have an emphasis on business models; he also notes the impact of globalisation. Collini argues that, with the
expanding and internationalising student populations, universities have lost their sense of purpose and increasingly
feel the need to articulate their value. Universities are being run in a corporate model, with systems of accountability
and high levels of managerialism. In a previous book, What Are Universities For?, Collini (2012, p. 87) points out that:
Whatever the reality of the experience of actually attending one of today’s semi-marketized, employment-oriented
institutions, there remains a strong and popular desire that they should, at their best, incarnate a set of “aspirations
and ideals” that go beyond any form of economic return.
This notion that there is a ‘non-economic’ return-on-investment for education can be traced back to Victorian ideals
about the university, the origins of which informed the English education system and the modern university. This
history is well explored in Sheldon Rothblatt’s work, as well as the study of Victorian education in Dinah Birch’s (2008)
Our Victorian Education. Collini (2012) notes that universities are ‘a problem for governments, in market democracies
… where there is an overreliance on ‘individualistic and economic pressures’’. In the end, ‘[t]he tension between the
two imperatives (the market) and (disinterested scholarship) is unresolved’. It appears that the humanities, too, sit
within this tension—perhaps even more so as their market value is more difficult to define in real terms and their
inheritance of Victorian ideals surrounding the non-utilitarian nature of a liberal arts education still persists. Moreover,
in the humanities at least, university research and learning encourages the study and exploration into many modes
and ways of being; this knowledge can often challenge outright market logic.
Universities in the US and the UK have also been subject to strong neoliberalist trends. In The Last Professors: The
Corporate University and the Fate of the Humanities (Donoghue 2008), US academic Frank Donoghue adds his own
searing critique of the corporatisation of universities, their reduction in faculty, and the decline in tenure. He argues
that universities have become consumed with the superficial notions of prestige, and it is the humanities that suffer the
most in this scenario. James Côté and Anton Allahah similarly identify the loss of many universities’ missions and thus
focus on reaffirming liberal ideals in their book, Lowering Higher Education: The Rise of Corporate Universities and the
Fall of Liberal Education (Allahar and Côté 2011). In The Marketplace of Ideas, Louis Menand (2010) recognises that,
behind the rhetoric of anti-instrumentalism, there is a response to large structural and political changes in the
university and in its relationship with the wider public culture.
It is clear from these studies that government mindsets and economic values have become increasingly at odds with
the philosophical underpinnings of the university and with what universities are meant for or expected to do: on the
one hand, to offer experiences which go beyond ‘economic return’ in a climate where financial support for universities
providing non-economic returns on students’ education is dwindling.
In The Idea of An Australian University, Glyn Davis (2017), former Vice Chancellor of Melbourne University, argues that
due to the withdrawal of public funding, universities need to focus on developing markets, diversity, and attracting
international students. In her book, Academic Life and Labour in the New Universities: Hope and Other Choices, Ruth
Barcan (2016) offers another Australian perspective: while considerably more ‘hopeful’ in tone than previous analyses,
Barcan is attuned to the paradox of the institutional massification and marketisation of education; while perceiving
advantages to opening up universities to wider cohorts, she portends that academics must respond to changing
technologies and adapt to the times.
Page 1 of 5
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Source: JOURNAL: Pike, D. The Humanities: What Future? Humanities 2023, 12, 85.
https://doi.org/10.3390/h12040085
• Length of the Extract: 752 words
• Flesch Kincaid Grade Level: 17.7
• Genre: Humanities
MIND MAPS
After carefully reading the passage, evaluate your understanding through the following exercises:
Comprehension Check: This part is focused on identifying and summarising the main ideas in the passage.
Look for pivotal sentences or groups of sentences that encapsulate the core themes in each paragraph.
Summarise these main ideas using your own words. Your goal is to capture the essence of the passage
accurately.
Page 2 of 5
COMPREHENSION CHECK
KEY IDEA
[1] The topic of the humanities being in crisis is not new. [2] For example in Culture and Anarchy
(Arnold [1889] 1994), Matthew Arnold argued for the authoritative power of ‘culture’, which would
transcend political, religious, or social divisions, as a solution to the political confusion, crises, and
riots of his time. [3] Gerald Gaff believed that Arnold ‘established the categories and the grammar
through which we think about cultural crises’(Gaff qtd. in Donoghue 2008, p. 20).
[4] Today, scholars such as Stefan Collini (2017) argue that the ‘issue’ with the humanities, in part,
concerns the university itself—that, within the last two decades, and with the rise in neoliberal
models and priorities, we have lost a sense of what universities are. [5] In his Speaking of
Universities, Collini observes the surge in the number of universities in the UK which have an
emphasis on business models; he also notes the impact of globalisation. [6] Collini argues that, with
the expanding and internationalising student populations, universities have lost their sense of
purpose and increasingly feel the need to articulate their value. [7] Universities are being run in a
corporate model, with systems of accountability and high levels of managerialism. [8] In a previous
book, What Are Universities For?, Collini (2012, p. 87) points out that: [9] Whatever the reality of the
experience of actually attending one of today’s semi-marketized, employment-oriented institutions,
there remains a strong and popular desire that they should, at their best, incarnate a set of
“aspirations and ideals” that go beyond any form of economic return.
[10] This notion that there is a ‘non-economic’ return-on-investment for education can be traced
back to Victorian ideals about the university, the origins of which informed the English education
system and the modern university. [11] This history is well explored in Sheldon Rothblatt’s work, as
well as the study of Victorian education in Dinah Birch’s (2008) Our Victorian Education. [12] Collini
(2012) notes that universities are ‘a problem for governments, in market democracies … where
there is an overreliance on ‘individualistic and economic pressures’’. [13] In the end, ‘[t]he tension
between the two imperatives (the market) and (disinterested scholarship) is unresolved’. [14] It
appears that the humanities, too, sit within this tension—perhaps even more so as their market
value is more difficult to define in real terms and their inheritance of Victorian ideals surrounding the
non-utilitarian nature of a liberal arts education still persists. [15] Moreover, in the humanities at
least, university research and learning encourages the study and exploration into many modes and
ways of being; this knowledge can often challenge outright market logic.
[16] Universities in the US and the UK have also been subject to strong neoliberalist trends. [17] In
The Last Professors: The Corporate University and the Fate of the Humanities (Donoghue 2008),
US academic Frank Donoghue adds his own searing critique of the corporatisation of universities,
their reduction in faculty, and the decline in tenure. [18] He argues that universities have become
consumed with the superficial notions of prestige, and it is the humanities that suffer the most in this
scenario. [19] James Côté and Anton Allahah similarly identify the loss of many universities’
missions and thus focus on reaffirming liberal ideals in their book, Lowering Higher Education: The
Rise of Corporate Universities and the Fall of Liberal Education (Allahar and Côté 2011). [20] In The
Marketplace of Ideas, Louis Menand (2010) recognises that, behind the rhetoric of anti-
instrumentalism, there is a response to large structural and political changes in the university and in
its relationship with the wider public culture.
[21] It is clear from these studies that government mindsets and economic values have become
increasingly at odds with the philosophical underpinnings of the university and with what
universities are meant for or expected to do: on the one hand, to offer experiences which go
beyond ‘economic return’ in a climate where financial support for universities providing non-
economic returns on students’ education is dwindling.
[22] In The Idea of An Australian University, Glyn Davis (2017), former Vice Chancellor of
Melbourne University, argues that due to the withdrawal of public funding, universities need to focus
on developing markets, diversity, and attracting international students. [23] In her book, Academic
Life and Labour in the New Universities: Hope and Other Choices, Ruth Barcan (2016) offers
another Australian perspective: while considerably more ‘hopeful’ in tone than previous analyses,
Barcan is attuned to the paradox of the institutional massification and marketisation of education;
while perceiving advantages to opening up universities to wider cohorts, she portends that
academics must respond to changing technologies and adapt to the times.
[Analysis on the next page]
Page 3 of 5
KEY IDEA
[1] The topic of the humanities being in crisis is not new. [2] For example in Culture and Anarchy The historical roots of the
(Arnold [1889] 1994), Matthew Arnold argued for the authoritative power of ‘culture’, which would idea that culture can be a
transcend political, religious, or social divisions, as a solution to the political confusion, crises, and solution to political and
riots of his time. [3] Gerald Gaff believed that Arnold ‘established the categories and the grammar societal crises.
through which we think about cultural crises’(Gaff qtd. in Donoghue 2008, p. 20).
[4] Today, scholars such as Stefan Collini (2017) argue that the ‘issue’ with the humanities, in part, The transformation of
concerns the university itself—that, within the last two decades, and with the rise in neoliberal universities in the last two
models and priorities, we have lost a sense of what universities are. [5] In his Speaking of decades, shifting towards
Universities, Collini observes the surge in the number of universities in the UK which have an business models and losing
emphasis on business models; he also notes the impact of globalisation. [6] Collini argues that, with their sense of purpose.
the expanding and internationalising student populations, universities have lost their sense of
purpose and increasingly feel the need to articulate their value. [7] Universities are being run in a
corporate model, with systems of accountability and high levels of managerialism. [8] In a previous
book, What Are Universities For?, Collini (2012, p. 87) points out that: [9] Whatever the reality of the
experience of actually attending one of today’s semi-marketized, employment-oriented institutions,
there remains a strong and popular desire that they should, at their best, incarnate a set of
“aspirations and ideals” that go beyond any form of economic return.
[10] This notion that there is a ‘non-economic’ return-on-investment for education can be traced The tension between market
back to Victorian ideals about the university, the origins of which informed the English education pressures and traditional
system and the modern university. [11] This history is well explored in Sheldon Rothblatt’s work, as ideals, particularly in the
well as the study of Victorian education in Dinah Birch’s (2008) Our Victorian Education. [12] Collini humanities.
(2012) notes that universities are ‘a problem for governments, in market democracies … where
there is an overreliance on ‘individualistic and economic pressures’’. [13] In the end, ‘[t]he tension
between the two imperatives (the market) and (disinterested scholarship) is unresolved’. [14] It
appears that the humanities, too, sit within this tension—perhaps even more so as their market
value is more difficult to define in real terms and their inheritance of Victorian ideals surrounding the
non-utilitarian nature of a liberal arts education still persists. [15] Moreover, in the humanities at
least, university research and learning encourages the study and exploration into many modes and
ways of being; this knowledge can often challenge outright market logic.
[16] Universities in the US and the UK have also been subject to strong neoliberalist trends. [17] In Critiques of corporatization
The Last Professors: The Corporate University and the Fate of the Humanities (Donoghue 2008), in universities and the effect
US academic Frank Donoghue adds his own searing critique of the corporatisation of universities, on the humanities, especially
their reduction in faculty, and the decline in tenure. [18] He argues that universities have become in the U.S. and UK.
consumed with the superficial notions of prestige, and it is the humanities that suffer the most in this
scenario. [19] James Côté and Anton Allahah similarly identify the loss of many universities’
missions and thus focus on reaffirming liberal ideals in their book, Lowering Higher Education: The
Rise of Corporate Universities and the Fall of Liberal Education (Allahar and Côté 2011). [20] In The
Marketplace of Ideas, Louis Menand (2010) recognises that, behind the rhetoric of anti-
instrumentalism, there is a response to large structural and political changes in the university and in
its relationship with the wider public culture.
[21] It is clear from these studies that government mindsets and economic values have become The conflicting mindsets of
increasingly at odds with the philosophical underpinnings of the university and with what government and
universities are meant for or expected to do: on the one hand, to offer experiences which go universities, particularly the
beyond ‘economic return’ in a climate where financial support for universities providing non- clash between economic
economic returns on students’ education is dwindling. values and the philosophical
underpinnings of education.
[22] In The Idea of An Australian University, Glyn Davis (2017), former Vice Chancellor of Australian perspectives on
Melbourne University, argues that due to the withdrawal of public funding, universities need to focus the need for universities to
on developing markets, diversity, and attracting international students. [23] In her book, Academic adapt to new economic
Life and Labour in the New Universities: Hope and Other Choices, Ruth Barcan (2016) offers realities, reflecting both
another Australian perspective: while considerably more ‘hopeful’ in tone than previous analyses, concern and optimism.
Barcan is attuned to the paradox of the institutional massification and marketisation of education;
while perceiving advantages to opening up universities to wider cohorts, she portends that
academics must respond to changing technologies and adapt to the times.
Page 4 of 5
Central Theme: The central theme of this passage is the crisis in the humanities and the transformation of universities,
focusing on the shift towards neoliberal models, corporate priorities, and the tension between economic pressures and the
traditional ideals of education.
Tone: The tone is analytical, critical, and academic, weaving together various scholarly perspectives to present a nuanced
analysis of the changing landscape of higher education, especially within the humanities.
Structure of the Passage: The passage is structured in a way that evolves from historical insights to contemporary
critiques. Paragraph 1 provides historical context, discussing how culture and education have been perceived as solutions to
societal crises. Paragraph 2 explores recent trends in universities with an emphasis on business models. Paragraph 3 delves
into the tension between market demands and traditional scholarly values, specifically in the humanities. Paragraph 4
expands on this with critiques of the corporatization of universities, focusing on the U.S. and the UK. Paragraph 5 synthesizes
the studies to show the conflict between government and economic values versus university philosophy. Paragraph 6 offers
Australian perspectives on the issue, reflecting both challenges and potential adaptations.
Page 5 of 5
E. M Cioran, in his A Short History of Decay, writes: “When we refuse to admit the interchangeable character of ideas,
blood flows … firm resolves draw the dagger; fiery eyes presage slaughter”. He identifies a Principle of Evil: “Every
faith practices some form of terror” until society becomes “an inferno of saviors”. “Here certitudes abound”:
The result is fanaticism—a fundamental defect which gives the man the craving for effectiveness [power,
influence], for prophecy, for terror—a lyrical leprosy by which he contaminates souls, subdues them, crushes
or exalts them … Only the skeptics (or idlers or aesthetes) escape because they propose nothing, because
they […] undermine fanaticism’s purposes, analyze its frenzy.
The trick is done by “jesting wisdom”, which empties the Truth of its content. Cioran writes as a nihilist and a cynic, but
he is not a political nihilist in the original sense of the word; that is, he does not destroy it all so that you could build a
better world on the ruins. He is a radical relativist and values nihilist who rejects all abstract normativities as false
truths. “[A]ny arbitrary and fantastic aspiration is preferable the inflexible truths”. He is a cynic like Diogenes, the
Celestial Dog—weaponized with sarcasm. Cioran writes admiringly about him.
In his strikingly poetic style, Cioran presents the fundamental problem of mental hygiene. How to avoid contamination
from false certainties and their destructive ideological consequences? How to avoid spreading the disease of “lyrical
leprosy” and retain your mental health? The pollution contaminates people who fail to resist but faithfully follow self-
appointed prophets and saviors. They pull others into the maelstrom of groundless faith and blindly hostile action
against nonbelievers. Nevertheless, their values and norms look ethically relevant because of their universalizable
import in our eternal search for paradise—this is the key to enforcing the Principle of Evil. But, says Cioran, if we all
escaped and denied the dogmatic certainties, we would “recover paradise”. Notice the bitter irony of this idea
because paradise is one of those false certainties that makes the “blood flow”. Yet, his main point looks valid: life
without certainties is, indeed, worthy of effort, even without the empty promises of earthly—or celestial—paradise.
Paradise is for fanatics only. We must avoid the polluting effect at any cost if we hope to stay healthy, protect our
integrity, and live devoid of that particular type of guilt that action on doctrinaire certainty brings about. We should not
terrorize others or help others harass our brethren.
However, we should be careful with such undefinable words as fanatic and fanaticism. They are pejorative: no one
accepts de se ascriptions of fanaticism, except ironically. The term is essentially contested because your fanatics are
my heroes and vice versa. If fanatics did not exist, whom would we worship? Moreover, the disciples of the dogma, our
harriers, will do their best to hide their fanaticism. They use camouflaging rhetoric under which they fail to see
themselves. In fact, harassment hides in everyday routines, except when it periodically flares up and reaches orgiastic
heights of doom and destruction. Cioran uses hyperbole to emphasize violence and fanaticism, which works when the
dogma’s grotesqueness is thinly camouflaged. Everything looks deceptively normal when the cover is thick, although
the deadly danger is still there.
R. M. Hare once offered a useful idea of fanaticism by saying that a fanatic remains faithful to his adopted Truth and
dogma, however abstract and harmful. Poisoned by lyrical leprosy, fanatics are ready to suffer and die for the Truth
and are certainly ready to maim and kill others. They sacrifice themselves—and you. And why would they refuse to
maim others if they are willing to die for their sacred but abstract, absolute ideals, dogmas, and the Truth? Cioran
agrees, “The fanatic is incorruptible: if he kills for an idea, he can just as well get himself killed for one; in either case,
tyrant or martyr, he is a monster”. Fanaticism entails a reflexive relation: you kill them, and if you were one of them,
you would get killed, too. . .
Hare’s example is an ardent Nazi with a Jewish background. A different example is warlike patriotism and one’s
willingness to die for the motherland—an abstract principle that demands sacrifices and makes martyrs. Fanatics
destroy themselves and their own (irony), which is a minor loss, given that they are fanatics (sarcasm). Fanatics are
prepared to do anything for the Truth—such is the mania of lyrical leprosy.
Page 1 of 5
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Source: JOURNAL: Airaksinen, T. Fanaticism and E. M. Cioran’s “Lyrical Leprosy”. Humanities 2023, 12, 73.
https://doi.org/10.3390/h12040073
• Genre: Philosophy, Humanities
MIND MAPS
accurately.
Page 2 of 5
COMPREHENSION CHECK
KEY IDEA
[1] E. M Cioran, in his A Short History of Decay, writes: “When we refuse to admit the
interchangeable character of ideas, blood flows … firm resolves draw the dagger; fiery eyes
presage slaughter”. [2] He identifies a Principle of Evil: “Every faith practices some form of terror”
until society becomes “an inferno of saviors”. [3] “Here certitudes abound”:
[4] The result is fanaticism—a fundamental defect which gives the man the craving for effectiveness
[power, influence], for prophecy, for terror—a lyrical leprosy by which he contaminates souls,
subdues them, crushes or exalts them … [5] Only the skeptics (or idlers or aesthetes) escape
because they propose nothing, because they […] undermine fanaticism’s purposes, analyze its
frenzy.
[6] The trick is done by “jesting wisdom”, which empties the Truth of its content. [7] Cioran writes as
a nihilist and a cynic, but he is not a political nihilist in the original sense of the word; that is, he does
not destroy it all so that you could build a better world on the ruins. [8] He is a radical relativist and
values nihilist who rejects all abstract normativities as false truths. [9] “[A]ny arbitrary and fantastic
aspiration is preferable the inflexible truths”. [10] He is a cynic like Diogenes, the Celestial Dog—
weaponized with sarcasm. [11] Cioran writes admiringly about him.
[12] In his strikingly poetic style, Cioran presents the fundamental problem of mental hygiene. [13]
How to avoid contamination from false certainties and their destructive ideological consequences?
[14] How to avoid spreading the disease of “lyrical leprosy” and retain your mental health? [15] The
pollution contaminates people who fail to resist but faithfully follow self-appointed prophets and
saviors. [16] They pull others into the maelstrom of groundless faith and blindly hostile action
against nonbelievers. [17] Nevertheless, their values and norms look ethically relevant because of
their universalizable import in our eternal search for paradise—this is the key to enforcing the
Principle of Evil. [18] But, says Cioran, if we all escaped and denied the dogmatic certainties, we
would “recover paradise”. [19] Notice the bitter irony of this idea because paradise is one of those
false certainties that makes the “blood flow”. [20] Yet, his main point looks valid: life without
certainties is, indeed, worthy of effort, even without the empty promises of earthly—or celestial—
paradise. [21] Paradise is for fanatics only. [22] We must avoid the polluting effect at any cost if we
hope to stay healthy, protect our integrity, and live devoid of that particular type of guilt that action
on doctrinaire certainty brings about. [23] We should not terrorize others or help others harass our
brethren.
[24] However, we should be careful with such undefinable words as fanatic and fanaticism. [25]
They are pejorative: no one accepts de se ascriptions of fanaticism, except ironically. [26] The term
is essentially contested because your fanatics are my heroes and vice versa. [27] If fanatics did not
exist, whom would we worship? [28] Moreover, the disciples of the dogma, our harriers, will do their
best to hide their fanaticism. [29] They use camouflaging rhetoric under which they fail to see
themselves. [30] In fact, harassment hides in everyday routines, except when it periodically flares up
and reaches orgiastic heights of doom and destruction. [31] Cioran uses hyperbole to emphasize
violence and fanaticism, which works when the dogma’s grotesqueness is thinly camouflaged. [32]
Everything looks deceptively normal when the cover is thick, although the deadly danger is still
there.
[33] R. M. Hare once offered a useful idea of fanaticism by saying that a fanatic remains faithful to
his adopted Truth and dogma, however abstract and harmful. [34] Poisoned by lyrical leprosy,
fanatics are ready to suffer and die for the Truth and are certainly ready to maim and kill others. [35]
They sacrifice themselves—and you. [36] And why would they refuse to maim others if they are
willing to die for their sacred but abstract, absolute ideals, dogmas, and the Truth? [37] Cioran
agrees, “The fanatic is incorruptible: if he kills for an idea, he can just as well get himself killed for
one; in either case, tyrant or martyr, he is a monster”. [38] Fanaticism entails a reflexive relation: you
kill them, and if you were one of them, you would get killed, too. . .
[39] Hare’s example is an ardent Nazi with a Jewish background. [40] A different example is warlike
patriotism and one’s willingness to die for the motherland—an abstract principle that demands
sacrifices and makes martyrs. [41] Fanatics destroy themselves and their own (irony), which is a
minor loss, given that they are fanatics (sarcasm). [42] Fanatics are prepared to do anything for the
Truth—such is the mania of lyrical leprosy.
Page 3 of 5
KEY IDEA
[1] E. M Cioran, in his A Short History of Decay, writes: “When we refuse to admit the Introduction to Cioran's
interchangeable character of ideas, blood flows … firm resolves draw the dagger; fiery eyes notion of fanaticism as an
presage slaughter”. [2] He identifies a Principle of Evil: “Every faith practices some form of terror” overwhelming craving for
until society becomes “an inferno of saviors”. [3] “Here certitudes abound”: power, influence, and terror.
[4] The result is fanaticism—a fundamental defect which gives the man the craving for effectiveness
[power, influence], for prophecy, for terror—a lyrical leprosy by which he contaminates souls,
subdues them, crushes or exalts them … [5] Only the skeptics (or idlers or aesthetes) escape
because they propose nothing, because they […] undermine fanaticism’s purposes, analyze its
frenzy.
[6] The trick is done by “jesting wisdom”, which empties the Truth of its content. [7] Cioran writes as Examination of Cioran's
a nihilist and a cynic, but he is not a political nihilist in the original sense of the word; that is, he does philosophical stances,
not destroy it all so that you could build a better world on the ruins. [8] He is a radical relativist and including his cynicism,
values nihilist who rejects all abstract normativities as false truths. [9] “[A]ny arbitrary and fantastic radical relativism, and
aspiration is preferable the inflexible truths”. [10] He is a cynic like Diogenes, the Celestial Dog— rejection of abstract truths.
weaponized with sarcasm. [11] Cioran writes admiringly about him.
[12] In his strikingly poetic style, Cioran presents the fundamental problem of mental hygiene. [13] Exploration of the need for
How to avoid contamination from false certainties and their destructive ideological consequences? mental hygiene to avoid the
[14] How to avoid spreading the disease of “lyrical leprosy” and retain your mental health? [15] The destructive consequences of
pollution contaminates people who fail to resist but faithfully follow self-appointed prophets and false certainties and
saviors. [16] They pull others into the maelstrom of groundless faith and blindly hostile action fanaticism.
against nonbelievers. [17] Nevertheless, their values and norms look ethically relevant because of
their universalizable import in our eternal search for paradise—this is the key to enforcing the
Principle of Evil. [18] But, says Cioran, if we all escaped and denied the dogmatic certainties, we
would “recover paradise”. [19] Notice the bitter irony of this idea because paradise is one of those
false certainties that makes the “blood flow”. [20] Yet, his main point looks valid: life without
certainties is, indeed, worthy of effort, even without the empty promises of earthly—or celestial—
paradise. [21] Paradise is for fanatics only. [22] We must avoid the polluting effect at any cost if we
hope to stay healthy, protect our integrity, and live devoid of that particular type of guilt that action
on doctrinaire certainty brings about. [23] We should not terrorize others or help others harass our
brethren.
[24] However, we should be careful with such undefinable words as fanatic and fanaticism. [25] Reflection on the challenge
They are pejorative: no one accepts de se ascriptions of fanaticism, except ironically. [26] The term of defining and recognizing
is essentially contested because your fanatics are my heroes and vice versa. [27] If fanatics did not fanaticism, highlighting its
exist, whom would we worship? [28] Moreover, the disciples of the dogma, our harriers, will do their deceptive and dangerous
best to hide their fanaticism. [29] They use camouflaging rhetoric under which they fail to see aspects.
themselves. [30] In fact, harassment hides in everyday routines, except when it periodically flares up
and reaches orgiastic heights of doom and destruction. [31] Cioran uses hyperbole to emphasize
violence and fanaticism, which works when the dogma’s grotesqueness is thinly camouflaged. [32]
Everything looks deceptively normal when the cover is thick, although the deadly danger is still
there.
[33] R. M. Hare once offered a useful idea of fanaticism by saying that a fanatic remains faithful to Analysis of the fanatic's
his adopted Truth and dogma, however abstract and harmful. [34] Poisoned by lyrical leprosy, unwavering devotion to
fanatics are ready to suffer and die for the Truth and are certainly ready to maim and kill others. [35] abstract ideals, willingness
They sacrifice themselves—and you. [36] And why would they refuse to maim others if they are to inflict harm, and Cioran's
willing to die for their sacred but abstract, absolute ideals, dogmas, and the Truth? [37] Cioran agreement with this
agrees, “The fanatic is incorruptible: if he kills for an idea, he can just as well get himself killed for concept.
one; in either case, tyrant or martyr, he is a monster”. [38] Fanaticism entails a reflexive relation: you
kill them, and if you were one of them, you would get killed, too. . .
[39] Hare’s example is an ardent Nazi with a Jewish background. [40] A different example is warlike Consideration of specific
patriotism and one’s willingness to die for the motherland—an abstract principle that demands examples of fanaticism, such
sacrifices and makes martyrs. [41] Fanatics destroy themselves and their own (irony), which is a as Nazism and patriotism,
minor loss, given that they are fanatics (sarcasm). [42] Fanatics are prepared to do anything for the and their self-destructive
Truth—such is the mania of lyrical leprosy. tendencies.
Page 4 of 5
Central Theme: The central theme of this passage is the examination of fanaticism, as characterized by unshakeable
convictions in abstract ideals, and its relationship with violence, terror, and "lyrical leprosy." It delves into the philosophical
writings of E.M. Cioran and others to probe the nature of fanaticism and the inherent danger it poses to individual and
societal well-being.
Tone: The tone of the passage is scholarly, contemplative, and at times, critical. It employs rich imagery and conceptual
language to articulate a complex and nuanced understanding of fanaticism..
Structure of the Passage: The passage initiates with an introduction to Cioran's concept of fanaticism (Para 1), then
presents an analysis of Cioran's nihilism and cynicism (Para 2), followed by an exploration of the problem of mental hygiene
in avoiding fanaticism (Para 3). It then examines the terminology and deceptive nature of fanaticism (Para 4), further dissects
the characteristics of fanatics and the violence they can perpetrate (Para 5), and concludes with specific examples of
fanaticism, such as Nazism and patriotism (Para 6).
Page 5 of 5
A possibility of insightful comparisons is offered by the concept of soul. When Descola worked on the field study of the
Achuar in the Amazon, he translated the indigenous word “wakan” with French “âme” (from Latin “anima”), i.e., “soul”.
Not only did the people of this group possess such a soul, but also the majority of plants, animals and celestial bodies.
However, not all of them were endowed with it in the same way. Depending on the possibilities of the communicative
exchange between them, there were fine gradations. The dialogues were not only dependent on the production of
sounds and the sense of hearing. According to Descola, intersubjectivity was also expressed in a “discourse de l’
âme” (speech from the soul) that overcame language barriers and transformed plants and animals into meaning-
producing subjects, except when communication could not function due to a defect of the soul or for reasons of
distance.
In Beyond Nature and Culture Descola returns to this more-than-human concept of soul of the Achuar and underpins
with it his ontology of animism. At a theoretical point, however, he now relativizes the close relationship and assumes a
universal separation between a level of “interiority” and a level of “physicality”. These concepts are introduced by him
in order to schematize his four ontologies in a matrix of difference and similarity. A gradual difference between
European naturalism and the other ontologies remains, however, because the universal and universally variable
dualisms of interiority and physicality are, according to Descola, most pronounced in Western modernity.
But who had a soul in this “most dualistic” Western modernity? Keith Thomas reports that the conception of the soul of
ancient philosophers was taken over by medieval scholasticism and fused with the Judeo-Christian doctrine according
to which human beings were created in the image of God (Genesis 1:27). “Instead of representing man as merely a
superior animal, it elevated him to a wholly different status, halfway between the beasts and the angels. In the early
modern period it was accompanied by a great deal of self-congratulation” (Thomas 1983, p. 31). Nevertheless, there
was a striking disagreement in the period as to what exactly constituted this unique superiority of humans over
animals. The intellectuals brought into play the most diverse characteristics. One of the most remarkable attempts to
magnify the difference came in the 1630s from René Descartes. The bodies of humans and animals were machines or
automata; only humans possessed additionally an immaterial soul. Among the reasons for the resonance of this theory,
according to Thomas, were its religious harmlessness (animals were therefore not immortal) and its justificatory
character for a brutal treatment of animals in everyday life. However, Cartesianism remained controversial and
temporary. In England, many later intellectuals followed John Locke and John Ray, who rejected the notion of animal-
machines as “against all evidence of sense and reason” (Thomas 1983, pp. 33–35).
As Thomas goes on to explain, this tendency toward a more animal-friendly worldview was fostered from the 17th
century onward by the increasing keeping of pets and domestic animals. First in the aristocracy, then in wider circles,
these personal animals, dogs in particular, took up more and more space. Thus, the last bastion of an unbridgeable
barrier between humans and animals also began to falter: the uniqueness of the human soul. On the level of popular
religiosity, this was not a problem, because the intellectual distinction between creatures with and without souls had
never really penetrated the peasant population. Even on the theological level there were possible approaches. Had not
Paul spoken in Romans (8:21) of the entire creature being redeemed on the last day? Could animals therefore be
immortal? In the 17th century, such an interpretation was considered an affront; in the course of the Enlightenment, it
became more acceptable. In the 1770s, an Anglican clergyman declared that animals possessed real souls, stating
“that he had never heard an argument against the immortality of animals which could not be equally urged against the
immortality of man” (Thomas 1983, p. 140).
Page 1 of 5
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Source: JOURNAL: Mathieu, J. How Great Was the “Great Divide of Nature and Culture” in Europe? Philippe
Descola’s Argument under Scrutinity. Histories 2022, 2, 542-551. https://doi.org/10.3390/histories2040036
• Genre: Cultural Anthropology
MIND MAPS
accurately.
Page 2 of 5
COMPREHENSION CHECK
KEY IDEA
[1] A possibility of insightful comparisons is offered by the concept of soul. [2] When Descola
worked on the field study of the Achuar in the Amazon, he translated the indigenous word “wakan”
with French “âme” (from Latin “anima”), i.e., “soul”. [3] Not only did the people of this group
possess such a soul, but also the majority of plants, animals and celestial bodies. [4] However, not
all of them were endowed with it in the same way. [5] Depending on the possibilities of the
communicative exchange between them, there were fine gradations. [6] The dialogues were not
only dependent on the production of sounds and the sense of hearing. [7] According to Descola,
intersubjectivity was also expressed in a “discourse de l’ âme” (speech from the soul) that
overcame language barriers and transformed plants and animals into meaning-producing subjects,
except when communication could not function due to a defect of the soul or for reasons of
distance.
[8] In Beyond Nature and Culture Descola returns to this more-than-human concept of soul of the
Achuar and underpins with it his ontology of animism. [9] At a theoretical point, however, he now
relativizes the close relationship and assumes a universal separation between a level of “interiority”
and a level of “physicality”. [10] These concepts are introduced by him in order to schematize his
four ontologies in a matrix of difference and similarity. [11] A gradual difference between European
naturalism and the other ontologies remains, however, because the universal and universally
variable dualisms of interiority and physicality are, according to Descola, most pronounced in
Western modernity.
[12] But who had a soul in this “most dualistic” Western modernity? [13] Keith Thomas reports that
the conception of the soul of ancient philosophers was taken over by medieval scholasticism and
fused with the Judeo-Christian doctrine according to which human beings were created in the
image of God (Genesis 1:27). [14] “Instead of representing man as merely a superior animal, it
elevated him to a wholly different status, halfway between the beasts and the angels. [15] In the
early modern period it was accompanied by a great deal of self-congratulation” (Thomas 1983, p.
31). [16] Nevertheless, there was a striking disagreement in the period as to what exactly
constituted this unique superiority of humans over animals. [17] The intellectuals brought into play
the most diverse characteristics. [18] One of the most remarkable attempts to magnify the
difference came in the 1630s from René Descartes. [19] The bodies of humans and animals were
machines or automata; only humans possessed additionally an immaterial soul. [20] Among the
reasons for the resonance of this theory, according to Thomas, were its religious harmlessness
(animals were therefore not immortal) and its justificatory character for a brutal treatment of animals
in everyday life. [21] However, Cartesianism remained controversial and temporary. [22] In England,
many later intellectuals followed John Locke and John Ray, who rejected the notion of animal-
[23] As Thomas goes on to explain, this tendency toward a more animal-friendly worldview was
fostered from the 17th century onward by the increasing keeping of pets and domestic animals. [24]
First in the aristocracy, then in wider circles, these personal animals, dogs in particular, took up
more and more space. [25] Thus, the last bastion of an unbridgeable barrier between humans and
animals also began to falter: the uniqueness of the human soul. [26] On the level of popular
religiosity, this was not a problem, because the intellectual distinction between creatures with and
without souls had never really penetrated the peasant population. [27] Even on the theological level
there were possible approaches. [28] Had not Paul spoken in Romans (8:21) of the entire creature
being redeemed on the last day? [29] Could animals therefore be immortal? [30] In the 17th
century, such an interpretation was considered an affront; in the course of the Enlightenment, it
became more acceptable. [31] In the 1770s, an Anglican clergyman declared that animals
possessed real souls, stating “that he had never heard an argument against the immortality of
animals which could not be equally urged against the immortality of man” (Thomas 1983, p. 140).
Page 3 of 5
KEY IDEA
[1] A possibility of insightful comparisons is offered by the concept of soul. [2] When Descola Introduction to the concept
worked on the field study of the Achuar in the Amazon, he translated the indigenous word “wakan” of the soul among the
with French “âme” (from Latin “anima”), i.e., “soul”. [3] Not only did the people of this group Achuar, and how Descola
possess such a soul, but also the majority of plants, animals and celestial bodies. [4] However, not studied their unique
all of them were endowed with it in the same way. [5] Depending on the possibilities of the understanding of souls in
communicative exchange between them, there were fine gradations. [6] The dialogues were not plants, animals, and celestial
only dependent on the production of sounds and the sense of hearing. [7] According to Descola, bodies.
intersubjectivity was also expressed in a “discourse de l’ âme” (speech from the soul) that
overcame language barriers and transformed plants and animals into meaning-producing subjects,
except when communication could not function due to a defect of the soul or for reasons of
distance.
[8] In Beyond Nature and Culture Descola returns to this more-than-human concept of soul of the Descola's theoretical
Achuar and underpins with it his ontology of animism. [9] At a theoretical point, however, he now development of animism,
relativizes the close relationship and assumes a universal separation between a level of “interiority” with a discussion of the
and a level of “physicality”. [10] These concepts are introduced by him in order to schematize his universal separation
four ontologies in a matrix of difference and similarity. [11] A gradual difference between European between interiority and
naturalism and the other ontologies remains, however, because the universal and universally physicality, especially in
variable dualisms of interiority and physicality are, according to Descola, most pronounced in Western modernity.
Western modernity.
[12] But who had a soul in this “most dualistic” Western modernity? [13] Keith Thomas reports that Historical overview of the
the conception of the soul of ancient philosophers was taken over by medieval scholasticism and concept of the soul in
fused with the Judeo-Christian doctrine according to which human beings were created in the Western thought, including
image of God (Genesis 1:27). [14] “Instead of representing man as merely a superior animal, it the influence of Descartes
elevated him to a wholly different status, halfway between the beasts and the angels. [15] In the and debates over human
early modern period it was accompanied by a great deal of self-congratulation” (Thomas 1983, p. superiority and the
31). [16] Nevertheless, there was a striking disagreement in the period as to what exactly treatment of animals.
constituted this unique superiority of humans over animals. [17] The intellectuals brought into play
the most diverse characteristics. [18] One of the most remarkable attempts to magnify the
difference came in the 1630s from René Descartes. [19] The bodies of humans and animals were
machines or automata; only humans possessed additionally an immaterial soul. [20] Among the
reasons for the resonance of this theory, according to Thomas, were its religious harmlessness
(animals were therefore not immortal) and its justificatory character for a brutal treatment of animals
in everyday life. [21] However, Cartesianism remained controversial and temporary. [22] In England,
many later intellectuals followed John Locke and John Ray, who rejected the notion of animal-
[23] As Thomas goes on to explain, this tendency toward a more animal-friendly worldview was Evolution of attitudes
fostered from the 17th century onward by the increasing keeping of pets and domestic animals. [24] towards the human soul and
First in the aristocracy, then in wider circles, these personal animals, dogs in particular, took up animal immortality from the
more and more space. [25] Thus, the last bastion of an unbridgeable barrier between humans and 17th century onwards,
animals also began to falter: the uniqueness of the human soul. [26] On the level of popular reflecting changes in
religiosity, this was not a problem, because the intellectual distinction between creatures with and religion, pet-keeping, and
without souls had never really penetrated the peasant population. [27] Even on the theological level popular beliefs.
there were possible approaches. [28] Had not Paul spoken in Romans (8:21) of the entire creature
being redeemed on the last day? [29] Could animals therefore be immortal? [30] In the 17th
century, such an interpretation was considered an affront; in the course of the Enlightenment, it
became more acceptable. [31] In the 1770s, an Anglican clergyman declared that animals
possessed real souls, stating “that he had never heard an argument against the immortality of
animals which could not be equally urged against the immortality of man” (Thomas 1983, p. 140).
Page 4 of 5
Central Theme: The central theme of this passage is the exploration of the concept of the soul and how it is understood and
interpreted across different cultures and time periods, particularly focusing on the Achuar people, Western modernity, and
historical shifts in thinking about the soul’s relationship to humans and animals.
Tone: The tone of the passage is scholarly and analytical, presenting an intellectual exploration of the concept of the soul
with a focus on historical and cultural contexts.
Structure of the Passage: The flow of ideas in the passage begins with an exploration of the concept of the soul among the
Achuar people and how Descola translated it into the study of intersubjectivity (Para 1). The discussion then shifts to
Descola’s more-than-human ontology of animism, along with a universal separation between “interiority” and “physicality”
(Para 2). The passage moves into a historical review of the understanding of the soul in Western thought, beginning with
ancient philosophers and culminating in Descartes’ theory (Para 3). Finally, the passage concludes with a consideration of
shifting attitudes towards animals, the human soul, and the growing acceptance of animal immortality in more recent
centuries (Para 4).
Page 5 of 5
CAD – 51 | VARC1000
There is a church in Argentina called Iglesia Maradoniana. In this church, God is football—soccer—and its prophet is
the renowned player Diego Armando Maradona. Founded in 1998, the year after the star’s retirement, the Iglesia
Maradoniana now has some 120,000 members worldwide, who bear its insignia D10S—a portmanteau of Dios, the
Spanish word for God, and Maradona’s shirt number, 10. Members congregate in sports bars; transubstantiation
occurs not to wine and wafer, but to beer and pizza. They even have their own version of the Lord’s Prayer: “Our
Diego, who art on the pitches, hallowed be thy left hand,” alluding to Maradona’s controversial “hand of God” goal in
the 1986 World Cup.
It all sounds a bit absurd, but at least some of the church’s founders and followers appear to be serious. Co-founder
Hernán Amez told The Argentina Independent in 2008: “It’s not just a bit of fun—it’s a religion. Religion is about
feelings, and we feel football.” He is right, psychologically speaking. The power of religion, sociologist Émile Durkheim
wrote, stems from its ability to unite two of our deepest yearnings—the universality of God and the cultural specificity
of a clan—through totems and rituals. The specific beliefs of a religion do not matter so much as its ability to meet
these emotional and social needs. In other words: deed, then creed. Given this, Iglesia Maradoniana seems entirely
logical. Ninety percent of Argentinians declare allegiance to a soccer team, and more than 2.5 million play the sport in
a structured capacity. Soccer was already a religion in Argentina.
While we commonly think that ancient sporting rituals were performed in the service of religion, this modern example
and others suggest it is just as often the other way around: Religion adapts itself to sport. Take the United States,
where football (American football) and faith are closely linked. Football counts 63 percent of Americans as fans, more
than any other sport in the country. Fully half of American sports fans tell pollsters they believe God influences the
outcome of games. One-fifth perform some kind of ritual before or during games of their favorite teams, whether that’s
wearing color-coordinated clothing (e.g., the green and gold of the Green Bay Packers) or team symbols (the Packers’
cheese-shaped hats, jerseys), sitting in the same seat for each game, or turning their underwear inside out. For some
people, sports seem to be replacing religion. On the average Sunday, 21 percent of Americans say they are more
likely to be watching football than attending church.
“The relationship between sports and religion in America has always been close, and it has often been awkward,”
Albert Mohler, president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, wrote in 2014. Awkward for him, perhaps. If
people can find God in a stadium just as easily as they can in a church, is traditional religion doomed?
Well, if a sport can become like a religion, a religion can become like a sport. Megachurches, defined as churches that
have 2,000 or more in weekend attendance, are often modeled after sports stadiums. Crenshaw Christian Center in
Los Angeles, perhaps the largest sanctuary in the U.S., can pack 10,400 churchgoers into its 360-degree stadium
seating. Critics of megachurches argue that their large size discourages nuanced discussions of social-justice issues
and the formation of intimate communities. What they do encourage is groupfeel. Sociologist Katie Corcoran has
likened sitting in megachurch to standing in the crush of a packed stadium: Both allow the self to melt away.
Recognizing that this selflessness transcends any single belief system and, perhaps, sports’ superior ability to
catalyze it, megachurches are now seeking to wield sports’ power for their own ends. In 2005 theologian Matthew
Brian White examined the 100 largest megachurches to examine how they used sports to win over followers, a
practice known as “sports evangelism.” In addition to distributing pamphlets and videos at major sporting events,
megachurches have created their own sports associations such as Upward Basketball, which integrates religious
practices into pre-game rituals and play. “In a gym full of parents, uncles, aunts, and grandparents, while the kids are
off talking strategy, the adults are hearing about how to know Jesus,” White reports. John Garner, author of
Recreation & Sports Ministry, writes: “If we are to reach this type of world, we must use every tool at our disposal to
capture the imagination of this leisure-oriented, unseeded, and sports-crazy culture.”
Religion has proved itself adept in evolving with culture, and Iglesia Maradoniana is just one example. As Anthony
Bale, a 23-year-old Scot who attended the Maradona Christmas celebration in 2008 at an Italian restaurant in the
Argentinian city of Rosario, said: “What has Jesus done that Maradona hasn’t? They have both performed miracles.
[It’s] just that Maradona’s are actually on record.”
Page 1 of 7
CAD Detail
Source: Nautilus Magazine: https://nautil.us/why-sports-die-236069/
Word Length: 816
Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level: 10.7
Page 2 of 7
Comprehension Check
Identify the key sentence and key point of each paragraph
[1] There is a church in Argentina called Iglesia Maradoniana. [2] In this church, God is
football—soccer—and its prophet is the renowned player Diego Armando Maradona. [3]
Founded in 1998, the year after the star’s retirement, the Iglesia Maradoniana now has some
120,000 members worldwide, who bear its insignia D10S—a portmanteau of Dios, the
Spanish word for God, and Maradona’s shirt number, 10. [4] Members congregate in sports
bars; transubstantiation occurs not to wine and wafer, but to beer and pizza. [5] They even
have their own version of the Lord’s Prayer: “Our Diego, who art on the pitches, hallowed be
thy left hand,” alluding to Maradona’s controversial “hand of God” goal in the 1986 World
Cup.
[6] It all sounds a bit absurd, but at least some of the church’s founders and followers appear
to be serious. [7] Co-founder Hernán Amez told The Argentina Independent in 2008: “It’s not
just a bit of fun—it’s a religion. [8] Religion is about feelings, and we feel football.” [9] He is
right, psychologically speaking. [10] The power of religion, sociologist Émile Durkheim wrote,
stems from its ability to unite two of our deepest yearnings—the universality of God and the
cultural specificity of a clan—through totems and rituals. [11] The specific beliefs of a religion
do not matter so much as its ability to meet these emotional and social needs. [12] In other
words: deed, then creed. [13] Given this, Iglesia Maradoniana seems entirely logical. [14]
Ninety percent of Argentinians declare allegiance to a soccer team, and more than 2.5 million
play the sport in a structured capacity. [15] Soccer was already a religion in Argentina.
[16] While we commonly think that ancient sporting rituals were performed in the service of
religion, this modern example and others suggest it is just as often the other way around:
Religion adapts itself to sport. [17] Take the United States, where football (American football)
and faith are closely linked. [18] Football counts 63 percent of Americans as fans, more than
any other sport in the country. [19] Fully half of American sports fans tell pollsters they
believe God influences the outcome of games. [20] One-fifth perform some kind of ritual
before or during games of their favorite teams, whether that’s wearing color-coordinated
clothing (e.g., the green and gold of the Green Bay Packers) or team symbols (the Packers’
cheese-shaped hats, jerseys), sitting in the same seat for each game, or turning their
underwear inside out. [21] For some people, sports seem to be replacing religion. [22] On the
average Sunday, 21 percent of Americans say they are more likely to be watching football
than attending church.
[23] “The relationship between sports and religion in America has always been close, and it
has often been awkward,” Albert Mohler, president of the Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary, wrote in 2014. [24] Awkward for him, perhaps. [25] If people can find God in a
stadium just as easily as they can in a church, is traditional religion doomed?
[26] Well, if a sport can become like a religion, a religion can become like a sport. [27]
Megachurches, defined as churches that have 2,000 or more in weekend attendance, are
often modeled after sports stadiums. [28] Crenshaw Christian Center in Los Angeles,
perhaps the largest sanctuary in the U.S., can pack 10,400 churchgoers into its 360-degree
stadium seating. [29] Critics of megachurches argue that their large size discourages
nuanced discussions of social-justice issues and the formation of intimate communities. [30]
What they do encourage is groupfeel. [31] Sociologist Katie Corcoran has likened sitting in
megachurch to standing in the crush of a packed stadium: Both allow the self to melt away.
[32] Recognizing that this selflessness transcends any single belief system and, perhaps,
sports’ superior ability to catalyze it, megachurches are now seeking to wield sports’ power
for their own ends. [33] In 2005 theologian Matthew Brian White examined the 100 largest
megachurches to examine how they used sports to win over followers, a practice known as
“sports evangelism.” [34] In addition to distributing pamphlets and videos at major sporting
events, megachurches have created their own sports associations such as Upward
Basketball, which integrates religious practices into pre-game rituals and play. [35] “In a gym
full of parents, uncles, aunts, and grandparents, while the kids are off talking strategy, the
adults are hearing about how to know Jesus,” White reports. [36] John Garner, author of
Recreation & Sports Ministry, writes: “If we are to reach this type of world, we must use every
tool at our disposal to capture the imagination of this leisure-oriented, unseeded, and sports-
crazy culture.”
[37] Religion has proved itself adept in evolving with culture, and Iglesia Maradoniana is just
one example. [38] As Anthony Bale, a 23-year-old Scot who attended the Maradona
Christmas celebration in 2008 at an Italian restaurant in the Argentinian city of Rosario, said:
“What has Jesus done that Maradona hasn’t? [39] They have both performed miracles. [40]
[Answers on the next page]
Page 3 of 7
[1] There is a church in Argentina called Iglesia Maradoniana. [2] In this church, God is The church Iglesia Maradoniana
football—soccer—and its prophet is the renowned player Diego Armando Maradona. [3] in Argentina treats football,
Founded in 1998, the year after the star’s retirement, the Iglesia Maradoniana now has some especially Diego Maradona, as
120,000 members worldwide, who bear its insignia D10S—a portmanteau of Dios, the a form of religion.
Spanish word for God, and Maradona’s shirt number, 10. [4] Members congregate in sports
bars; transubstantiation occurs not to wine and wafer, but to beer and pizza. [5] They even
have their own version of the Lord’s Prayer: “Our Diego, who art on the pitches, hallowed be
thy left hand,” alluding to Maradona’s controversial “hand of God” goal in the 1986 World
Cup.
[6] It all sounds a bit absurd, but at least some of the church’s founders and followers appear Despite sounding absurd, the
to be serious. [7] Co-founder Hernán Amez told The Argentina Independent in 2008: “It’s not idea of treating football as a
just a bit of fun—it’s a religion. [8] Religion is about feelings, and we feel football.” [9] He is religion makes sense when
right, psychologically speaking. [10] The power of religion, sociologist Émile Durkheim wrote, considering how religion fulfills
stems from its ability to unite two of our deepest yearnings—the universality of God and the emotional and social needs.
cultural specificity of a clan—through totems and rituals. [11] The specific beliefs of a religion
do not matter so much as its ability to meet these emotional and social needs. [12] In other
words: deed, then creed. [13] Given this, Iglesia Maradoniana seems entirely logical. [14]
Ninety percent of Argentinians declare allegiance to a soccer team, and more than 2.5 million
play the sport in a structured capacity. [15] Soccer was already a religion in Argentina.
[16] While we commonly think that ancient sporting rituals were performed in the service of he relationship between sport
religion, this modern example and others suggest it is just as often the other way around: and religion is reciprocal, and in
Religion adapts itself to sport. [17] Take the United States, where football (American football) some contexts, sports can
and faith are closely linked. [18] Football counts 63 percent of Americans as fans, more than replace or influence religious
any other sport in the country. [19] Fully half of American sports fans tell pollsters they rituals and beliefs.
believe God influences the outcome of games. [20] One-fifth perform some kind of ritual
before or during games of their favorite teams, whether that’s wearing color-coordinated
clothing (e.g., the green and gold of the Green Bay Packers) or team symbols (the Packers’
cheese-shaped hats, jerseys), sitting in the same seat for each game, or turning their
underwear inside out. [21] For some people, sports seem to be replacing religion. [22] On the
average Sunday, 21 percent of Americans say they are more likely to be watching football
than attending church.
[23] “The relationship between sports and religion in America has always been close, and it The intertwining of sports and
has often been awkward,” Albert Mohler, president of the Southern Baptist Theological religion in America is
Seminary, wrote in 2014. [24] Awkward for him, perhaps. [25] If people can find God in a recognized and commented
stadium just as easily as they can in a church, is traditional religion doomed? upon by religious leaders,
highlighting possible challenges
to traditional religious practices.
[26] Well, if a sport can become like a religion, a religion can become like a sport. [27] The influence is two-way, with
Megachurches, defined as churches that have 2,000 or more in weekend attendance, are religious institutions like
often modeled after sports stadiums. [28] Crenshaw Christian Center in Los Angeles, megachurches adopting
perhaps the largest sanctuary in the U.S., can pack 10,400 churchgoers into its 360-degree structures and atmospheres
stadium seating. [29] Critics of megachurches argue that their large size discourages reminiscent of sports stadiums.
nuanced discussions of social-justice issues and the formation of intimate communities. [30]
What they do encourage is groupfeel. [31] Sociologist Katie Corcoran has likened sitting in
megachurch to standing in the crush of a packed stadium: Both allow the self to melt away.
[32] Recognizing that this selflessness transcends any single belief system and, perhaps, Megachurches are strategically
sports’ superior ability to catalyze it, megachurches are now seeking to wield sports’ power using the appeal of sports,
for their own ends. [33] In 2005 theologian Matthew Brian White examined the 100 largest through "sports evangelism," to
megachurches to examine how they used sports to win over followers, a practice known as attract and influence followers.
“sports evangelism.” [34] In addition to distributing pamphlets and videos at major sporting
events, megachurches have created their own sports associations such as Upward
Basketball, which integrates religious practices into pre-game rituals and play. [35] “In a gym
full of parents, uncles, aunts, and grandparents, while the kids are off talking strategy, the
adults are hearing about how to know Jesus,” White reports. [36] John Garner, author of
Recreation & Sports Ministry, writes: “If we are to reach this type of world, we must use every
tool at our disposal to capture the imagination of this leisure-oriented, unseeded, and sports-
crazy culture.”
[37] Religion has proved itself adept in evolving with culture, and Iglesia Maradoniana is just Religion continuously adapts
one example. [38] As Anthony Bale, a 23-year-old Scot who attended the Maradona and evolves with culture, and
Christmas celebration in 2008 at an Italian restaurant in the Argentinian city of Rosario, said: this is evidenced by institutions
“What has Jesus done that Maradona hasn’t? [39] They have both performed miracles. [40] like Iglesia Maradoniana.
Page 4 of 7
Central Theme:
The central theme of the passage revolves around the intricate relationship between sports and religion. It
delves into the idea that, throughout history and across cultures, the emotional fervor associated with
sports can rival, mimic, or even surpass traditional religious feelings. At the same time, religious institutions
adapt to the allure of sports, using its principles to enhance their outreach and impact.
Tone:
The tone of the passage can be described as analytical. The writer uses various examples and accounts
from different sources to explore the interplay between sports and religion. The tone is not merely
descriptive; it challenges the reader to question traditional norms and perspectives. It is also slightly
skeptical, as seen in phrases like "It all sounds a bit absurd" or the mention of Maradona's miracles being
"on record," juxtaposed against the miracles of Jesus.
Structure:
Paragraph 1: Introduction and Unique Case: The passage commences with the intriguing instance of the
Iglesia Maradoniana, establishing the convergence of sports and religion.
Paragraph 2: Psychological Basis: Here, the psychological and sociological underpinnings of such a fusion
of sports and religion are explored, providing academic grounding to the narrative.
Paragraph 3: Broader Cultural Implications: The narrative expands its scope by highlighting the profound
cultural significance of soccer in Argentina, illustrating that the intertwining of sports and religion is not an
isolated phenomenon.
Paragraph 4: American Perspective: The discourse takes a geographical shift to America, emphasizing the
blurred boundaries between fervent sports fandom and religious devotion.
Paragraph 5: Religion's Emulation of Sports: The passage elucidates how religious structures, exemplified
by megachurches, have adopted sports-like environments, underscoring the reciprocity in the sports-
religion dynamic.
Paragraph 6: Strategic Religious Incorporation: This section pinpoints the tactical approaches adopted by
religious institutions to integrate sports into their evangelism efforts, showcasing an active melding of the
two realms.
Paragraph 7: Concluding Emphasis on Adaptability: The narrative culminates by reiterating the adaptability
and resilience of religion, using the Iglesia Maradoniana example as a testament to its capacity to weave
into contemporary popular culture.
The passage initiates with the unique case of Iglesia Maradoniana to spark interest, then delves into the
psychological rationale behind the fusion of sports and religion. Transitioning to broader cultural
implications, it underscores soccer's significance in Argentina and parallels the blurred lines between sports
and religion in America. As the discourse progresses, it illustrates how religious entities, like
megachurches, emulate sports atmospheres, revealing the mutual influences. Subsequently, it
demonstrates religious strategies incorporating sports to attract followers. The concluding section
reemphasizes religion's adaptive nature, using Iglesia Maradoniana as a poignant reminder of religion's
interlinking with popular culture.
Page 5 of 7
Reasoning Check
Check if each of the following statements is valid or invalid inference.
1. The creation of a church based on soccer highlights how belief systems can be malleable and can
evolve to cater to cultural shifts and passions.
2. Despite the rise of alternative belief systems centered around popular culture, traditional religions
remain dominant in their influence and outreach across the globe.
3. Anthony Bale’s subtly hints at the shifting perceptions of what is considered "miraculous" or worthy of
reverence in modern society.
4. Most cultures around the world have clear distinctions between their religious practices and
entertainment forms, ensuring that the two realms remain separate in the minds of the populace.
5. The efforts by megachurches to integrate sports into their outreach programs underline the
understanding that sports can be a potent tool to attract and engage people.
6. There exists a competition between traditional religious practices and modern entertainment.
7. Now, religion itself is adapting to the dominance of sports, suggesting the fluidity and adaptability of
religious practices.
8. Émile Durkheim suggests that the most important aspect of any religion is its ability to fulfill emotional
and social needs rather than the specific beliefs it holds.
9. While some societies might momentarily equate sports figures to religious icons, these are fleeting
comparisons that don't stand the test of time.
10. For many sports enthusiasts, the essence of the sport is about the game itself and its competitiveness,
devoid of any religious or spiritual undertones.
11. Many religious institutions and believers remain steadfast in their traditions, resisting the influences of
modern-day entertainment and popular culture.
12. There is an attempt by megachurches to tap into the fervor and communal energy associated with
sports events.
Page 6 of 7
1. The creation of a church based on soccer highlights how belief systems can be malleable and can evolve to cater to cultural
shifts and passions.
Valid Inference. The article does describe how Iglesia Maradoniana was formed, recognizing soccer as a religion and Diego
Maradona as its prophet. This church serves as an illustration of how belief systems can adapt and change based on cultural
passions and shifts.
2. Despite the rise of alternative belief systems centered around popular culture, traditional religions remain dominant in their
influence and outreach across the globe.
Invalid Inference. The article does not provide a comprehensive overview or data on the global dominance or influence of
traditional religions in comparison to alternative belief systems.
3. Anthony Bale’s subtly hints at the shifting perceptions of what is considered "miraculous" or worthy of reverence in modern
society.
Valid Inference. Bale's statement that Maradona's miracles are "actually on record" as opposed to Jesus’s suggests a shift in
how miracles or acts worthy of reverence are perceived in contemporary society.
4. Most cultures around the world have clear distinctions between their religious practices and entertainment forms, ensuring that
the two realms remain separate in the minds of the populace.
Invalid Inference. The article primarily focuses on Argentina and the U.S., and it does illustrate intersections between sports
and religion. It does not provide enough evidence about "most cultures around the world" having clear distinctions between
religion and entertainment.
5. The efforts by megachurches to integrate sports into their outreach programs underline the understanding that sports can be a
potent tool to attract and engage people.
Valid Inference. The article mentions the practice of "sports evangelism" and how megachurches use sports to draw in
followers, indicating that they see the appeal and power of sports in outreach.
Valid Inference. The article hints at this when it mentions that on Sundays, 21% of Americans are more likely to watch football
than attend church. This suggests some level of competition for attention.
7. Now, religion itself is adapting to the dominance of sports, suggesting the fluidity and adaptability of religious practices.
Valid Inference. The use of "sports evangelism" by megachurches and the formation of churches like Iglesia Maradoniana
highlight the adaptability of religion in the face of popular culture, like sports.
8. Émile Durkheim suggests that the most important aspect of any religion is its ability to fulfill emotional and social needs rather
than the specific beliefs it holds.
Invalid Inference. The article does not provide evidence about the longevity or fleeting nature of such comparisons. The
existence of Iglesia Maradoniana, for example, suggests that such comparisons can persist.
9. While some societies might momentarily equate sports figures to religious icons, these are fleeting comparisons that don't
stand the test of time.
10. For many sports enthusiasts, the essence of the sport is about the game itself and its competitiveness, devoid of any religious
or spiritual undertones.
Invalid Inference. The article does not provide specific information about what "many sports enthusiasts" believe or feel about
the essence of sports.
11. Many religious institutions and believers remain steadfast in their traditions, resisting the influences of modern-day
entertainment and popular culture.
Invalid Inference. The article does not provide data or examples regarding the resistance or acceptance of many religious
institutions to modern-day influences.
12. There is an attempt by megachurches to tap into the fervor and communal energy associated with sports events.
Valid Inference. The practices of "sports evangelism" and the creation of sports associations by megachurches are clear
indications of their attempts to harness the communal energy of sports.
Page 7 of 7
CAD – 52 | VARC1000
There is nothing more human than being anguished by death—or asking, as Leo Tolstoy did, “Is there any meaning in
my life that wouldn’t be destroyed by the death that inevitably awaits me?” But from the ancient world to the
Enlightenment and onward, philosophers and scientists have had mixed views on whether we share this trait with
nonhuman animals, since having a concept of death is tied up with larger questions around animal consciousness.
Aristotle thought that humans were different from other animals because we have a “rational soul,” whereas animals
had “sensitive souls,” which could respond to sensory impressions but not have the capacity for rational thought. René
Descartes was less generous: He believed that animals were just “mechanisms” or “automata,” not much different
than a complex cuckoo clock. “There is none that leads weak minds further from the straight path of virtue than that of
imagining that the souls of beasts are of the same nature as our own,” he wrote. Italian philosopher Giambattista Vico
wrote that a human custom that separates humans from animals is burial of the dead, Baron de Montesquieu wrote
animals can suffer from death but don’t know what it is, and Arthur Schopenhauer claimed animals live in the present
and only "know" of death when it happens to them, while humans reminisce about the past and anticipate the future
with the knowledge of their own mortality. As Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote, “An animal will never know what it is to
die, and the knowledge of death and its terrors is one of the first acquisitions that man has made in moving away from
the animal condition.” . . .
This history likely influenced those who later observed animals responding to death. For most of the 20th century,
behaviors like dead-infant carrying were viewed as animals not being able to tell the difference between the living and
the dead, and not worth investigating. “Monkeys and apes do not recognize death, for they react to their companions
as if the latter were alive but passive,” wrote the primatologist Solly Zuckerman in 1932. Because of this view, there
was little attention paid to what animals did with their dead until 2010, when a publication described the death of an
elder female chimpanzee. Humans observed pre-death care of the chimpanzee, other chimps testing for signs of life
at the moment of death, the female chimpanzee’s adult daughter staying by her all night, her corpse being cleaned,
and, later, the place where she died being avoided. “Without death-related symbols or rituals, chimpanzees show
several behaviors that recall human responses to the death of a close relative,” wrote professor of psychology James
Anderson and his colleagues at Kyoto University. “Are humans uniquely aware of mortality? We propose that
chimpanzees’ awareness of death has been underestimated.”
For the past 15 years, the field of comparative thanatology has taken up this investigation in earnest. (In Greek
mythology, Thanatos was the personification of death.) It has focused on cataloging exactly how animals respond to
death, and comparing between species, and being open to the idea that these responses aren’t just “automata.” A
paper from 2019 described how humans removed a dead infant bonnet macaque from its mother, who then regularly
visited its burial spot for at least two days. Chimpanzees have been observed in what’s called “stunned silence,” when
their usual calling noises stop after the death of a chimp. After the death of the adult female chimp that Anderson
observed, he wrote, “The next day, the three surviving chimpanzees were profoundly subdued. From the day area
they watched silently as two keepers lowered Pansy from the platform, carried her into the exit corridor, placed her in
a body bag, and loaded her into a vehicle that was then driven away. They remained subdued the following day as the
night area was cleaned.”
Many agree that great apes and also monkeys show compassionate care for the dying, but whether they have an
understanding of death is uncertain. Plenty of thanatologists have instead come to the opposite conclusion: that the
animals they observe do not have a concept of death. As Charles Darwin wondered in The Descent of Man, “Who can
say what cows feel, when they surround and stare intently on a dying or dead companion?”
Page 1 of 10
CAD Detail
Source: VICE: https://www.vice.com/en/article/5dg57q/do-animals-understand-what-it-means-to-die
Word Length: 727
Page 2 of 10
Comprehension Check
[1] There is nothing more human than being anguished by death—or asking, as Leo Tolstoy
did, “Is there any meaning in my life that wouldn’t be destroyed by the death that inevitably
awaits me?” [2] But from the ancient world to the Enlightenment and onward, philosophers
and scientists have had mixed views on whether we share this trait with nonhuman animals,
since having a concept of death is tied up with larger questions around animal
consciousness. [3] Aristotle thought that humans were different from other animals because
we have a “rational soul,” whereas animals had “sensitive souls,” which could respond to
sensory impressions but not have the capacity for rational thought. [4] René Descartes was
less generous: He believed that animals were just “mechanisms” or “automata,” not much
different than a complex cuckoo clock. [5] “There is none that leads weak minds further from
the straight path of virtue than that of imagining that the souls of beasts are of the same
nature as our own,” he wrote. [6] Italian philosopher Giambattista Vico wrote that a human
custom that separates humans from animals is burial of the dead, [7] Baron de Montesquieu
wrote animals can suffer from death but don’t know what it is, [8] and Arthur Schopenhauer
claimed animals live in the present and only "know" of death when it happens to them, while
humans reminisce about the past and anticipate the future with the knowledge of their own
mortality. [9] As Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote, “An animal will never know what it is to die,
and the knowledge of death and its terrors is one of the first acquisitions that man has made
in moving away from the animal condition.”
[10] This history likely influenced those who later observed animals responding to death. [11]
For most of the 20th century, behaviors like dead-infant carrying were viewed as animals not
being able to tell the difference between the living and the dead, and not worth investigating.
[12] “Monkeys and apes do not recognize death, for they react to their companions as if the
latter were alive but passive,” wrote the primatologist Solly Zuckerman in 1932. [13] Because
of this view, there was little attention paid to what animals did with their dead until 2010,
when a publication described the death of an elder female chimpanzee. [14] Humans
observed pre-death care of the chimpanzee, other chimps testing for signs of life at the
moment of death, the female chimpanzee’s adult daughter staying by her all night, her
corpse being cleaned, and, later, the place where she died being avoided. [15] “Without
death-related symbols or rituals, chimpanzees show several behaviors that recall human
responses to the death of a close relative,” wrote professor of psychology James Anderson
and his colleagues at Kyoto University. [16] “Are humans uniquely aware of mortality? We
propose that chimpanzees’ awareness of death has been underestimated.”
[17] For the past 15 years, the field of comparative thanatology has taken up this
investigation in earnest. [18] (In Greek mythology, Thanatos was the personification of
death.) [19] It has focused on cataloging exactly how animals respond to death, and
comparing between species, and being open to the idea that these responses aren’t just
“automata.” [20] A paper from 2019 described how humans removed a dead infant bonnet
macaque from its mother, who then regularly visited its burial spot for at least two days. [21]
Chimpanzees have been observed in what’s called “stunned silence,” when their usual
calling noises stop after the death of a chimp. [22] After the death of the adult female chimp
that Anderson observed, he wrote, “The next day, the three surviving chimpanzees were
profoundly subdued. [23] From the day area they watched silently as two keepers lowered
Pansy from the platform, carried her into the exit corridor, placed her in a body bag, and
loaded her into a vehicle that was then driven away. [24] They remained subdued the
following day as the night area was cleaned.”
[25] Many agree that great apes and also monkeys show compassionate care for the dying,
but whether they have an understanding of death is uncertain. [26] Plenty of thanatologists
have instead come to the opposite conclusion: that the animals they observe do not have a
concept of death. [27] As Charles Darwin wondered in The Descent of Man, “Who can say
what cows feel, when they surround and stare intently on a dying or dead companion?”
Page 3 of 10
[1] There is nothing more human than being anguished by death—or asking, as Leo Tolstoy Philosophers and thinkers
did, “Is there any meaning in my life that wouldn’t be destroyed by the death that inevitably throughout history have debated
awaits me?” [2] But from the ancient world to the Enlightenment and onward, philosophers whether the anguish over death
and scientists have had mixed views on whether we share this trait with nonhuman animals, and the concept of mortality are
since having a concept of death is tied up with larger questions around animal unique to humans or shared
consciousness. [3] Aristotle thought that humans were different from other animals because with other animals.
we have a “rational soul,” whereas animals had “sensitive souls,” which could respond to
sensory impressions but not have the capacity for rational thought. [4] René Descartes was
less generous: He believed that animals were just “mechanisms” or “automata,” not much
different than a complex cuckoo clock. [5] “There is none that leads weak minds further from
the straight path of virtue than that of imagining that the souls of beasts are of the same
nature as our own,” he wrote. [6] Italian philosopher Giambattista Vico wrote that a human
custom that separates humans from animals is burial of the dead, [7] Baron de Montesquieu
wrote animals can suffer from death but don’t know what it is, [8] and Arthur Schopenhauer
claimed animals live in the present and only "know" of death when it happens to them, while
humans reminisce about the past and anticipate the future with the knowledge of their own
mortality. [9] As Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote, “An animal will never know what it is to die,
and the knowledge of death and its terrors is one of the first acquisitions that man has made
in moving away from the animal condition.”
[10] This history likely influenced those who later observed animals responding to death. [11] Historically, animals were not
For most of the 20th century, behaviors like dead-infant carrying were viewed as animals not thought to recognize death,
being able to tell the difference between the living and the dead, and not worth investigating. influencing the interpretation of
[12] “Monkeys and apes do not recognize death, for they react to their companions as if the their behaviors towards the
latter were alive but passive,” wrote the primatologist Solly Zuckerman in 1932. [13] Because deceased.
of this view, there was little attention paid to what animals did with their dead until 2010,
when a publication described the death of an elder female chimpanzee. [14] Humans
observed pre-death care of the chimpanzee, other chimps testing for signs of life at the
moment of death, the female chimpanzee’s adult daughter staying by her all night, her
corpse being cleaned, and, later, the place where she died being avoided. [15] “Without
death-related symbols or rituals, chimpanzees show several behaviors that recall human
responses to the death of a close relative,” wrote professor of psychology James Anderson
and his colleagues at Kyoto University. [16] “Are humans uniquely aware of mortality? We
propose that chimpanzees’ awareness of death has been underestimated.”
[17] For the past 15 years, the field of comparative thanatology has taken up this The recent field of comparative
investigation in earnest. [18] (In Greek mythology, Thanatos was the personification of thanatology has been studying
death.) [19] It has focused on cataloging exactly how animals respond to death, and how different animals respond
comparing between species, and being open to the idea that these responses aren’t just to death and whether these
“automata.” [20] A paper from 2019 described how humans removed a dead infant bonnet responses indicate a concept of
macaque from its mother, who then regularly visited its burial spot for at least two days. [21] mortality.
Chimpanzees have been observed in what’s called “stunned silence,” when their usual
calling noises stop after the death of a chimp. [22] After the death of the adult female chimp
that Anderson observed, he wrote, “The next day, the three surviving chimpanzees were
profoundly subdued. [23] From the day area they watched silently as two keepers lowered
Pansy from the platform, carried her into the exit corridor, placed her in a body bag, and
loaded her into a vehicle that was then driven away. [24] They remained subdued the
following day as the night area was cleaned.”
[25] Many agree that great apes and also monkeys show compassionate care for the dying, While there's acknowledgment
but whether they have an understanding of death is uncertain. [26] Plenty of thanatologists of compassionate behaviors in
have instead come to the opposite conclusion: that the animals they observe do not have a great apes and monkeys
concept of death. [27] As Charles Darwin wondered in The Descent of Man, “Who can say towards the dying, the debate
what cows feel, when they surround and stare intently on a dying or dead companion?” continues on whether they truly
understand the concept of
death.
Page 4 of 10
Central Theme:
The central theme of the passage is the exploration and debate around whether non-human animals
possess an understanding or awareness of death, drawing upon historical philosophical perspectives,
recent observations, and the evolving field of comparative thanatology. The passage delves into how this
topic has been treated historically, the behaviors animals display in the face of death, and the current
research being conducted to better understand these behaviors and their implications.
Tone:
The tone of the passage is analytical and informative. The author presents historical and contemporary
viewpoints on animal cognition and understanding of death without showing overt bias. The use of quotes
from philosophers, scientists, and researchers lends a scholarly and measured tone to the discussion. The
passage aims to provide an overview of the evolving understanding of animal awareness of death, and it
does so in a balanced and neutral manner.
Structure:
1. Introduction:
• Presents the human anguish over mortality and the overarching question of whether animals
share this sense of mortality.
• References historical thinkers like Leo Tolstoy, Aristotle, René Descartes, and others to
establish the historical context of the debate.
2. Historical Perspectives:
• Outlines the beliefs of various philosophers and thinkers from the past about animals'
awareness of death. This provides a foundational understanding of how the topic was
approached historically.
3. Shift in Understanding:
• Illustrates how historical views influenced later observations of animal behavior towards death.
• Mentions the 20th-century perspective which largely dismissed animal reactions to death as
mere mechanistic responses.
• Introduces a pivotal moment in 2010, when a publication described chimpanzees' responses to
the death of a fellow chimp, prompting reconsideration of previous beliefs.
4. Comparative Thanatology:
• Introduces the reader to the field of comparative thanatology, its purpose, and its recent focus.
• Provides specific examples and findings from the field, showcasing changing views and
understandings.
5. Current Debate:
• Summarizes the ongoing debate, presenting both sides: those who believe animals show
compassionate care but may not understand death, and those who believe animals might not
have a concept of death at all.
• Ends with a thought-provoking quote from Charles Darwin, signifying that this debate has long-
standing roots and continues to be a topic of speculation and study.
Throughout the passage, the structure transitions from historical context to modern-day research,
intertwining observational examples to elucidate the ongoing evolution of thought on the subject.
Page 5 of 10
Reasoning Check
Choose the best alternative
1. "Aristotle thought that humans were different from other animals because we have a “rational soul,” whereas
animals had “sensitive souls,” which could respond to sensory impressions but not have the capacity for rational
thought." Which one of the following, if true, would most challenge Aristotle's assertion in this sentence?
A. Dogs have shown an ability to perform complex tasks after undergoing training.
B. Human beings, at times, make decisions solely based on emotions without reasoning.
C. Animals, like humans, can display a range of emotions from anger to happiness.
2. "Italian philosopher Giambattista Vico wrote that a human custom that separates humans from animals is the
burial of the dead..." Which one of the following scenarios would most support Vico's distinction between humans
and animals?
A. While animals like wolves are observed leaving their deceased behind, humans in certain cultures construct
ornate mausoleums for their departed.
B. While dolphins have been documented carrying their deceased young for days, human communities often
gather collectively to mourn and commemorate the dead for extended periods.
C. While crows may occasionally be seen surrounding and cawing around their deceased, humans in various
cultures establish cemeteries as dedicated resting places for their departed.
3. "Because of this view, there was little attention paid to what animals did with their dead until 2010, when a
publication described the death of an elder female chimpanzee." What implication does this sentence primarily
convey about earlier views?
A. The topic of animal death wasn't widely researched before the year 2010.
B. The behavior of animals around their deceased was largely unexplored or misinterpreted.
C. 2010 marked the beginning of a shift in understanding animals' relationships with death.
4. "For the past 15 years, the field of comparative thanatology has taken up this investigation in earnest." What does
the sentence primarily indicate about the field of comparative thanatology?
A. It's a field that only gained prominence in the last decade and a half.
B. The inception of the field is traceable to the events exactly fifteen years ago.
C. The focus and intensity of research in this domain has significantly increased recently.
5. "Chimpanzees have been observed in what’s called “stunned silence,” when their usual calling noises stop after
the death of a chimp." Which one of the following best captures the sentiment expressed in this sentence?
A. Chimps display a tangible change in demeanor following the death of one of their own.
B. The way chimpanzees communicate alters conspicuously in response to a comrade's death.
C. Chimps have a specific auditory response, or lack thereof, to express grief.
6. "Many agree that great apes and also monkeys show compassionate care for the dying, but whether they have an
understanding of death is uncertain." Which of the following, if true, would strengthen the assertion made in this
sentence?
A. Observations have shown that apes go through extended periods of mourning after a loss.
B. Monkeys have been seen providing support to fellow monkeys when they are unwell.
C. Animals have diverse reactions to death, making it hard to generalize their understanding.
7. "As Charles Darwin wondered in The Descent of Man, “Who can say what cows feel, when they surround and
stare intently on a dying or dead companion?”" What is the larger point made through this sentence?
A. Darwin was emphasizing the profound emotional depth potentially present in cows concerning death.
B. The emotional states and reactions of animals to death of their companion are still enigmatic to us.
C. Cows might possess a unique perception or understanding when faced with the death of their kind.
8. "They remained subdued the following day as the night area was cleaned." Which one of the following best
describes the primary sentiment of the chimpanzees conveyed in this sentence?
A. Chimpanzees displayed a keen interest in the cleaning activities that followed.
B. The process of cleaning appeared to pique the chimpanzees' attention for some time.
C. The chimps seemed to be in a state of reflection or sorrow after the preceding event.
Page 6 of 10
1. "Aristotle thought that humans were different from other animals because we have a “rational soul,” whereas
animals had “sensitive souls,” which could respond to sensory impressions but not have the capacity for rational
thought." Which one of the following, if true, would most challenge Aristotle's assertion in this sentence?
A. Dogs have shown an ability to perform complex tasks after undergoing training.
If dogs can learn complex tasks, it suggests they have a capacity for some form of reasoning or problem-
solving, which would challenge Aristotle's belief about the absence of rational thought in animals.
B. Human beings, at times, make decisions solely based on emotions without reasoning.
This statement brings humans' rationality into question, but it doesn't challenge the claim about animals'
capacity for rational thought.
C. Animals, like humans, can display a range of emotions from anger to happiness.
While this indicates emotional depth in animals, it doesn't counter Aristotle's claim about rational thought.
2. "Italian philosopher Giambattista Vico wrote that a human custom that separates humans from animals is the
burial of the dead..." Which one of the following scenarios would most support Vico's distinction between humans
and animals?
A. While animals like wolves are observed leaving their deceased behind, humans in certain cultures construct
ornate mausoleums for their departed.
While illustrating the contrast between wolves' indifference to their dead and human grandeur in memorializing
them, it emphasizes ornamental remembrance over the basic act of burial, making it slightly off-target from
Vico's primary distinction.
B. While dolphins have been documented carrying their deceased young for days, human communities often
gather collectively to mourn and commemorate the dead for extended periods.
Both species show mourning behaviors, but this doesn't necessarily strengthen the distinction Vico made
regarding burial customs.
C. While crows may occasionally be seen surrounding and cawing around their deceased, humans in various
cultures establish cemeteries as dedicated resting places for their departed.
By juxtaposing the crows' minimal interaction with their deceased and humans' act of creating dedicated burial
grounds, this option directly addresses and supports Vico's claim about the unique human custom of burying
the dead.
3. "Because of this view, there was little attention paid to what animals did with their dead until 2010, when a
publication described the death of an elder female chimpanzee." What implication does this sentence primarily
convey about earlier views?
A. The topic of animal death wasn't widely researched before the year 2010.
This option is too broad. The text specifically mentions that it was the behavior of animals around their dead
that wasn't deeply delved into, not the broader topic of animal death.
B. The behavior of animals around their deceased was largely unexplored or misinterpreted.
The passage specifically points out that due to prevailing views, behaviors like those displayed by animals
towards their deceased weren't given much attention.
C. 2010 marked the beginning of a shift in understanding animals' relationships with death.
While this could be inferred, it doesn't capture the primary implication of the sentence, which is about the lack
of attention paid to animals' behavior with their dead before 2010.
Page 7 of 10
4. "For the past 15 years, the field of comparative thanatology has taken up this investigation in earnest." What does
the sentence primarily indicate about the field of comparative thanatology?
A. It's a field that only gained prominence in the last decade and a half.
The text suggests an increase in focus, but doesn't state that the field only became prominent in the last 15
years.
B. The inception of the field is traceable to the events exactly fifteen years ago.
The statement doesn't claim that the field began 15 years ago, but rather that its rigorous investigation started
then.
C. The focus and intensity of research in this domain has significantly increased recently.
The passage states that the investigation has been taken up "in earnest," implying a more intense and serious
research focus in the recent years.
5. "Chimpanzees have been observed in what’s called “stunned silence,” when their usual calling noises stop after
the death of a chimp." Which one of the following best captures the sentiment expressed in this sentence?
A. Chimps display a tangible change in demeanor following the death of one of their own.
While this statement is true in a general sense, it doesn't hone in on the specific observation made in the
sentence, which is about their communication—particularly, their silence.
B. The way chimpanzees communicate alters conspicuously in response to a comrade's death.

This choice accurately captures the essence of the original sentence. The "stunned silence" is a marked
change in their usual communication pattern, emphasizing the conspicuous alteration when a death occurs in
their community..
C. Chimps have a specific auditory response, or lack thereof, to express grief.

The statement discusses their silence but doesn't indicate this as a specific, consistent auditory response to
grief.
6. "Many agree that great apes and also monkeys show compassionate care for the dying, but whether they have an
understanding of death is uncertain." Which of the following, if true, would strengthen the assertion made in this
sentence?
A. Observations have shown that apes go through extended periods of mourning after a loss.
While this suggests a depth of emotion and potential understanding, it doesn’t directly challenge the
uncertainty about their grasp of death. It speaks more to their emotional response post-death.
B. Monkeys have been seen providing support to fellow monkeys when they are unwell.
This choice talks about behavior towards the ill, not the deceased. It doesn't directly address their
understanding of death.
C. Animals have diverse reactions to death, making it hard to generalize their understanding.
This reinforces the uncertainty highlighted in the statement. If reactions are diverse, it's challenging to pin
down a general understanding.
Page 8 of 10
7. "As Charles Darwin wondered in The Descent of Man, “Who can say what cows feel, when they surround and
stare intently on a dying or dead companion?”" What is the larger point made through this sentence?
A. Darwin was emphasizing the profound emotional depth potentially present in cows concerning death.
This implies a more specific claim about cows' emotional depth. The original statement was more of a
question and reflection on the unknown.
B. The emotional states and reactions of animals to death are still enigmatic to us.
Darwin's quote was indicative of the mystery surrounding animals' emotions in relation to death.
C. Cows might possess a unique perception or understanding when faced with the death of their kind.
While this is a potential interpretation, it is more speculative than the broader point Darwin was making about
the uncertainty of animals' feelings.
8. "They remained subdued the following day as the night area was cleaned." Which one of the following best
describes the primary sentiment of the chimpanzees conveyed in this sentence?
A. Chimpanzees displayed a keen interest in the cleaning activities that followed.
The emphasis in the text is on the chimps being "subdued," not on their interest in cleaning activities.
B. The process of cleaning appeared to pique the chimpanzees' attention for some time.
Similar to A, this focuses on the cleaning process rather than the emotional state of the chimpanzees.
C. The chimps seemed to be in a state of reflection or sorrow after the preceding event.
"Subdued" indicates a quieter, possibly reflective or mournful state, particularly following the context of a
death.
Page 9 of 10
1. The creation of a church based on soccer highlights how belief systems can be malleable and can evolve to cater to cultural
shifts and passions.
Valid Inference. The article does describe how Iglesia Maradoniana was formed, recognizing soccer as a religion and Diego
Maradona as its prophet. This church serves as an illustration of how belief systems can adapt and change based on cultural
passions and shifts.
2. Despite the rise of alternative belief systems centered around popular culture, traditional religions remain dominant in their
influence and outreach across the globe.
Invalid Inference. The article does not provide a comprehensive overview or data on the global dominance or influence of
traditional religions in comparison to alternative belief systems.
3. Anthony Bale’s subtly hints at the shifting perceptions of what is considered "miraculous" or worthy of reverence in modern
society.
Valid Inference. Bale's statement that Maradona's miracles are "actually on record" as opposed to Jesus’s suggests a shift in
how miracles or acts worthy of reverence are perceived in contemporary society.
4. Most cultures around the world have clear distinctions between their religious practices and entertainment forms, ensuring that
the two realms remain separate in the minds of the populace.
Invalid Inference. The article primarily focuses on Argentina and the U.S., and it does illustrate intersections between sports
and religion. It does not provide enough evidence about "most cultures around the world" having clear distinctions between
religion and entertainment.
5. The efforts by megachurches to integrate sports into their outreach programs underline the understanding that sports can be a
potent tool to attract and engage people.
Valid Inference. The article mentions the practice of "sports evangelism" and how megachurches use sports to draw in
followers, indicating that they see the appeal and power of sports in outreach.
Valid Inference. The article hints at this when it mentions that on Sundays, 21% of Americans are more likely to watch football
than attend church. This suggests some level of competition for attention.
7. Now, religion itself is adapting to the dominance of sports, suggesting the fluidity and adaptability of religious practices.
Valid Inference. The use of "sports evangelism" by megachurches and the formation of churches like Iglesia Maradoniana
highlight the adaptability of religion in the face of popular culture, like sports.
8. Émile Durkheim suggests that the most important aspect of any religion is its ability to fulfill emotional and social needs rather
than the specific beliefs it holds.
9. While some societies might momentarily equate sports figures to religious icons, these are fleeting comparisons that don't
stand the test of time.
10. For many sports enthusiasts, the essence of the sport is about the game itself and its competitiveness, devoid of any religious
or spiritual undertones.
Invalid Inference. The article does not provide specific information about what "many sports enthusiasts" believe or feel about
the essence of sports.
11. Many religious institutions and believers remain steadfast in their traditions, resisting the influences of modern-day
entertainment and popular culture.
Invalid Inference. The article does not provide data or examples regarding the resistance or acceptance of many religious
institutions to modern-day influences.
12. There is an attempt by megachurches to tap into the fervor and communal energy associated with sports events.
Valid Inference. The practices of "sports evangelism" and the creation of sports associations by megachurches are clear
indications of their attempts to harness the communal energy of sports.
Page 10 of 10
CAD – 53 | VARC1000
The trajectory of human history has, interestingly, been characterized by a decline in the sheer brutality and frequency
of violence. It is tempting to romanticize pre-state societies as peaceful, but evidence like the proportions of skeletons
with signs of violent death suggest otherwise. While the absolute numbers killed in tribal conflicts might have been
lower, the frequency and the proportion of the population involved in such altercations were significantly higher. If such
rates were transposed onto more recent, larger populations, the death toll would be staggering.
When considering early civilizations, it is essential to objectively evaluate their violent tendencies. Many of these
societies, despite being hailed as paragons of morality, celebrated violence and proscribed brutal punishments for
what today might be deemed minor infractions. However, it is also important to note that these practices weren't
exclusive to any one civilization; a number of ancient societies showcased similar tendencies in their records.
Quantitative data from medieval to modern times is scarce, but the instances of barbarism and crude punishment
methods declined notably over the past few centuries. Slavery, amputation, and similarly harsh practices became
obsolete, suggesting a more humane shift in societal norms. Meanwhile, records for another kind of violence—
homicide—present a clear trend. Homicide rates in Western Europe, for example, plummeted from high rates in the
14th century to significantly lower ones by the 1960s.
Over the last few decades, comprehensive data further highlights the decline of global violence. The number of battle
deaths in interstate wars, coups, and deadly riots has decreased significantly. This decline is even more evident post
the cold war, where state-based conflicts reduced substantially, and those that did occur usually ended in negotiated
settlements rather than protracted battles. This doesn't mean violent tendencies have been eradicated. Many
individuals might still harbor violent fantasies, but the propensity to act on them has substantially reduced.
Several theories attempt to explain this decline in violence. One explanation is the logic of anarchy: when there's no
central authority, the logic of preemptive self-defense can escalate conflicts. Centralized states, by maintaining a
monopoly on violence, can mediate and prevent these conflicts. Another theory suggests that as our lives improve and
lengthen with technology and economic progress, we come to value life more, making us less prone to causing harm.
Yet another explanation draws upon the logic of non-zero-sum games, suggesting that as societies become more
interconnected, there's more to gain from cooperation and peaceful exchanges than from violent confrontations.
The current state of relative peace is not a call for complacency. Violence, in many forms, still exists and requires
concerted efforts to be eradicated. However, recognizing and understanding the patterns and causes behind the
decline of violence can be instrumental. Instead of perpetually asking why there's war, perhaps it's time to question
and understand the underlying factors behind periods of peace. The shifts in human behavior, while complex, hint at
the capacity for positive change. As we delve into the reasons behind this decline, it is crucial to ensure that the
trajectory continues, making the world an increasingly less violent place.
Page 1 of 8
CAD Detail
Source: Adapted from this larger article in The New Republic of about 3000 words -
https://newrepublic.com/article/77728/history-violence
Word Length: 515

Page 2 of 8
Comprehension Check
[1] The trajectory of human history has, interestingly, been characterized by a decline in the
sheer brutality and frequency of violence. [2] It is tempting to romanticize pre-state societies
as peaceful, but evidence like the proportions of skeletons with signs of violent death suggest
otherwise. [3] While the absolute numbers killed in tribal conflicts might have been lower, the
frequency and the proportion of the population involved in such altercations were significantly
higher. [4] If such rates were transposed onto more recent, larger populations, the death toll
would be staggering.
[5] When considering early civilizations, it is essential to objectively evaluate their violent
tendencies. [6] Many of these societies, despite being hailed as paragons of morality,
celebrated violence and proscribed brutal punishments for what today might be deemed
minor infractions. [7] However, it is also important to note that these practices weren't
exclusive to any one civilization; a number of ancient societies showcased similar tendencies
in their records.
[8] Quantitative data from medieval to modern times is scarce, but the instances of barbarism
and crude punishment methods declined notably over the past few centuries. [9] Slavery,
amputation, and similarly harsh practices became obsolete, suggesting a more humane shift
in societal norms. [10] Meanwhile, records for another kind of violence—homicide—present a
clear trend. [11] Homicide rates in Western Europe, for example, plummeted from high rates
in the 14th century to significantly lower ones by the 1960s.
[12] Over the last few decades, comprehensive data further highlights the decline of global
violence. [13] The number of battle deaths in interstate wars, coups, and deadly riots has
decreased significantly. [14] This decline is even more evident post the cold war, where
state-based conflicts reduced substantially, and those that did occur usually ended in
negotiated settlements rather than protracted battles. [15] This doesn't mean violent
tendencies have been eradicated. [16] Many individuals might still harbor violent fantasies,
but the propensity to act on them has substantially reduced.
[17] Several theories attempt to explain this decline in violence. [18] One explanation is the
logic of anarchy: when there's no central authority, the logic of preemptive self-defense can
escalate conflicts. [19] Centralized states, by maintaining a monopoly on violence, can
mediate and prevent these conflicts. [20] Another theory suggests that as our lives improve
and lengthen with technology and economic progress, we come to value life more, making us
less prone to causing harm. [21] Yet another explanation draws upon the logic of non-zero-
sum games, suggesting that as societies become more interconnected, there's more to gain
from cooperation and peaceful exchanges than from violent confrontations.
[22] The current state of relative peace is not a call for complacency. [23] Violence, in many
forms, still exists and requires concerted efforts to be eradicated. [24] However, recognizing
and understanding the patterns and causes behind the decline of violence can be
instrumental. [25] Instead of perpetually asking why there's war, perhaps it's time to question
and understand the underlying factors behind periods of peace. [26] The shifts in human
behavior, while complex, hint at the capacity for positive change. [27] As we delve into the
reasons behind this decline, it is crucial to ensure that the trajectory continues, making the
world an increasingly less violent place.
Page 3 of 8
[1] The trajectory of human history has, interestingly, been characterized by a decline in the Despite misconceptions,
sheer brutality and frequency of violence. [2] It is tempting to romanticize pre-state societies evidence suggests that pre-
as peaceful, but evidence like the proportions of skeletons with signs of violent death suggest state societies were more
otherwise. [3] While the absolute numbers killed in tribal conflicts might have been lower, the violent proportionally than later
frequency and the proportion of the population involved in such altercations were significantly civilizations.
higher. [4] If such rates were transposed onto more recent, larger populations, the death toll
would be staggering.
[5] When considering early civilizations, it is essential to objectively evaluate their violent Early civilizations, often seen as
tendencies. [6] Many of these societies, despite being hailed as paragons of morality, moral exemplars, had violent
celebrated violence and proscribed brutal punishments for what today might be deemed tendencies common across
minor infractions. [7] However, it is also important to note that these practices weren't different societies.
exclusive to any one civilization; a number of ancient societies showcased similar tendencies
in their records.
[8] Quantitative data from medieval to modern times is scarce, but the instances of barbarism Violence, including specific acts
and crude punishment methods declined notably over the past few centuries. [9] Slavery, like homicide, has decreased
amputation, and similarly harsh practices became obsolete, suggesting a more humane shift notably over the centuries in
in societal norms. [10] Meanwhile, records for another kind of violence—homicide—present a regions like Western Europe.
clear trend. [11] Homicide rates in Western Europe, for example, plummeted from high rates
in the 14th century to significantly lower ones by the 1960s.
[12] Over the last few decades, comprehensive data further highlights the decline of global There's a significant decline in
violence. [13] The number of battle deaths in interstate wars, coups, and deadly riots has global violence, especially after
decreased significantly. [14] This decline is even more evident post the cold war, where the cold war, though violent
state-based conflicts reduced substantially, and those that did occur usually ended in tendencies haven't been
negotiated settlements rather than protracted battles. [15] This doesn't mean violent completely eradicated.
tendencies have been eradicated. [16] Many individuals might still harbor violent fantasies,
but the propensity to act on them has substantially reduced.
[17] Several theories attempt to explain this decline in violence. [18] One explanation is the Various theories, from the role
logic of anarchy: when there's no central authority, the logic of preemptive self-defense can of centralized states to the
escalate conflicts. [19] Centralized states, by maintaining a monopoly on violence, can increased value of life, suggest
mediate and prevent these conflicts. [20] Another theory suggests that as our lives improve reasons for the decline in
and lengthen with technology and economic progress, we come to value life more, making us violence.
less prone to causing harm. [21] Yet another explanation draws upon the logic of non-zero-
sum games, suggesting that as societies become more interconnected, there's more to gain
from cooperation and peaceful exchanges than from violent confrontations.
[22] The current state of relative peace is not a call for complacency. [23] Violence, in many Despite the decline in violence,
forms, still exists and requires concerted efforts to be eradicated. [24] However, recognizing it's essential to understand the
and understanding the patterns and causes behind the decline of violence can be reasons for peace and continue
instrumental. [25] Instead of perpetually asking why there's war, perhaps it's time to question working towards a less violent
and understand the underlying factors behind periods of peace. [26] The shifts in human world.
behavior, while complex, hint at the capacity for positive change. [27] As we delve into the
reasons behind this decline, it is crucial to ensure that the trajectory continues, making the
world an increasingly less violent place.
Page 4 of 8
Central Theme:
The passage provides a comprehensive exploration of the trajectory of violence throughout human history.
Starting with a portrayal of unexpected violent tendencies in pre-state societies, it charts the progression of
such tendencies through early civilizations and up to modern times. The narrative underscores this
historical analysis with data, suggesting a marked decline in violent behaviors and practices over the
centuries. The theme culminates in presenting theories that attempt to explain this decline, emphasizing the
importance of understanding our past to foster a more peaceful future.
Tone:
The author adopts a tone that is both analytical and cautiously optimistic. The analytical aspect is evident in
the methodical presentation of evidence, from skeletal remains in early societies to quantitative data in
more recent times, ensuring the narrative remains grounded in fact. Concurrently, the cautiously optimistic
tone shines through in the acknowledgment of humanity's potential for positive change, even while
highlighting existing violent tendencies and cautioning against complacency. This combination provides a
balanced perspective, encouraging hope while emphasizing the need for continued vigilance.
Structure:
The passage is structured to guide the reader through a historical analysis of the prevalence and
acceptance of violence in human societies, leading to a current state of relative peace and its underlying
reasons, and concluding with a note of caution and introspection.
Para 1: Initiates the discussion by challenging common notions about violence in pre-state societies,
presenting evidence of their violent nature when evaluated proportionally.
Para 2: Progresses into early civilizations, offering a balanced view: while they might be perceived as
moral, they were not devoid of violent tendencies, a trait shared across multiple civilizations. This creates a
link to the previous paragraph’s mention of historical violence.
Para 3: Moves into a more recent timeframe, from medieval to modern times, indicating a decline in overtly
violent practices. The mention of specific data points, such as homicide rates in Western Europe, provides
concrete evidence of this decline.
Para 4: Zooms into the most recent decades, providing a broader perspective of global violence trends. It
contrasts significant milestones like the end of the cold war with the underlying human tendencies towards
violence, presenting a more nuanced view.
Para 5: Delves into the theoretical aspect, addressing the "why" behind the observed decline in violence. It
proposes various theories, ranging from the benefits of centralized governance to economic and
technological advancements. This offers an analytical explanation of the historical data presented in earlier
paragraphs.
Para 6: Concludes with a forward-looking perspective, moving from the descriptive and analytical tones of
previous paragraphs to a prescriptive one. It cautions against complacency, urging for continued
understanding and efforts to foster peace.
The progression is chronological, starting from pre-state societies, moving through early civilizations,
medieval to modern times, and then the most recent decades. This timeline-based progression is
punctuated with theories explaining the observed changes, leading to a reflective conclusion. Each
paragraph naturally builds on its predecessor, weaving a cohesive narrative about the evolution and
reduction of violence throughout human history.
Page 5 of 8
Reasoning Check
Choose the best alternative
1. Considering the passage's description of early civilizations, which statement is most plausible?
a) Their sociopolitical structures were dominated by centralized bodies that actively curtailed violence.
b) Their inhabitants, influenced by specific cultural norms, sometimes displayed impulsive judgment.
c) Across a broad spectrum, these civilizations showcased comparable tendencies towards violence.
2. To accept the assertions made in Para 1, what underlying assumption is imperative?

a) Many of the modern societies have robust frameworks that can help reduce tribal conflict probabilities.
b) Skeletons can, in many instances, provide a comprehensive reflection of historical violent tendencies.
c) All societies, regardless of their stage, had consistent experiences of violent confrontations.
3. In terms of the broader argument, how does the statement "This doesn't mean violent tendencies have been
eradicated" in Para 4 contribute?
a) It functions as a prelude, preparing readers for an upcoming counter-argument that the author seeks to
undertake.
b) While aligning with prior points, it layers the discussion, enriching the narrative with varied perspectives.
c) It primarily captures and reflects the foundational sentiment reverberating throughout the passage.
4. Which statement, if found accurate, could potentially counter the narrative of the passage?
a) Pre-state societies possessed a distinct segment responsible for mediating and maintaining tranquility.
b) Contemporary innovations, while escalating the volume of reported violence, don't necessarily indicate its actual
prevalence.
c) Many ancient texts across civilizations resonated with stories of communities thriving in harmony.
5. Which assertion, if validated, would further reinforce the passage's core argument?
a) Fresh forensic analyses consistently echo previous assertions regarding violent fatalities in archaic societies.
b) Some ancient societies experienced gaps in their documented history due to various unforeseen calamities.
c) Today's skirmishes and battles, although widespread, often remain underrepresented in key communication
platforms.
6. The dynamic between the historical decline in violence and the ensuing explanatory theories could best be
paralleled to:
a) Recognizing a disease's outward signs and subsequently formulating its precise medical interpretation.
b) Understanding the nuanced relationship between a plant's health and the underlying process of photosynthesis.
c) Observing alterations in global climatic patterns and associating them with grounded scientific theories.
7. Given the passage's insights, which statement aligns most closely with the author's perspective?
a) The diminishing presence of violence is emblematic of our modern times, almost marking its cessation.
b) Probing the factors promoting lasting peace can unearth insights as significant as those derived from studying
warfare origins.
c) Ancient communities, with minimal deviations, always manifested heightened violent impulses when compared
to contemporary societies.
8. In today's context, how might one aptly employ the knowledge this passage furnishes?
a) Use it to argue the unmatched safety credentials of our current era to global communities.
b) Elevate early societies as unparalleled examples, highlighting their moral excellence.
c) Utilize historic lessons as guiding posts, shaping modern endeavors aimed at sustaining peace.
Page 6 of 8
1. Considering the passage's description of early civilizations, which statement is most plausible?
a) Their sociopolitical structures were dominated by centralized bodies that actively curtailed violence.
b) Their inhabitants, influenced by specific cultural norms, sometimes displayed impulsive judgment.
c) Across a broad spectrum, these civilizations showcased comparable tendencies towards violence.
a) The passage neither specifies nor hints at centralized bodies in early civilizations that acted against violence. A key
tenet of the passage is the highlighting of pre-state societies and their violent tendencies, suggesting a lack of centralized
authority.
b) The passage mentions early civilizations' "violent tendencies" and "brutal punishments," but there's no direct
implication about inhabitants displaying impulsive judgment. Instead, the passage emphasizes societal norms and
practices.
c) The passage directly states, "these practices weren't exclusive to any one civilization; a number of ancient societies
showcased similar tendencies in their records." This option is the most closely aligned with the provided data.
2. To accept the assertions made in Para 1, what underlying assumption is imperative?

a) Many of the modern societies have robust frameworks that can help reduce tribal conflict probabilities.
b) Skeletons can, in many instances, provide a comprehensive reflection of historical violent tendencies.
c) All societies, regardless of their stage, had consistent experiences of violent confrontations.
a) The mention of tribal conflicts in paragraph one is used to highlight their frequency and proportion of population
involvement compared to the total deaths. Modern societies and their frameworks aren't discussed in this context.
b) This option is crucial because the assertion that pre-state societies were violent rests on the evidence of the
proportions of skeletons with signs of violent death. Without this evidence being valid, the assertion falls apart.
c) The passage does not make a generalization about every society's violent experiences; it emphasizes a comparison
of different periods.
3. In terms of the broader argument, how does the statement "This doesn't mean violent tendencies have been
eradicated" in Para 4 contribute?
a) It functions as a prelude, preparing readers for an upcoming counter-argument that the author seeks to
undertake.
b) While aligning with prior points, it layers the discussion, enriching the narrative with varied perspectives.
c) It primarily captures and reflects the foundational sentiment reverberating throughout the passage.
a) While the statement introduces a counterpoint, it isn't used to set up a forthcoming counter-argument; the passage
continues to discuss the decline in violence.
b) This statement nuances the main argument. Even though there's been a decline in violent acts, violent tendencies,
or thoughts of violence, might still persist. It adds depth to the understanding of violence's nature over time.
c) The foundational sentiment of the passage is about the decline in violence, not the continuation of violent tendencies.
4. Which statement, if found accurate, could potentially counter the narrative of the passage?
a) Pre-state societies possessed a distinct segment responsible for mediating and maintaining tranquility.
b) Contemporary innovations, while escalating the volume of reported violence, don't necessarily indicate its actual
prevalence.
c) Many ancient texts across civilizations resonated with stories of communities thriving in harmony.
a) This directly contradicts the description of pre-state societies as having high frequencies of violence. If there was an
effective mediation segment, it would challenge the data and observations presented.
b) The passage focuses on historical patterns and not the influence of contemporary innovations on violence reports.
c) The mention of "many" and not "all" civilizations and ancient texts means that there could be exceptions. However,
the passage's general narrative remains unchallenged.
Page 7 of 8
5. Which assertion, if validated, would further reinforce the passage's core argument?
a) Fresh forensic analyses consistently echo previous assertions regarding violent fatalities in archaic societies.
b) Some ancient societies experienced gaps in their documented history due to various unforeseen calamities.
c) Today's skirmishes and battles, although widespread, often remain underrepresented in key communication
platforms.
a) The argument about pre-state societies being violent is based on skeletal evidence. If new forensic analyses
reaffirmed these findings, the passage's argument would be strengthened.
b) This doesn't have a direct bearing on the violence trend discussed.
c) While this might suggest a continuation of violence, it doesn't reinforce the overall decline in violence discussed in
the passage.
6. The dynamic between the historical decline in violence and the ensuing explanatory theories could best be
paralleled to:
a) Recognizing a disease's outward signs and subsequently formulating its precise medical interpretation.
b) Understanding the nuanced relationship between a plant's health and the underlying process of photosynthesis.
c) Observing alterations in global climatic patterns and associating them with grounded scientific theories.
a) The disease analogy doesn't fully capture the idea of observing a trend (decline in violence) and then seeking
explanations for it.
b) This analogy is more about cause-effect and doesn't parallel historical observation and theorizing.
c) This option fits best because it parallels the action of observing a broad trend and then associating it with grounded
explanations.
7. Given the passage's insights, which statement aligns most closely with the author's perspective?
a) The diminishing presence of violence is emblematic of our modern times, almost marking its cessation.
b) Probing the factors promoting lasting peace can unearth insights as significant as those derived from studying
warfare origins.
c) Ancient communities, with minimal deviations, always manifested heightened violent impulses when compared
to contemporary societies.
a) The passage acknowledges the decline in violence but also cautions against complacency, indicating it's not
completely diminished.
b) The author’s ending suggests a shift in focus from understanding war to understanding peace.
c) The passage does not assert that ancient communities always had higher violent impulses than modern societies.
8. In today's context, how might one aptly employ the knowledge this passage furnishes?
a) Use it to argue the unmatched safety credentials of our current era to global communities.
b) Elevate early societies as unparalleled examples, highlighting their moral excellence.
c) Utilize historic lessons as guiding posts, shaping modern endeavors aimed at sustaining peace.
a) The passage provides relative comparisons of peace but doesn't make absolute claims about unmatched safety.
b) The passage counters idealizing early societies and their moral standing.
c) The passage's essence lies in understanding patterns to ensure and enhance peace, making this the most appropriate
application.
Page 8 of 8
Recent research tells us that the very technologies designed to connect people, such as social media, often end
up disconnecting us from experiencing the simple pleasures of being human in the natural world. Modern life
online can be lonely. Language sometimes reflects this. . . .
It may have something to do with the strange bipolar nature of English, lexically torn between two languages. The
English language is at its heart a Germanic language. And yet, after the Norman Conquest, Norman French
became the language of the elite ruling class. This caused a huge influx of Latinate words to enter the language
at high levels of society, such as government, law, education and business. French was the language of power. . .
. Because of this, English probably has more synonyms than any other language, with many redundant pairs that
mean essentially the same thing, like flood/inundation, snake/serpent, inside/interior, friendly/amiable,
bloom/flower, answer/respond, cow/bovine, gift/present to name just a few. But words are not all about meaning.
Though they may mean the same things, the ways and the contexts in which they’re used are very different, as
well as the assumptions we implicitly make when one is used and not the other. . . .
Together with conventional Latin and Greek scientific usage, Latinate forms by now make up a majority of
English vocabulary… and that number might be increasing, thanks to jargon. Originally used in more formal,
intellectual and abstract contexts, Latinate words have held onto their prestige and their power. So when we coin
new words to describe new things (and old things), especially if we want to sound smart, precise, and scientific,
we overwhelmingly reach for a Latinate form, not a Germanic one. Instead of just talking, we now also have
dialoguing (even if we wish we didn’t). Some studies have shown that though users of this more formal language
might be seen as competent, listeners often view them as distant and unapproachable, while speakers that use
more Germanic forms are often seen as flexible and might be more likely to “help you out of a jam.”
This is perhaps because most of the words we absorb as babies and first learn as children are still the little
Germanic words, and they also happen to be the ones that are still most commonly used. So we develop this
long-lived, deep-rooted familiarity with their meanings and their senses in a way that we don’t with Latinate
words, which can often seem detached and disconnected from any emotional reaction to a word’s meaning.
While we worry about disastrous “flood” warnings, our French friends might have the same kind of emotional
panic about imminent “inundations.” English has borrowed the same word but it certainly doesn’t feel the same.
Likewise, snakes might give you the shivers, while serpents don’t threaten you in quite the same way. Short,
Germanic origin words can have a significant impact on how we react to information. . . .
This matters, because Latinate words can seem more distant and a little unreal. Ultimately, their meanings can
be more easily manipulated and abused without us understanding instinctively what’s happened—such as when
jargon is used in euphemisms or doublespeak (when it’s designed to deliberately mislead) or other
circumlocutions. This happens all too frequently in politics, government, bureaucracy, the military, and corporate
life—all areas of concentrated social power. Take these poor, unloved, deliberately evasive and confusing
examples of jargon from the U.S. government’s own site on plain language: "arbitrarily deprive of life", "render
non-viable", "terminate with extreme prejudice"—all these simply mean "kill people"
It’s easy to see how the shorter, plainer version may pack more of an emotional punch, something a government
bureaucrat or military spokesperson might want to avoid. It turns out that, far from being objective, jargon—
outwardly a sober, professional kind of talk for experts from different occupational fields—has always carried with
it some very human impulses, placing power and prestige over knowledge. . . .
[Turn to the next page to check your comprehension & analysis]
Page 1 of 6
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Source: JSTOR Daily | https://daily.jstor.org/the-tangled-language-of-jargon/
MIND MAPS
1. Comprehension Check: This part is focused on identifying and summarising the main ideas in the passage.
accurately.
2. Reasoning Check: In this part, you’ll engage with questions centred on inference and critical reasoning.
These questions will require you to analyse the logic and arguments presented in the passage and make
inferential deductions. Reflect on the strength of the reasoning, assess the evidence provided, and evaluate if
the conclusions drawn are well-supported.
Upon completing each exercise, review the provided answers to gauge your comprehension and reasoning
performance. This is a valuable opportunity to enhance your critical reading skills.”
Page 2 of 6
COMPREHENSION CHECK
“In this exercise, your task is to identify the key sentence or group of sentences in each paragraph that best encapsulates
its main idea. Once you’ve identified these, provide a concise summary of the principal theme or message conveyed in each
paragraph. Remember, your goal is to effectively distil the essence of the paragraph using the key sentences and your own
summarisation.”
KEY IDEA
[1] Recent research tells us that the very technologies designed to connect people, such as social Modern technologies, specifically
media, often end up disconnecting us from experiencing the simple pleasures of being human in social media, often alienate
the natural world. [2] Modern life online can be lonely. [3] Language sometimes reflects this. . . . people from real-world
experiences.
[4] It may have something to do with the strange bipolar nature of English, lexically torn between The history of the English
two languages. [5] The English language is at its heart a Germanic language. [6] And yet, after the language, its dual influences from
Norman Conquest, Norman French became the language of the elite ruling class. [7] This caused a Germanic and Latinate roots,
huge influx of Latinate words to enter the language at high levels of society, such as government, leading to a large number of
law, education and business. [8] French was the language of power. . . . [9] Because of this, English synonyms.
probably has more synonyms than any other language, with many redundant pairs that mean
essentially the same thing, like flood/inundation, snake/serpent, inside/interior, friendly/amiable,
bloom/flower, answer/respond, cow/bovine, gift/present to name just a few. [10] But words are not
all about meaning. [11] Though they may mean the same things, the ways and the contexts in
which they’re used are very different, as well as the assumptions we implicitly make when one is
used and not the other. . .
[12] Together with conventional Latin and Greek scientific usage, Latinate forms by now make up a The preference for Latinate forms
majority of English vocabulary… and that number might be increasing, thanks to jargon. [13] when coining new words,
Originally used in more formal, intellectual and abstract contexts, Latinate words have held onto especially in formal and
their prestige and their power. [14] So when we coin new words to describe new things (and old intellectual contexts.
things), especially if we want to sound smart, precise, and scientific, we overwhelmingly reach for a
Latinate form, not a Germanic one. [15] Instead of just talking, we now also have dialoguing (even if
we wish we didn’t). [16] Some studies have shown that though users of this more formal language
might be seen as competent, listeners often view them as distant and unapproachable, while
speakers that use more Germanic forms are often seen as flexible and might be more likely to
“help you out of a jam.”
[17] This is perhaps because most of the words we absorb as babies and first learn as children are The emotional resonance and
still the little Germanic words, and they also happen to be the ones that are still most commonly familiarity of Germanic words
used. [18] So we develop this long-lived, deep-rooted familiarity with their meanings and their compared to their Latinate
senses in a way that we don’t with Latinate words, which can often seem detached and counterparts in the English
disconnected from any emotional reaction to a word’s meaning. [19] While we worry about language.
disastrous “flood” warnings, our French friends might have the same kind of emotional panic about
imminent “inundations.” [20] English has borrowed the same word but it certainly doesn’t feel the
same. [21] Likewise, snakes might give you the shivers, while serpents don’t threaten you in quite
the same way. [22] Short, Germanic origin words can have a significant impact on how we react to
information. . . .
[23] This matters, because Latinate words can seem more distant and a little unreal. [24] Ultimately, The potential manipulative use of
their meanings can be more easily manipulated and abused without us understanding instinctively Latinate words, especially in
what’s happened—such as when jargon is used in euphemisms or doublespeak (when it’s jargon, in various authoritative
designed to deliberately mislead) or other circumlocutions. [25] This happens all too frequently in sectors.
politics, government, bureaucracy, the military, and corporate life—all areas of concentrated social
power. [26] Take these poor, unloved, deliberately evasive and confusing examples of jargon from
the U.S. government’s own site on plain language: "arbitrarily deprive of life", "render non-viable",
"terminate with extreme prejudice"—all these simply mean "kill people."
[27] It’s easy to see how the shorter, plainer version may pack more of an emotional punch, The underlying human impulses
something a government bureaucrat or military spokesperson might want to avoid. [28] It turns out behind the use of jargon,
that, far from being objective, jargon—outwardly a sober, professional kind of talk for experts from especially the display of power
different occupational fields—has always carried with it some very human impulses, placing power and prestige.
and prestige over knowledge. . . .
[Check your answers on the next page]
Page 3 of 6
Central Theme: The passage discusses the influences of Germanic and Latinate roots on the English language and
highlights the emotional resonance, implications, and manipulative potential of the words from these origins..
Tone: Analytical and Informative.
Structure of the Passage:

• Introduction to the topic of language and modern disconnection (Para 1).
• Historical background of the English language's dual influences (Para 2).
• Current preference in English for Latinate forms and its implications (Para 3).
• Emotional significance and responses to Germanic vs. Latinate words (Para 4).
• Potential misuse of Latinate words, especially in jargon, in areas of power (Para 5).
• Concluding remarks on the underlying motives behind jargon usage (Para 6).
[Check your Reasoning on the next page]
Page 4 of 6
REASONING CHECK
Check whether the following is a valid inference from the passage?
1. The use of jargon is not just about specialization but is also rooted in power dynamics.
2. The continued usage and preference for Latinate forms, especially in formal contexts, indicate an underlying perception
that associates these words with intellectual prestige.
3. The ability to manipulate Latinate words, because of their distance from everyday language, suggests that they can be
powerful tools for those in authority who might wish to obfuscate meaning or downplay sensitive subjects.
4. By using more complex or jargon-laden terms, those in power can control narratives and potentially prevent the average
person from fully grasping the implications of certain decisions or actions.
5. The advancement of technology, particularly social media, may ironically lead to feelings of isolation in the modern
world.
6. Beyond serving the needs of specialization, jargon might often serve to uphold structures of power and prestige. Its use
can be less about clear communication and more about maintaining status and control.
7. Using Latinate words and jargon, especially in sensitive topics, might be a deliberate strategy to reduce emotional
impact and to maintain an appearance of professionalism, even if it comes at the expense of clarity.
8. Latinate words, owing to their abstract and distanced nature, can be more susceptible to manipulative usage, especially
in realms of power where ambiguity or evasion is advantageous.
9. Latinate words can evoke a sense of intellectuality but might distance the speaker from the listener.
10. The redundancy of synonyms in English, resulting from its rich history, can lead to nuances in usage and understanding.
11. The Norman Conquest had a profound influence on English vocabulary, reflecting the dominance of French as the
language of the elite.
12. Despite the advancements in technology that aim to connect us, there's a paradoxical impact where we might feel more
disconnected from the world and our human experiences.
Page 5 of 6
All are valid inferences!
1. The use of jargon is not just about specialization but is also rooted in power dynamics.
Valid. This is discussed in Para 6, particularly in sentences [27] and [28], which talk about how jargon carries human impulses that
emphasize power and prestige over knowledge.
2. The continued usage and preference for Latinate forms, especially in formal contexts, indicates an underlying perception that
associates these words with intellectual prestige.
Valid. Para 3, particularly sentences [13] and [14], highlights the prestigious nature of Latinate words and how they are preferred,
especially when trying to sound intellectual or precise.
3. The ability to manipulate Latinate words, because of their distance from everyday language, suggests that they can be powerful tools
for those in authority who might wish to obfuscate meaning or downplay sensitive subjects.
Valid. Para 5, especially sentences [23], [24], and [26], elaborate on the manipulative potential of Latinate words, particularly in
contexts where the goal is to mislead or hide true intentions.
4. By using more complex or jargon-laden terms, those in power can control narratives and potentially prevent the average person from
fully grasping the implications of certain decisions or actions.
Valid. This is a continuation of the point made in the third inference. Sentences [25] and [26] of Para 5 underline the use of jargon to
obscure meaning, thereby controlling narratives.
5. The advancement of technology, particularly social media, may ironically lead to feelings of isolation in the modern world.
Valid. This is highlighted in Para 1, where sentences [1] and [2] indicate that technologies, like social media, meant to connect us can
lead to feelings of loneliness.
6. Beyond serving the needs of specialization, jargon might often serve to uphold structures of power and prestige. Its use can be less
about clear communication and more about maintaining status and control.
Valid. This is emphasized in Para 6, especially in sentences [27] and [28].
7. Using Latinate words and jargon, especially in sensitive topics, might be a deliberate strategy to reduce emotional impact and to
maintain an appearance of professionalism, even if it comes at the expense of clarity.
Valid. The notion is supported by sentences [27] and [28] in Para 6.
8. Latinate words, owing to their abstract and distanced nature, can be more susceptible to manipulative usage, especially in realms of
power where ambiguity or evasion is advantageous.
Valid. This mirrors the third inference and is confirmed by the points made in Para 5.
9. Latinate words can evoke a sense of intellectuality but might distance the speaker from the listener.
Valid. Sentences [14], [15], and [16] in Para 3 talk about how while Latinate words might sound intellectual, they can also make the
speaker seem distant.
10. The redundancy of synonyms in English, resulting from its rich history, can lead to nuances in usage and understanding.
Valid. Para 2, especially sentences [9], [10], and [11], speaks about the richness of English vocabulary and the subtle differences
between synonyms.
11. The Norman Conquest had a profound influence on English vocabulary, reflecting the dominance of French as the language of the
elite.
Valid. Sentences [5], [6], and [7] in Para 2 highlight the Norman Conquest's influence on English, bringing in a flood of Latinate words.
12. Despite the advancements in technology that aim to connect us, there's a paradoxical impact where we might feel more disconnected
from the world and our human experiences.
Valid. This is reiterated from the fifth inference and is confirmed by sentences [1] and [2] in Para 1.
Page 6 of 6
Philosophy Now – Issue 157
https://philosophynow.org/issues/157/The_Best_Criticism_of_Ethical_Egoism
The Best Criticism of Ethical Egoism

Stephen Leach gives you an unbiased reason why you shouldn’t be selfish.
At least sometimes we ought to do what is in our own best interest. However, ethical egoism makes the
radical claim that our only duty is to do what is in our own best interest. In other words, we ought to be
selfish!
Ethical egoism doesn’t say that we ought to avoid all actions that help others. It says that what makes these
actions right, when they are right, is that they are to our benefit. So, if I should help someone else, this is
only because doing so would be good for me; and if I should refrain from harming someone, again, that is
only because doing so is to my benefit. So, for example, if I find a dropped wallet, then if I am an ethical
egoist, I would have good reason to keep it, even if I know to whom it belongs. That person may well be
harmed by my action; but that, in itself, is no good reason not to keep the wallet, since I will benefit from
keeping it. The same is true of anything else: Help people in poverty? Feed the starving? “Only if there’s
something in it for me,” the egoist responds. (Note that the theory says that we should be guided by self-
interest, not that we always are.)
I am sure that the response of many people to this will be that the stance of ethical egoism is obviously
wrong. But why is it wrong? The ethical egoist would argue that we only think it’s wrong because of our
unquestioning acceptance of other, more established theories of morality. However, that’s not a good enough
reason to reject egoism (the argument goes), since these rival theories are all weaker than ethical egoism, at
least in terms of my own survival and prospects for thriving. Rival theories all require me at times to
sacrifice my own well-being for some abstract non-personal ‘good’, but without any justification, says the
egoist. Ethical egoism, by contrast, requires no such sacrifices. My guiding star should be my self-interest,
and your guiding star should be your self-interest. After all, asks the ethical egoist, why should I sacrifice my
self-interest for someone else’s? It makes no sense to do so, for I will always know more about what makes
me happy than about what might make someone else happy. If I do happen to get a kick from helping
someone else, okay, fine; but, make no mistake, whatever my choice, I should act first and foremost for the
sake of my own self-interest.
Ayn Rand Ready for her Close-Up by Stephen Lahey, 2023
Conflicts of Interest & Contradictions

You might intuitively recoil from this theory, but it is surprisingly difficult to refute.
It has been criticised on the grounds that it cannot handle conflicts of interest. If x is in the interests of Tom
and y is in the interests of Jane, and x and y conflict, how is the ethical egoist to choose between x and y?
They cannot.
But the ethical egoist can easily swat this objection aside, not even recognising it as an objection. The reply
would be that Tom should follow the guiding star of his self-interest, and Jane should follow the guiding star
of her self-interest. Okay, sometimes their interests may conflict – resulting in either clash or compromise –
but there is no impersonal standpoint from which one must (or could) judge between them.
A second criticism that might be made is that ethical egoism is logically contradictory. The same action
cannot be both morally wrong and not morally wrong (to Tom and Jane respectively). But again, the ethical
egoist can deal with this objection easily, and in much the same way as before. There is only a contradiction
between Tom’s intention and Jane’s if it is assumed that there is an impersonal standpoint from which to
judge them together – and this is just what the egoist denies.
Why Me?
There is, however, one criticism of ethical egoism that does not assume an impersonal standpoint. It was first
formulated, to the best of my knowledge, by the moral philosopher James Rachels (1941-2003). This
criticism is that ethical egoism is unacceptably arbitrary : Is there really a significant moral difference
between myself and other people that justifies me getting (or giving myself) special treatment? What makes
me so special?
Yes, I know myself better than other people; but why should that be morally relevant? The same with the
idea that what happens to me has more immediate relevance to me than what happens to others. So what?
The egoist’s moral distinction between myself and others seems arbitrary. It’s like a racist distinction drawn
between one group of people and another, with the racist giving preferential treatment to the group to which
he or she belongs, just because they belong to that group. That Ayn Rand (1905-1982) – undoubtedly the
single most influential ethical egoist – was herself a critic of racism does not undermine this criticism. The
ball is back in the egoist’s court.
Conclusion
This third criticism is perhaps the strongest criticism that can be made of ethical egoism. It’s not made from
the perspective of an impersonal, universal standard of morality, but it is stronger for all that. It is a criticism
available to anyone who, however vaguely, feels, about any other creature, that, in James Rachels’ words,
“we are on a par with one another.” It is, for example, open to anyone whose moral sentiments, for all their
vagueness, might on a dark night, cause them to quake at the accidental crunch of a snail.
© Stephen Leach 2023
Stephen Leach is an honorary senior fellow at Keele University, UK. He is co-editor, with James Tartaglia,
of Consciousness and the Great Philosophers (2017) and The Meaning of Life and the Great Philosophers
(2018).
For the better part of the Cold War period, mainland China was almost as inaccessible and factual information on its
politics as unavailable to outsiders as North Korea. At the end of World War II, moreover, there were few social
scientists anywhere in the world who were seriously interested in, much less knowledgeable about, modern Chinese
politics. . . .
In the decades following the end of the war, scholarly, as well as general public, interest in Chinese politics grew
rapidly, propelled by a series of headline-catching events: the onset of the Cold War, the Great Leap Forward (1958–
61), the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), the initiation of multifaceted economic reforms (1978), and the Tiananmen
Square incident (1989). In Japan, a group of about 50 scholars of Asian, mainly Chinese, studies founded in 1953 an
interdisciplinary Japan Association for Asian Political and Economic Studies, renamed the Japan Association for Asian
Studies a few years later.
The Cold War and the Cultural Revolution spawned intense ideological, and often explicitly partisan, debates among
Chinese politics specialists around the world. These events, especially the Cultural Revolution, divided nearly all
Japanese China specialists into friends and enemies of the Maoist regime and its policies. Even in Europe, where the
tradition of nonpolitical sinologist approach was particularly strong, as sharp ideological divisions occurred among
local China specialists as among their Japanese counterparts. This was also true of a segment of China specialists in
the United States. A good portion of American scholarship, however, was deliberately nonideological and analytical.
Some works applied concepts associated with modernization theory or elite and faction politics models. These works
helped to lay conceptual foundations for studies of Chinese politics to follow in the late 1970s and 1980s, a period
known for Deng Xiaoping's Reform regime.
Chinese political culture and elite and faction politics initially drew most attention among US-based scholars. However,
the range of subjects and themes for investigation gradually expanded to include local and minority politics, rural
industrialization, special economic zones, and the military. Some scholars began to borrow terms and concepts from
works on the contemporaneous political developments in Eastern Europe, such as civil society and public sphere. This
practice paved the way for more explicit and systematic comparisons of political and economic reforms in China and
Eastern Europe in the post–Cold War period. Many of the changes in American scholars' works were replicated in
those of Japanese and European scholars. Above all, the heavily ideological and partisan overtones that characterized
much of the work done in the heyday of the Cold War gradually dissipated toward the end of the period, as more and
more foreign social scientists began not only to visit China for fieldwork, but also to collaborate with Chinese scholars.
The most significant development during this period was, however, the dramatic change in the way Chinese
intellectuals thought about and discussed Chinese politics. This was an integral part of the sweeping transformation of
the intellectual environment of Chinese society, especially in Beijing and other large cities. By the late 1980s,
proreform, prodemocracy scholars, writers, and journalists began to form clubs, salons, and seminars and publish
political journals and books (Gu, 1999). Translations of Western social science works by, for example, Max Weber,
Robert Merton, Kenneth Arrow, Cyril Black, and Alex Inkeles, were published and apparently read fairly widely. While
such intense intellectual and cultural fermentation was under way within China itself, US-based Chinese political
scientists founded a Chinese Scholars of Political Science and International Studies in 1986, to be renamed the
Association of Chinese Political Studies in 1995. The process of the democratic transition in China, however, was
abruptly interrupted in 1989 by the Tiananmen Square incident. The event generated a spate of studies on the
limitations of the incipient democratic polity and civil society that had emerged under the Reform regime. In the United
States alone, some two dozen books were published on the subject in the decade immediately following the event.
The glare on the series of headline-grabbing events in mainland China left ‘the other China’, Taiwan, nearly totally
ignored by scholars outside Taiwan itself during the Cold War period. The only notable exception was a modest
amount of work on Taiwan's ‘economic miracle’. It was not until the mid-1990s that serious scholarly work by foreign
scholars on the reform and democratization in Taiwan began to appear in print.
Page 1 of 4
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Source: International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), 2015
Central Theme: The central theme of the passage is the evolution of scholarly and public interest in modern Chinese
politics, the ideological debates it sparked, and its impact on the intellectual climate within China itself. The passage covers
various geographical perspectives, including Japan, Europe, and the U.S., and concludes by mentioning the lack of attention
paid to Taiwan.
Tone: The tone of the passage is scholarly and analytical. It aims to provide a historical overview of the interest and debates
surrounding Chinese politics without overtly taking a stance on the ideological issues mentioned.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Introduces the lack of interest and accessibility to information on modern Chinese politics during the
Cold War era.
• Second Paragraph: Discusses the growth of scholarly interest in Chinese politics, fueled by key historical events, and
mentions Japan's interdisciplinary association focusing on Asian studies.
• Third Paragraph: Explores the ideological divisions and debates among scholars worldwide, especially concerning the
Maoist regime and its policies. The U.S. scholars' approach is noted to be generally non-ideological.
• Fourth Paragraph: Describes the evolution of research topics among U.S.-based scholars and how this impacted
Japanese and European scholars. It also notes the diminishing ideological overtones towards the end of the Cold War.
• Fifth Paragraph: Highlights the significant shift in the intellectual environment within China, leading to greater openness
and discussions about politics among Chinese intellectuals.
• Sixth Paragraph: Emphasizes the impact of the Tiananmen Square incident on the existing discourse around democracy
and civil society in China.
• Seventh Paragraph: Points out the lack of scholarly attention towards Taiwan in contrast to mainland China, with a slight
focus on Taiwan's economic aspects.

The passage follows a chronological and thematic structure, starting with an introduction that establishes the context of
limited scholarly interest in Chinese politics post-World War II. The body of the passage delves into the growing interest and
debates surrounding Chinese politics, highlighting shifts in focus among scholars from Japan, Europe, and the United States.
It also covers the transformation in China's own intellectual environment. Towards the end, the passage briefly touches on
the comparative neglect of Taiwan in international scholarship, thus acting as a form of conclusion. Each paragraph serves to
either introduce a new facet of this overarching narrative or to build upon the previously established points.
Page 2 of 4
REASONING CHECK
1. The lack of initial scholarly interest in Chinese politics might have been a result of the closed-off nature of China, similar
to North Korea during the Cold War period.
2. External events can sometimes dictate academic pursuits.
3. Understanding Chinese politics was considered complex and requiring multiple academic lenses for a fuller
understanding.
4. Academic discourse can be influenced by the political climate of the times.
5. In the early period, American academia aimed for a more empirical, less politically charged study of Chinese politics.
6. The changing topics among U.S.-based scholars imply that as more information became accessible, the complexity and
breadth of research also expanded.
7. There is an influential role of American academia in shaping global scholarly discourse.
8. The decline in ideological overtones towards the end of the Cold War suggests that academic study gradually moved
away from serving political agendas.
9. The shift in China's internal intellectual environment indicates a growing awareness and potential for reform within the
country itself.
10. Tiananmen Square incident was a critical turning point in both political and academic discourse.
11. Taiwan’s lack of attention from international scholars until the mid-1990s may imply a bias or a limitation in the scope of
academic pursuits focused on the region.
12. Western thought had a substantial influence on intellectual discourse within China, especially concerning political
science and sociology.
Page 3 of 4
All are valid inferences!
1. The lack of initial scholarly interest in Chinese politics might have been a result of the closed-off nature of China, similar to North Korea
during the Cold War period.
Valid: The passage states that during the Cold War, mainland China was almost as inaccessible and factual information on its politics
as unavailable to outsiders as North Korea. This lends credibility to the statement that the closed-off nature of China might have
discouraged initial scholarly interest.
2. External events can sometimes dictate academic pursuits.

Valid: The passage mentions that interest in Chinese politics grew due to headline-catching events like the Cold War, the Great Leap
Forward, the Cultural Revolution, etc. This confirms that external events did influence academic interests.
3. Understanding Chinese politics was considered complex and requiring multiple academic lenses for a fuller understanding.
Valid: The passage talks about how research themes expanded over time to include local and minority politics, rural industrialization,
special economic zones, and the military, among others. This implies that understanding Chinese politics required a multi-faceted
approach.
4. Academic discourse can be influenced by the political climate of the times.

Valid: The passage notes how the Cold War and the Cultural Revolution led to ideological debates among scholars. This confirms that
the political climate had an impact on academic discourse.
5. In the early period, American academia aimed for a more empirical, less politically charged study of Chinese politics.
Valid: The passage says that a good portion of American scholarship was deliberately nonideological and analytical. This supports the
statement.
6. The changing topics among U.S.-based scholars imply that as more information became accessible, the complexity and breadth of
research also expanded.
Valid: The passage indicates that as scholars had more opportunities to visit China and collaborate with Chinese academics, the range
of subjects expanded. This suggests that greater access to information led to broader research topics.
7. There is an influential role of American academia in shaping global scholarly discourse.

Valid: The passage mentions that changes in American scholars' works were replicated in those of Japanese and European scholars,
implying that American academia had a significant influence.
8. The decline in ideological overtones towards the end of the Cold War suggests that academic study gradually moved away from
serving political agendas.
Valid: The passage says that ideological and partisan overtones gradually dissipated toward the end of the Cold War period, which
supports this statement.
9. The shift in China's internal intellectual environment indicates a growing awareness and potential for reform within the country itself.
Valid: The passage speaks about the dramatic change in the intellectual environment within China, particularly in terms of proreform,
prodemocracy tendencies. This confirms a growing awareness and potential for reform.
10. Tiananmen Square incident was a critical turning point in both political and academic discourse.
Valid: The passage notes that the Tiananmen Square incident abruptly interrupted the democratic transition in China and led to a spate
of studies, confirming its pivotal role in both political and academic discourse.
11. Taiwan’s lack of attention from international scholars until the mid-1990s may imply a bias or a limitation in the scope of academic
pursuits focused on the region.
Valid: The passage mentions that Taiwan was nearly totally ignored by scholars outside Taiwan during the Cold War, implying a
limitation or bias in academic focus.
12. Western thought had a substantial influence on intellectual discourse within China, especially concerning political science and
sociology.
Valid: The passage talks about the translations of Western social science works and how they were read fairly widely, suggesting a
significant influence of Western thought on intellectual discourse within China.
Page 4 of 4
Over the past twenty years there has been an increase in interest in Stoicism. Founded by Zeno of Citium around the
third century BC, Stoicism is one of the many great schools of Hellenistic thought, and it is still relevant for several
reasons. The root word for the school comes from the Greek stoa, referring to the porch that Zeno gave his lectures
on in Athens marketplace. This is no accident: Zeno wanted his tenets to be useful for everyone. Stoicism is not a
philosophy well suited to the college or the academy, since it does not emphasise abstract thinking or setting up
hypothetical scenarios and models. Rather it is the ordinary person's philosophy, the philosophy of traders, athletes,
soldiers, and blue collar workers.For the Stoic, philosophy is pragmatic; it is meant to help the individual navigate
through real world situations. The fact that the person in the street can apply the principles of this system to everyday
life is one reason it is so appealing. The nature of Stoicism (and perhaps of all philosophy) is best described in the
words of the Stoic Epictetus: “Philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man… For as the material
of the carpenter is wood, and that of statuary bronze, so the subject-matter of the art of living is each person's own
life” (Discourses 1:15). Paraphrasing something else Epictetus said, the lecture hall is a hospital, and all who enter it
are in a state of pain (Discourses 3:8).
The main idea behind Stoicism is that every human being has within them the drive for eudaimonia, or happiness,
found through an authentic life guided by the use of our reason rather than our emotions. Stoics take the soft
determinist position: we have free will but there are also certain things in life that are not in our power to control. If we
focus on the things that are in our control (the prohairetic things), then we live a life guided by rationality. However if
we decide to focus on things that are not in our control (or aprohairetic things), then the push towards harmful living is
great, and we are thrown into living a life guided by irrationality. Bertrand Russell’s beautiful chapter on Stoicism in his
History of Western Philosophy (1953) keeps the school’s ideas very straightforward: if one lets the uncontrollable
alone and instead works on developing one’s character, then everything will work out. “Virtue,” says Russell here,
“consists of a will that is in agreement with Nature.” The primary effect that Stoicism aims to bring about is apatheia,
which means to not be disturbed by suffering. This does not mean that one will be free from the effects of suffering
entirely, but rather that one is in a state of equanimity and knows what to do in situations that would otherwise harm
one’s soul, or mind.
Because of its pragmatic approach, Stoicism flourished in the Roman Empire and played a big influence on Roman
culture, also contributing to the development of Christianity. Contrary to what many people may think, Stoicism
supports the idea of a supreme being. And unlike their Epicurean brethren, who believed in gods who were cold and
indifferent to the affairs of men, the Stoics believed in a god that was very much active in the affairs of everyday life –
the Logos, or divine reason. However, this is not to be confused with the biblical God; the Stoics offer no scriptures,
and give our ability to reason as the greatest divine revelation of all.
Page 1 of 4
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Source: Stoicism in History & Modern Life, Philosophy Now
https://philosophynow.org/issues/157/Stoicism_in_History_and_Modern_Life
Central Theme: The central theme of the passage is Stoicism—its foundational principles, its applicability in everyday life,
and its historical and theological implications. The passage aims to elucidate why Stoicism has gained renewed interest and
why it is relevant today.
Tone: The tone of the passage is informative and analytical. It conveys complex ideas in a straightforward manner, aiming to
educate the reader about the principles and impact of Stoicism.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Introduces Stoicism and its founder, Zeno of Citium, emphasizing that Stoicism is a philosophy
designed for the common person rather than the academic.
• Second Paragraph: Explores the core philosophical principles of Stoicism, focusing on the pursuit of an authentic life
guided by rationality and control over one's actions.
• Third Paragraph: Discusses the historical and cultural influence of Stoicism, particularly in the Roman Empire, and its
theological underpinnings, notably the Stoic belief in an active divine presence known as the Logos.

The passage follows a logical, thematic progression. It starts by introducing Stoicism and its founder, Zeno, to provide
background and context. It then delves into the core principles of Stoicism, unpacking its philosophical stance and its
practical applications for living a rational, authentic life. Finally, it explores the historical and cultural influence of Stoicism,
especially its impact on Roman culture and its theological implications. Each paragraph builds on the last, forming a
comprehensive, multi-faceted view of Stoicism—from its origins and philosophy to its cultural and historical relevance.
Page 2 of 4
REASONING CHECK
Inference 1:
Stoicism was designed to serve as a bridge between academic philosophy and real-world application, creating a dual focus
that has contributed to its lasting relevance.
Inference 2:
Zeno of Citium chose the Athens marketplace as the venue for his lectures due to its bustling atmosphere, which provided a
diverse audience more so than intending to make his philosophy accessible to everyone.
Inference 3:
Stoicism values emotional wisdom almost as much as it values rational thought when it comes to dealing with life's various
challenges.
Inference 4:
The core principle of Stoicism, which aims for a state of apatheia, encourages individuals to minimize the impact of suffering
but doesn't necessarily guide them on what actions to take during times of difficulty.
Inference 5:
Epictetus suggests that the primary function of philosophy could be seen as equipping individuals with the tools to acquire
external goods and securities in life.
Inference 6:
Bertrand Russell, in his chapter on Stoicism, posits that one could achieve virtue by putting equal effort into controlling
external circumstances as in developing one’s own character.
Inference 7:
Stoicism's influence was mainly confined to the philosophical circles of the Roman Empire, with marginal impact on the
broader cultural and religious aspects of Roman life.
Inference 8:
Stoicism's concept of a supreme being leans more towards an abstract, indifferent force, unlike the involved gods of
Epicureanism.
Inference 9:
Stoicism is a philosophy best suited for specific groups of people such as traders and soldiers, as it is rooted in the practical
aspects of their lives rather than being a universal philosophy.
Page 3 of 4
All are INVALID
Inference 1:
Stoicism was designed to serve as a bridge between academic philosophy and real-world application, creating a dual focus that has
contributed to its lasting relevance. Invalid
Reason: The passage states that Stoicism is not well-suited for the academy and emphasizes real-world application. It does not mention
that Stoicism was designed as a bridge between academic philosophy and real-world application.
Corrected Inference: Stoicism was designed to be a philosophy that emphasizes real-world application, rather than academic speculation.
Inference 2:
Zeno of Citium chose the Athens marketplace as the venue for his lectures due to its bustling atmosphere, which provided a diverse
audience more so than intending to make his philosophy accessible to everyone. Invalid
Reason: The text states that Zeno chose the marketplace to make his philosophy accessible to everyone. There is no mention of the
bustling atmosphere or a diverse audience.
Corrected Inference: Zeno of Citium chose the Athens marketplace as the venue for his lectures to make his philosophy accessible to
everyone.
Inference 3:
Stoicism values emotional wisdom almost as much as it values rational thought when it comes to dealing with life's various challenges.
Invalid
Reason: Stoicism focuses on using reason rather than emotions, according to the passage.
Corrected Inference: Stoicism places greater value on rational thought over emotional wisdom for dealing with life's various challenges.
Inference 4:
The core principle of Stoicism, which aims for a state of apatheia, encourages individuals to minimize the impact of suffering but doesn't
necessarily guide them on what actions to take during times of difficulty. Invalid
Reason: The text does state that Stoicism aims for a state of apatheia, which minimizes the impact of suffering. However, the text also
mentions that Stoicism is meant to help individuals navigate real-world situations, implying some guidance on action.
Corrected Inference: The core principle of Stoicism aims for a state of apatheia and encourages individuals to navigate through real-world
situations with equanimity.
Inference 5:
Epictetus suggests that the primary function of philosophy could be seen as equipping individuals with the tools to acquire external goods
and securities in life. Invalid
Reason: Epictetus explicitly states that philosophy does not promise to secure anything external for man.
Corrected Inference: According to Epictetus, the primary function of philosophy is to guide individuals in the art of living, not in acquiring
external goods and securities.
Inference 6:
Bertrand Russell, in his chapter on Stoicism, posits that one could achieve virtue by putting equal effort into controlling external
circumstances as in developing one’s own character. Invalid
Reason: Bertrand Russell states that focusing on developing one's character is the key, not controlling external circumstances.
Corrected Inference: Bertrand Russell, in his chapter on Stoicism, suggests that virtue is achieved by focusing on developing one’s own
character rather than controlling external circumstances.
Inference 7:
Stoicism's influence was mainly confined to the philosophical circles of the Roman Empire, with marginal impact on the broader cultural and
religious aspects of Roman life. Invalid
Reason: The passage states that Stoicism had a significant influence on Roman culture and contributed to the development of Christianity.
Corrected Inference: Stoicism had a significant influence not only in the philosophical circles but also on the broader cultural and religious
aspects of the Roman Empire.
Inference 8:
Stoicism's concept of a supreme being leans more towards an abstract, indifferent force, unlike the involved gods of Epicureanism. Invalid
Reason: According to the passage, Stoics believed in a god that is active in everyday affairs, not an abstract, indifferent force. Additionally,
Epicureans believed in gods who were cold and indifferent.
Corrected Inference: Stoicism’s concept of a supreme being is that of an active force involved in everyday life, contrary to the indifferent
gods of Epicureanism.
Inference 9:
Stoicism is a philosophy best suited for specific groups of people such as traders and soldiers, as it is rooted in the practical aspects of
their lives rather than being a universal philosophy. Invalid
Reason: The passage does mention that Stoicism is particularly well-suited for traders, soldiers, and others. However, it also suggests Zeno
wanted his tenets to be useful for everyone, implying a universal application.
Corrected Inference: While Stoicism has found strong resonance among specific groups like traders and soldiers, its principles were
designed to be universally applicable.
Page 4 of 4
Literary critics say that art in 20th century is divided into two more or less distinct literary movements: modernism and
postmodernism. Now, you can debate until your pen runs dry whether or not "modernism" or "postmodernism" are
legitimate literary trends and could debate whether or not "literary movements" even exist at all--that they are simply
what marketers and so-called literary critics use to easily and quickly classify huge groups of books--in other words, a
gross display of laziness, pretension, and willful ignorance. That's not what I'm going to discuss in this post. The
opinion of this particular blogger is that literary movements are more or less real: events on a global, national, or local
scale are inescapable, and artists simply react to shared events in a more or less predictable way, albeit in their own
unique manner.
So let's operate under the assumption that postmodernism and modernism are real movements and not a load of
Dickensian word-filler. There's a lot of debate of what postmodernism actually is. Taken literally, it means "after
modernism." Postmodernism is a reaction to modernism: a skepticism towards modernist beliefs in empiricism,
technology, human progress, and metanarratives. It's no secret that all literary movements are simply reactions to the
previous one--severe swings to the opposite end of the spectrum. So, with a name like "postmodernism," what could
possibly follow something that already touts itself as after something else? Post-postmodernism? That's an echolalic
mouthful. The question has been on everyone's mind. And when I say "everyone," I mean "bored English majors," like
me.
As recently as 2010, literary critics have come up with a few possible terms to define this weird, ambiguous state art is
in. In this post, I will focus on one of those terms: metamodernism. The "meta-" in metamodernism doesn't come from
"meta-" as in "metaphysics," meaning referring to itself, but "meta-" as in Plato's ideas of metaxy. Plato conceived of
metaxy as a state of being in between two opposing views while at the same time moving beyond them. So what does
that mean? Metamodernism is the literary movement that is defined by being in a constant state of flux between
modernist and postmodernist ideals. This essentially means holding both states of hopelessness and hope, sincerity
and irony, knowingness and naivete, deconstruction and reconstruction in one's head and then producing something
out that liminal, fluctuating space. It's all about being in a state where you know you're on the edge, but could be
saved. You just don't know. Critics say that metamodernism bloomed out of a reaction to climate change--the idea that
we are destroying our planet, that we are doing this to ourselves, and the idea that maybe this is a good thing. Humans
are essentially a bad influence on this planet. So we're simultaneously rooting for our demise but at the same time,
want to live. This is the state of flux metamodernism puts us in. With this kind of mindset, how do you think you would
act? What kind of art would you produce?
Page 1 of 4
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Source: Huffington Post
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/postpostmodernism-where-d_b_7451724
Central Theme: The central idea of the passage revolves around the concept of "metamodernism" as a literary movement.
The author argues that metamodernism emerges from a state of fluctuation between modernist and postmodernist ideals.
This fluctuation reflects the complex, ambivalent feelings about climate change and human impact on the Earth, embodying
a state of both hope and despair..
Tone: The tone of the passage is scholarly and contemplative, but also somewhat colloquial and conversational. Phrases like
"bored English majors, like me," make the discussion more accessible, even as it dives into complex topics like Plato's
metaxy and the nuances of literary movements.
Key Ideas:
• Paragraph 1: Introduces the concept of literary movements and asserts their validity, focusing on modernism and
postmodernism.
• Paragraph 2: Delves into the complexity and ambiguity of the term "postmodernism," also highlighting the difficulty in
determining what could follow this movement.
• Paragraph 3: Introduces the term "metamodernism," and explains its origin and characteristics, connecting it with a
reaction to climate change.

The passage begins by establishing the foundational idea that literary movements, particularly modernism and
postmodernism, are real and impactful (Paragraph 1). It then transitions to discussing the inherent complexity in defining
postmodernism and raises the question of what could logically follow such a movement (Paragraph 2). Finally, the text
zeroes in on one term, "metamodernism," describing its philosophical underpinnings, its attributes, and its relevance to
current societal issues like climate change (Paragraph 3). This structure serves as a funnel, moving from general concepts
about literary movements to the specific, emerging notion of metamodernism.
Page 2 of 4
REASONING CHECK
In each question, identify the statement that the author with agree with
1
A. Literary movements are just convenient labels that critics and marketers use to oversimplify and classify works of art.
B. Literary movements are real and have a legitimate impact on art and society.
2
A. Modernism and postmodernism are not just Dickensian word-fillers; they reflect actual shifts in literary thought.
B. Modernism and postmodernism are just jargon terms that don't capture any real shift in artistic or literary sensibilities.
3.
A. The term "postmodernism" is straightforward and aligns perfectly with modernist principles.
B. The term "postmodernism" carries with it an inherent complexity and skepticism towards modernist ideals.
4.
A. Most literary movements are reactions to their predecessors, often representing a swing to the opposite end of the
ideological spectrum.
B. Literary movements are standalone phenomena, and they do not necessarily react against or build upon their
predecessors.
5.
A. Metamodernism is a stagnant movement that doesn't incorporate any elements from modernism or postmodernism.
B. Metamodernism is a literary movement that exists in a state of flux between modernist and postmodernist ideals.
6.
A. Art produced under the metamodernist framework is likely to reflect its inherent contradictions, revealing both the dire
state of the world and the possibility of redemption.
B. Art produced under the metamodernist framework may not contain too many inherent contradictions and is more likely
represent a singular, unambiguous point of view.
7.
A. Literary critics have definitively categorized the current state of art and literature, and there's no need for terms like
"metamodernism."
B. Literary critics are still grappling with how to define the current state of art and literature, and metamodernism is one of
the terms that have been proposed.
8.
A. Climate change has played a significant role in the emergence of metamodernism, as it embodies conflicting feelings of
despair and potential for change.
B. Climate change has little bearing on the emergence or attributes of metamodernism; it is largely unrelated to the trends
that we can see in the current literary space.
Page 3 of 4
ANSWERS
1
A. Literary movements are just convenient labels that critics and marketers use to oversimplify and classify works of art.
B. Literary movements are real and have a legitimate impact on art and society.
The author clearly states, "The opinion of this particular blogger is that literary movements are more or less real: events on a global,
national, or local scale are inescapable, and artists simply react to shared events in a more or less predictable way, albeit in their own
unique manner." This suggests that the author believes that literary movements have a real and impactful influence on art and society.
2
A. Modernism and postmodernism are not just Dickensian word-fillers; they reflect actual shifts in literary thought.
B. Modernism and postmodernism are just jargon terms that don't capture any real shift in artistic or literary sensibilities.
The author asks readers to "operate under the assumption that postmodernism and modernism are real movements and not a load of
Dickensian word-filler." This suggests that these movements represent genuine shifts in literary perspectives, rather than merely serving as
fancy terminology.
3.
A. The term "postmodernism" is straightforward and aligns perfectly with modernist principles.
B. The term "postmodernism" carries with it an inherent complexity and skepticism towards modernist ideals.
The author states that "Postmodernism is a reaction to modernism: a skepticism towards modernist beliefs in empiricism, technology,
human progress, and metanarratives." This indicates that postmodernism is inherently complex and challenges the ideas propagated by
modernism.
4.
A. Most literary movements are reactions to their predecessors, often representing a swing to the opposite end of the ideological
spectrum.
B. Literary movements are standalone phenomena, and they do not necessarily react against or build upon their predecessors.
The author notes, "It's no secret that all literary movements are simply reactions to the previous one—severe swings to the opposite end of
the spectrum." This line explicitly supports the notion that most literary movements react against their predecessors.
5.
A. Metamodernism is a stagnant movement that doesn't incorporate any elements from modernism or postmodernism.
B. Metamodernism is a literary movement that exists in a state of flux between modernist and postmodernist ideals.
The author describes metamodernism as "the literary movement that is defined by being in a constant state of flux between modernist and
postmodernist ideals." This directly supports the idea that metamodernism occupies a fluctuating position between modernism and
postmodernism.
6.
A. Art produced under the metamodernist framework is likely to reflect its inherent contradictions, revealing both the dire state of the
world and the possibility of redemption.
B. Art produced under the metamodernist framework may not contain too many inherent contradictions and is more likely represent a
singular, unambiguous point of view.
The author states that metamodernism involves "holding both states of hopelessness and hope, sincerity and irony, knowingness and
naivete, deconstruction and reconstruction in one's head." This suggests that art created under this framework would embrace these
contradictions.
7.
A. Literary critics have definitively categorized the current state of art and literature, and there's no need for terms like "metamodernism."
B. Literary critics are still grappling with how to define the current state of art and literature, and metamodernism is one of the terms that
have been proposed.
The author points out that "as recently as 2010, literary critics have come up with a few possible terms to define this weird, ambiguous state
art is in." This implies that the categorization of current literary and artistic movements is still an ongoing debate.
8.
A. Climate change has played a significant role in the emergence of metamodernism, as it embodies conflicting feelings of despair and
potential for change.
B. Climate change has little bearing on the emergence or attributes of metamodernism; it is largely unrelated to the trends that we can
see in the current literary space.
The author mentions that "Critics say that metamodernism bloomed out of a reaction to climate change—the idea that we are destroying
our planet, that we are doing this to ourselves, and the idea that maybe this is a good thing." This implies that climate change has been a
driving force behind the conflicting feelings that metamodernism embodies.
Page 4 of 4
Isaac Newton's role in the Scientific Revolution was transformative, to say the least. His groundbreaking work, which
included the laws of motion and the universal law of gravitation, became the cornerstone for classical physics. These
developments had immediate and far-reaching implications in various practical applications, most notably in maritime
navigation. The Newtonian framework allowed for the development of more accurate chronometers and navigational
instruments, which gave European explorers a significant advantage in crossing uncharted waters. These technologies
were critical in facilitating the Age of Exploration and eventually the colonization of far-flung territories. But here lies an
ethical quandary. This very knowledge, symbolizing human progress and intellectual mastery over natural forces, was
weaponized for colonial exploitation. European powers used their technological superiority to navigate, conquer, and
lay claim to lands that were previously outside their reach, often displacing native populations and disrupting local
ecosystems. So, while Newton's contributions catalyzed scientific advancements and heralded a new epoch of human
understanding, they also inadvertently intensified the reach and impact of colonialism, creating ethical and
humanitarian issues that continue to resonate today.
In the realm of medicine, the Scientific Revolution was nothing short of revolutionary. Andreas Vesalius, with his
meticulous anatomical studies detailed in "De Humani Corporis Fabrica," fundamentally transformed our
understanding of human anatomy. His reliance on direct observation and dissection broke away from the dogmatic
adherence to ancient texts, chiefly those of Galen, leading to more accurate and effective medical treatments and
surgeries. But the flip side of this advancement was ethically fraught. Vesalius often used the cadavers of executed
criminals for his dissections. The ethical dimension becomes particularly challenging when considering that these
bodies were frequently dissected without consent from the individuals before their deaths or their families afterward.
While the scientific community benefited enormously from these anatomical investigations, they raised severe ethical
questions concerning the moral cost of scientific discovery. Is the advancement of collective human knowledge
justified if it comes at the expense of individual human dignity?
The concept of epistemological imperialism also became starkly visible during the Scientific Revolution, particularly
through colonial encounters. Take the example of British colonial India. The region had long-standing and
sophisticated agricultural practices, honed over centuries and tailored to suit local ecological conditions. Techniques
such as crop rotation, terracing, and sophisticated water management systems like step-wells and canals were
prevalent. However, colonial authorities, ingrained with the belief in Western scientific and technological superiority,
often dismissed these as primitive. They imposed European agricultural systems, not recognizing that these Western
methods were not always suitable for the local environment. This led to ecological degradation and social upheaval, as
indigenous knowledge was marginalized and traditional ways of life were disrupted. The result was not just an erasure
of local wisdom, but an imposition of external, and sometimes detrimental, practices on colonized peoples.
On the social front, the Scientific Revolution did bring about some level of democratization of knowledge. Institutions
like the Royal Society in London made concerted efforts to disseminate scientific discoveries and offer a communal
space for intellectual discourse. However, this openness had its limits. Membership to these scholarly circles was
almost exclusively restricted to men of a particular social and economic class. Women, people of color, and individuals
from lower socio-economic backgrounds were largely excluded. Émilie du Châtelet serves as an apt example here.
Despite her formidable intellect and substantial contributions to Newtonian physics, her work was often overshadowed
by societal biases against women in intellectual pursuits. This leads us to wonder how many potential Newtons and
Vesaliuses were lost to history simply because they were born into circumstances that didn't afford them the privilege
of education or social standing.
Each of these expanded paragraphs serves to further illuminate the complexities and dualities inherent in the Scientific
Revolution, showcasing its significant but morally complex impact on history and modern society.
Page 1 of 5
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Source: Huffington Post
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/postpostmodernism-where-d_b_7451724
Central Theme: The central theme of the passage is the ethical and moral complexities associated with the advancements
brought about by the Scientific Revolution. While the revolution undeniably led to groundbreaking discoveries in physics,
medicine, and other fields, it also raised ethical dilemmas and facilitated social and colonial exploitation.
Tone: The tone of the passage is analytical, offering a balanced examination of the Scientific Revolution's
achievements alongside its ethical and social implications.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Newton’s contributions to physics had far-reaching practical applications but were also weaponized for
colonial exploitation.
• Second Paragraph: Andreas Vesalius revolutionized medicine with his anatomical studies but raised ethical questions
about the use of cadavers without consent.
• Third Paragraph: Western "epistemological imperialism" during the Scientific Revolution led to the marginalization of
indigenous knowledge, causing ecological and social problems.
• Fourth Paragraph: Although the Scientific Revolution democratized knowledge to some extent, access to this knowledge
and the intellectual community was still largely exclusive based on gender and social standing.
• Fifth Paragraph: Summary of the dualities inherent in the Scientific Revolution and its complex moral and historical
impact.

The passage starts by introducing the transformative role of Isaac Newton in the Scientific Revolution, acknowledging its
groundbreaking contributions but also setting up the theme of ethical dilemmas through the example of colonial exploitation.
The second paragraph shifts to the realm of medicine, using the work of Andreas Vesalius to further examine the balance
between scientific progress and ethical considerations. The third paragraph introduces the notion of "epistemological
imperialism" to highlight the Scientific Revolution's impact on indigenous knowledge and ecosystems. The fourth paragraph
expands the discussion to social exclusivity, specifically regarding who had access to education and scientific discourse. The
final paragraph serves as a summary and conclusion, synthesizing the complexities and dualities presented in each of the
preceding paragraphs to present a nuanced view of the Scientific Revolution.
Page 2 of 5
REASONING CHECK
In each question, identify the statement that is true based on the information given in the passage.
1
A. The Scientific Revolution largely gave rise to colonial inclinations and, in addition to it, intensified the colonial tendencies
that were already in place at the time.
B. Despite its benefits, the Scientific Revolution indirectly intensified colonialism's impact, raising relevant ethical and
humanitarian issues.
2
A. The imposition of Western scientific methods often led to the marginalization of indigenous knowledge, sometimes
causing ecological degradation and social upheaval.
B. The imposition of Western agricultural methods during colonial rule was aimed at eradicating indigenous practices
rather than adapting to them.
3.
A. The Scientific Revolution, through figures like Isaac Newton, revolutionized classical physics and opened up new
avenues for practical applications like maritime navigation.
B. Isaac Newton’s groundbreaking contributions to classical physics quickly found applicability across multiple domains,
most notably revolutionizing key sectors like agriculture and manufacturing.
4.
A. The Royal Society's efforts in democratizing knowledge led to a substantial reduction in superstitions and myths among
the general populace.
B. Institutions like the Royal Society facilitated the democratization of knowledge, offering a communal space for intellectual
discourse.
5.
A. The Scientific Revolution led to a seamless integration of science and spirituality, resolving long-standing conflicts
between the two.
B. The Scientific Revolution contributed to a new epoch of human understanding, challenging older, unempirical methods
of knowledge acquisition.
6.
A. Andreas Vesalius' work in anatomy represented a significant break from past medical dogmas, leading to more accurate
surgeries.
B. Andreas Vesalius' use of cadavers was primarily driven by a disregard for ethical considerations, rather than scientific
curiosity.
8.
A. During the time of the Scientific Revolution, intellectual groups attempted to include women in their discussions, but they
were inhibited by the strongly ingrained cultural conventions of the time.
B. The advancements of the Scientific Revolution had an exclusionary aspect, barring women, people of color, and those
from lower socio-economic backgrounds from participating fully in the intellectual community.
Page 3 of 5
ANSWERS
1
A. The Scientific Revolution largely gave rise to colonial inclinations and, in addition to it, intensified the colonial tendencies that were
already in place at the time.
B. Despite its benefits, the Scientific Revolution indirectly intensified colonialism's impact, raising relevant ethical and humanitarian issues.
Option A
This option incorrectly states that the Scientific Revolution "largely gave rise to colonial inclinations." The passage specifies that Newton's
work "inadvertently intensified the reach and impact of colonialism," but it does not claim that the Scientific Revolution initiated colonial
tendencies.
Option B
This is correct. The passage clearly states that while Newton's contributions were groundbreaking, they also "inadvertently intensified the
reach and impact of colonialism."
2
A. The imposition of Western scientific methods often led to the marginalization of indigenous knowledge, sometimes causing ecological
degradation and social upheaval.
B. The imposition of Western agricultural methods during colonial rule was aimed at eradicating indigenous practices rather than
adapting to them.
Option A
This answer aligns with what is stated in the passage, specifically that Western methods marginalized indigenous knowledge and led to
negative consequences such as ecological degradation and social upheaval.
Option B
The passage does not mention that the imposition of Western agricultural methods was aimed at eradicating indigenous practices. It only
states that indigenous practices were marginalized.
3.
A. The Scientific Revolution, through figures like Isaac Newton, revolutionized classical physics and opened up new avenues for practical
applications like maritime navigation.
B. Isaac Newton’s groundbreaking contributions to classical physics quickly found applicability across multiple domains, most notably
revolutionizing key sectors like agriculture and manufacturing.
Option A
The passage directly discusses how Newton's work revolutionized classical physics and had practical applications, notably in maritime
navigation.
Option B
The passage doesn't mention that Newton's contributions had applicability in agriculture and manufacturing.
4.
A. The Royal Society's efforts in democratizing knowledge led to a substantial reduction in superstitions and myths among the general
populace.
B. Institutions like the Royal Society facilitated the democratization of knowledge, offering a communal space for intellectual discourse.
Option A
The passage does not mention anything about the Royal Society's efforts leading to a substantial reduction in superstitions and myths.
Option B
This is in line with the passage, which states that the Royal Society offered a communal space for intellectual discourse, thereby facilitating
the democratization of knowledge.
5.
A. The Scientific Revolution led to a seamless integration of science and spirituality, resolving long-standing conflicts between the two.
B. The Scientific Revolution contributed to a new epoch of human understanding, challenging older, unempirical methods of knowledge
acquisition.
Option A
The passage does not discuss the integration of science and spirituality as a result of the Scientific Revolution.
Option B
This option is accurate. The passage mentions that the Scientific Revolution heralded a new epoch of human understanding.
Page 4 of 5
6.
A. Andreas Vesalius' work in anatomy represented a significant break from past medical dogmas, leading to more accurate surgeries.
B. Andreas Vesalius' use of cadavers was primarily driven by a disregard for ethical considerations, rather than scientific curiosity.
Option A
This is correct, as Vesalius' work led to a fundamental transformation in the understanding of human anatomy, breaking away from ancient
texts and leading to more accurate treatments.
Option B
The passage does mention the ethical dimension of using cadavers, but it does not say that Vesalius' use was "primarily driven by a
disregard for ethical considerations."
7.
A. During the time of the Scientific Revolution, intellectual groups attempted to include women in their discussions, but they were
inhibited by the strongly ingrained cultural conventions of the time.
B. The advancements of the Scientific Revolution had an exclusionary aspect, barring women, people of color, and those from lower
socio-economic backgrounds from participating fully in the intellectual community.
Option A
The passage does not mention any attempts to include women in intellectual discussions.
Option B
This is correct. The passage mentions how Émilie du Châtelet and others were barred from participating in the intellectual community due
to societal biases.
Page 5 of 5
The concept of death in Aztec civilization was far from a simplistic or one-dimensional subject; instead, it was a rich
and complex topic that was deeply interwoven with the society's religious beliefs, cultural norms, and cosmological
views. Unlike many modern societies, where death is often a subject of fear or avoided in polite conversation, the
Aztecs embraced it as an essential, inherent part of the tapestry of life. For them, death wasn't an end but merely a
chapter in a longer, more intricate journey that the soul undertook. This cultural understanding of death was so deeply
rooted that it influenced various facets of Aztec life, from daily rituals and ceremonies to political and state affairs. In
particular, the civilization's religious practices, which included the controversial act of human sacrifices, can only be
fully comprehended when looked at through the lens of their attitudes towards death.
At the heart of Aztec beliefs about death is the central idea of duality, a concept rooted in their fundamental
cosmology. According to Aztec mythology, the world as we know it has gone through several cycles of creation and
destruction. In this cyclical worldview, life and death are not polar opposites but are rather two complementary phases
in an eternal cycle of existence. Just as the world itself had undergone multiple iterations, each punctuated by events
of life, death, and rebirth, the Aztec people saw human existence in a similar light. In this view, the transformation of
day into night served as a natural metaphor for the transition from life into death. Death, then, was not an ending but a
natural and expected phase in the ongoing cycle of life.
In practical terms, the Aztecs believed that after death, one's soul would embark on a perilous journey to Mictlán, the
underworld ruled by the god Mictlantecuhtli and his consort, Mictecacíhuatl. The journey was filled with obstacles,
including treacherous mountains, raging rivers, and vicious beasts. However, this was not a punitive underworld akin
to Hell but a realm of passage, a temporary stopping point before the soul's eventual return to the earthly or celestial
sphere. Different types of death led to different destinies: warriors who died in battle bypassed Mictlán to join the sun
god Huitzilopochtli in his celestial palace, while women who died in childbirth became divine figures called
"Cihuateteo," revered and feared in equal measure.
The Aztecs engaged in elaborate burial practices to equip the deceased for their journey. They buried the dead with
offerings like food, ornaments, and tools, believing these items would aid them in the afterlife. Sometimes, pets were
sacrificed to accompany their owners. The direction in which the deceased were laid down also had significance; for
instance, warriors were often buried facing the sun.
The idea of death as a form of transition also justified the practice of human sacrifice. Contrary to the popular Western
interpretation as barbaric, the Aztecs saw sacrifices as a way to maintain cosmic balance. The belief was that the gods
had sacrificed themselves to create the world, and it was humankind's responsibility to return the favor to sustain the
cosmic equilibrium. Through ritual sacrifice, the individual was believed to join the gods or the sun, thus achieving a
higher form of existence. This idea served as a societal pacifier, making the sacrificial subjects often willing
participants in the ritual.
Moreover, the ritualistic aspect of death provided a platform for reinforcing social and political hierarchies. Rulers,
priests, and nobles had specific death rites, far more elaborate than commoners, to signify their higher social standing.
In doing so, the concept of death was exploited to maintain a status quo, imprinting a religious justification for societal
inequality.
Page 1 of 4
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Extarcted, with revisions, from “Papers from the Institute of Archaeology, University College London]
Central Theme: The central theme of this text revolves around the Aztecs' complex and multifaceted perspective on death,
demonstrating how their unique beliefs influenced various aspects of their society, from religious practices to social norms
and political affairs. It delves into how death was not seen as an end, but rather as a part of a cyclical process of existence.
Tone: The tone of the text is academic and analytical, aiming to explore and elucidate the intricacies of Aztec beliefs about
death. It does not pass judgment but seeks to provide a well-rounded view of the subject matter.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Introduction to the Aztecs' unique approach to death, highlighting its complexity and how it is woven
into various facets of their life, including religion and politics.
• Second Paragraph: Explains the fundamental Aztec concept of duality and its influence on their view of death, positing
life and death as two sides of an eternal cycle.
• Third Paragraph: Describes the practical beliefs regarding what happens after death, detailing the soul's journey to the
underworld, Mictlán, and various possible afterlife destinies depending on how one dies.
• Fourth Paragraph: Discusses the Aztec burial practices designed to equip the deceased for their afterlife journey.
• Fifth Paragraph: Explains the societal rationale behind human sacrifice, tying it to the broader Aztec belief system around
death.
• Sixth Paragraph: Demonstrates how death and related rituals served as tools to reinforce social and political hierarchies.

The text starts with an introductory paragraph that lays out the complex Aztec view of death and its societal implications,
setting the stage for the thematic exploration that follows. The second paragraph builds on this by going into the
philosophical underpinnings of Aztec beliefs, specifically the concept of duality. This serves as a foundation for
understanding the more practical aspects discussed in the subsequent paragraphs. The third and fourth paragraphs get into
the specifics of what the Aztecs believed happens after death, serving as a logical next step after understanding their
philosophical stance. The fifth paragraph takes a somewhat divergent but important turn to discuss human sacrifice, an
essential aspect of Aztec culture that can only be fully understood in the context of their beliefs about death. The final
paragraph closes the circle by linking the theme back to societal structures, showing how the Aztec view of death was not
just a philosophical or religious notion but had direct implications on the social and political landscape.
Page 2 of 4
REASONING CHECK
In each question, identify the statement that is true based on the information given in the passage.
1
A. The Aztecs had an intricate understanding and acceptance of death, which was deeply embedded in their societal and
B. The Aztecs had a strong aversion to discussing death, considering it a subject best avoided in societal and religious
contexts.
2
A. The Aztecs believed in a linear progression of existence, where life is followed by eternal death with no recurrence.
B. The Aztecs believed in a cyclical view of existence, where life and death are interlinked phases, not polar opposites.
3.
A. Aztec mythology played a crucial role in shaping their perspectives on death, especially the stories involving the gods
and the cyclical nature of the world.
B. Aztec views on death were shaped predominantly by the rational viewpoint and metaphysical investigations into the
meaning of life and the nature of the world.
4.
A. The manner of one's death had implications on the soul's afterlife journey, with warriors and women who died in
childbirth, for example, having different destinies.
B. Regardless of how one departed from this world, every soul underwent the same afterlife journey, emphasising an
inherent equality in the destinies of people irrespective of their circumstances.
5.
A. The complex views on death were also employed to legitimize social and political hierarchies, providing a religious basis
for maintaining the status quo.
B. Aztec social and political hierarchies were largely grounded in economic and military power, with religious justifications
providing an augmented role.
6.
A. Human sacrifices were conducted to penalize individuals for their wrongdoings, serving as a form of societal retribution.
B. Human sacrifice in Aztec culture was seen as a way to maintain cosmic balance and was often willingly participated in.
Page 3 of 4
ANSWERS
1
A. The Aztecs had an intricate understanding and acceptance of death, which was deeply embedded in their societal and
B. The Aztecs had a strong aversion to discussing death, considering it a subject best avoided in societal and religious
contexts.
A: The passage says, "The concept of death in Aztec civilization was far from a simplistic or one-dimensional subject; instead,
it was a rich and complex topic that was deeply interwoven with the society's religious beliefs, cultural norms, and
cosmological views."
B: The passage clearly states that the Aztecs embraced death rather than avoiding the discussion.
2
A. The Aztecs believed in a linear progression of existence, where life is followed by eternal death with no recurrence.
B. The Aztecs believed in a cyclical view of existence, where life and death are interlinked phases, not polar opposites.
A: The Aztecs believed in a cyclical, not linear, view of existence.

B: According to the text, "life and death are not polar opposites but are rather two complementary phases in an eternal cycle
of existence."
3.
A. Aztec mythology played a crucial role in shaping their perspectives on death, especially the stories involving the gods
and the cyclical nature of the world.
B. Aztec views on death were shaped predominantly by the rational viewpoint and metaphysical investigations into the
meaning of life and the nature of the world.
A: Aztec mythology, including the idea of duality and the cycles of creation and destruction, influenced their views on death.
B: The text does not mention rational or metaphysical investigations shaping their views on death.
4.
A. The manner of one's death had implications on the soul's afterlife journey, with warriors and women who died in
childbirth, for example, having different destinies.
B. Regardless of how one departed from this world, every soul underwent the same afterlife journey, emphasising an
inherent equality in the destinies of people irrespective of their circumstances.
A: The text states, "Different types of death led to different destinies."

B: The passage clearly says that the manner of one's death did affect their afterlife journey.
5.
A. The complex views on death were also employed to legitimize social and political hierarchies, providing a religious basis
for maintaining the status quo.
B. Aztec social and political hierarchies were largely grounded in economic and military power, with religious justifications
providing an augmented role.
A: The text mentions, "the concept of death was exploited to maintain a status quo, imprinting a religious justification for
societal inequality."
B: The passage does not state that the hierarchies were largely grounded in economic and military power.
6.
A. Human sacrifices were conducted to penalize individuals for their wrongdoings, serving as a form of societal retribution.
B. Human sacrifice in Aztec culture was seen as a way to maintain cosmic balance and was often willingly participated in.
A: The text states that human sacrifice was not for penalizing individuals but for maintaining cosmic balance.
B: According to the text, "The belief was that the gods had sacrificed themselves to create the world, and it was humankind's
responsibility to return the favor to sustain the cosmic equilibrium."
Page 4 of 4
Historically, the prevalent notion was that the brain functioned in isolation from the metabolic activities taking place in
other parts of the body. This perspective posited that the brain operated autonomously, irrespective of the nutritional
or metabolic inputs from the body. However, revolutionary findings from contemporary research have challenged and
reshaped this understanding. The intricate link between the brain and the body's metabolic processes, especially in
the context of food consumption, has come to light.
One of the breakthrough discoveries in this domain pertains to serotonin, a neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are
critical chemical messengers that facilitate the transmission of signals from one neuron to another. They play an
indispensable role in ensuring that the brain communicates efficiently with other cells. Serotonin, in particular, is
crucial for regulating mood, appetite, and sleep. What's fascinating is that the production and release of serotonin in
brain neurons are now known to be closely tied to the kind of food ingested and metabolized by the body.
Driven by curiosity, early experiments in this area focused on understanding the correlation between serotonin levels
and dietary tryptophan, an amino acid. Specifically, the research aimed to ascertain if serotonin levels would show a
marked increase in rats that were administered significant doses of tryptophan, akin to the spike observed when these
rats consumed food that influenced blood tryptophan levels. The results were revelatory. Almost immediately upon
eating, there was a noticeable synchronized rise in the levels of tryptophan in the blood, the brain, and consequently,
serotonin levels in the brain. Such concurrent surges bolstered the theory that under typical conditions, serotonin
production and release in the brain were closely intertwined with spikes in blood-tryptophan.
Further delving into this intricate relationship, subsequent experiments explored the role of insulin. When rats were
injected with insulin, it led to analogous surges in blood and brain tryptophan, and serotonin levels. This prompted
researchers to investigate if the natural secretion of insulin in rats after consuming a carbohydrate-rich meal would
have a similar effect on serotonin production. The results were affirmative. Following a carbohydrate-rich meal, which
triggered insulin secretion, there was a rise in both blood tryptophan and brain serotonin concentrations.
However, an unexpected twist emerged when the dietary experiment incorporated high protein content. Despite
proteins containing tryptophan, their intake resulted in a decline in brain tryptophan and serotonin levels. This
counterintuitive observation puzzled the researchers. Delving deeper, they found the crux of the anomaly in the
mechanism that ferries blood tryptophan to the brain. While this mechanism does transport tryptophan, it also
simultaneously transfers other amino acids present in proteins, like tyrosine and leucine. When a diet is rich in protein,
the blood witnesses a more pronounced rise in these other amino acids compared to tryptophan. Consequently, the
greater the protein content in a meal, the lower the ratio of blood tryptophan to these competing amino acids, leading
to a slower transport of tryptophan to the brain. This decelerated transport, in turn, impacts the subsequent production
and release of serotonin, thereby explaining the observed decline.
Page 1 of 8
PASSAGE DETAILS
Central Theme: The central theme of this passage highlights the interconnectedness between brain function and the body's
metabolic processes, specifically the influence of dietary intake on the production and release of the neurotransmitter
serotonin.
Tone: The tone of the text is scholarly and investigative. It presents a chronological exploration of discoveries and
experiments aimed at understanding the relationship between diet and brain function, especially regarding serotonin
production.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Introduces the conventional belief that the brain functioned independently of the body's metabolic
activities and introduces the shift in understanding due to recent findings.
• Second Paragraph: Presents a foundational understanding of neurotransmitters and emphasizes the significant role of
serotonin in regulating mood, appetite, and sleep. The paragraph also introduces the concept of food intake influencing
serotonin production in brain neurons.
• Third Paragraph: Delves into initial experiments investigating the relationship between serotonin levels and dietary
tryptophan. The results showed a synchronized rise in tryptophan in the blood, brain, and serotonin levels upon eating,
suggesting a strong correlation between diet and serotonin production.
• Fourth Paragraph: Expands on the above findings by exploring the role of insulin. When rats were injected with insulin,
similar surges in tryptophan and serotonin levels were observed, implying a relationship between insulin secretion and
serotonin production.
• Fifth Paragraph: Introduces an unexpected outcome when high-protein diets were studied. Despite proteins containing
tryptophan, their consumption led to a decline in brain tryptophan and serotonin levels.
• Sixth Paragraph: Provides an explanation for the unexpected results observed with protein-rich diets. The mechanism
that transfers blood tryptophan to the brain also transfers other amino acids, which compete with tryptophan. A diet high
in protein increases these competing amino acids, slowing down the transport of tryptophan to the brain and
consequently affecting serotonin production.

The passage initiates with a historical overview of how brain function was perceived in relation to the body's metabolic
activities. It then shifts to provide foundational knowledge about neurotransmitters and the role of serotonin. As the narrative
progresses, the text delves deeper into scientific experiments, starting with the basic correlation between dietary tryptophan
and serotonin levels, then integrating the role of insulin, and finally tackling the complexities introduced by protein-rich diets.
Each paragraph builds upon the previous, weaving a detailed exploration of how dietary intake can influence brain chemistry,
particularly serotonin production. The passage wraps up by explaining the counterintuitive findings observed with high-
protein diets, offering clarity to readers about the intricacies of the brain-body connection.
Page 2 of 8
REASONING CHECK
Answer the following 8 questions:
Question 1
Which of the following headings most aptly captures the essence of the passage?
(A) Neurotransmitters: Their Essential Role in Neuronal Signal Transmission
(B) Nutritional Intake and Evolution: A Revisited Bond
(C) Brain and Circulatory System: An Interconnected Relationship
(D) Amino Acids and Brain Chemistry: Linking Serotonin Production with Tyrosine
(E) The Influence of Dietary Choices on Serotonin Synthesis and Emission: New Discoveries
Question 2
Based on the passage, the rate at which tryptophan is delivered to a rat's brain cells changes according to the:
(A) quantity of protein included in its diet
(B) level of serotonin in the brain prior to eating
(C) presence of leucine in the bloodstream compared to the level of tyrosine post-feeding
(D) level of tryptophan in the brain before consumption
(E) count of neurons that contain serotonin.
Question 3
Based on the passage, at the onset of their initial research, the authors knew that:
(A) they would eventually have to conduct experiments where rats were given diets high in protein
(B) accurately measuring tryptophan levels in the bloodstream was challenging
(C) serotonin concentrations rose when rats consumed tryptophan-rich foods
(D) several neurotransmitters had their production tied to metabolic activities in other body parts
(E) serotonin concentrations surged when rats received substantial injections of tryptophan.
Question 4
Based on the passage, one motive for the authors feeding rats carbohydrates was to:
(A) lower the rats' tryptophan concentrations
(B) safeguard the rats against illnesses
(C) trigger insulin production in the rats
(D) show that insulin is the primary compound released by the body
(E) evaluate the impact of carbohydrates against that of proteins.
Question 5
Based on the passage, the higher the protein intake in a rat, the lesser will be the:
(A) proportion of the rat’s blood-tryptophan level to the serotonin synthesis and emission in its brain
(B) proportion of the rat’s blood-tryptophan level to the level of other amino acids in its blood present in the protein
(C) proportion of the rat’s blood-tyrosine level to its blood-leucine level
(D) total count of any neurotransmitters that the rat will generate and release
(E) total count of amino acids present in the rat’s blood.
Question 6
Based on the passage, an injection of insulin was most similar in its effect on rats to an injection of
(A) tyrosine
(B) leucine
(C) blood
(D) tryptophan
(E) protein
[contd…]
Page 3 of 8
Question 7
From the passage, it can be deduced that the LEAST probable assistance for a patient struggling with adequate serotonin
production and release would come from:
(A) Meals heavily dominated by protein
(B) Meals primarily made up of carbohydrates
(C) Meals that trigger the release of insulin
(D) Meals with minimal amounts of tyrosine
(E) Meals with scant concentrations of leucine.
Question 8
From the passage, it can be deduced that the authors initially hypothesized which of the following outcomes when they fed
rats with high quantities of protein?
(A) The serotonin levels in the rats' brains would remain stable.
(B) The levels of tryptophan in the rats' brains would diminish.
(C) The rats' tyrosine levels would rise at a slower pace than their leucine levels.
(D) The rats would generate an increased amount of insulin.
(E) The rats would synthesize neurotransmitters different from serotonin.
Page 4 of 8
Answers & Explanation
Question 1
Which of the following headings most aptly captures the essence of the passage?
(A) Neurotransmitters: Their Essential Role in Neuronal Signal Transmission

This choice is not accurate as the passage does not primarily focus on the role of neurotransmitters in neuronal signal
transmission. Instead, it delves into the relationship between serotonin (a neurotransmitter) and dietary choices. Therefore,
while neurotransmitters are discussed, this title does not encapsulate the main point of the passage.
(B) Nutritional Intake and Evolution: A Revisited Bond

This option is misleading. The passage does mention a change in understanding of the relationship between the brain and
the body's metabolic processes, but it does not discuss the evolution of nutritional intake or make it a central theme.
(C) Brain and Circulatory System: An Interconnected Relationship

While the relationship between the brain and the body's metabolic processes is central to the passage, the emphasis is not
on the circulatory system itself but on the influence of dietary choices on serotonin synthesis in the brain. This title is
therefore too broad.
(D) Amino Acids and Brain Chemistry: Linking Serotonin Production with Tyrosine
This choice narrows the scope too much by specifically highlighting tyrosine. While the interaction between tryptophan,
tyrosine, and other amino acids is mentioned in the context of protein-rich diets, the overall focus of the passage is on the
broader relationship between dietary choices and serotonin synthesis, not solely on the role of tyrosine.
(E) The Influence of Dietary Choices on Serotonin Synthesis and Emission: New Discoveries
This choice accurately captures the main theme of the passage. The text explores the effects of different dietary choices (like
tryptophan or protein intake) on serotonin synthesis in the brain, and highlights the revolutionary findings in this domain. This
title is comprehensive and represents the core content of the passage.
Question 2
Based on the passage, the rate at which tryptophan is delivered to a rat's brain cells changes according to the:
(A) quantity of protein included in its diet
This is the correct choice. The passage explicitly mentions that when the diet incorporated high protein content, there was a
decline in brain tryptophan and serotonin levels. It further explains that with a diet rich in protein, there is a more pronounced
rise in other amino acids compared to tryptophan, which leads to a slower transport of tryptophan to the brain.
(B) level of serotonin in the brain prior to eating

This option is not supported by the passage. The text does not discuss the level of serotonin in the brain prior to eating
affecting the rate of tryptophan delivery to the brain.
(C) presence of leucine in the bloodstream compared to the level of tyrosine post-feeding
The passage does discuss the presence of leucine (and other amino acids like tyrosine) in the bloodstream when discussing
a diet rich in protein, but it doesn't compare the presence of leucine to the level of tyrosine post-feeding in terms of their
direct influence on the delivery of tryptophan.
(D) level of tryptophan in the brain before consumption

The passage does not discuss the level of tryptophan in the brain before consumption as a factor that affects the rate at
which tryptophan is delivered to the brain cells.
(E) count of neurons that contain serotonin

This option is not supported by the passage. The number of neurons containing serotonin is not mentioned as a factor
influencing the rate of tryptophan delivery to the brain.
Page 5 of 8
Question 3
Based on the passage, at the onset of their initial research, the authors knew that:
(A) they would eventually have to conduct experiments where rats were given diets high in protein
The passage doesn't state that the researchers knew they would have to use protein-rich diets from the outset of their
research.
(B) accurately measuring tryptophan levels in the bloodstream was challenging

The passage does not mention any challenges related to measuring tryptophan levels in the bloodstream.
(C) serotonin concentrations rose when rats consumed tryptophan-rich foods

This is the correct choice. The passage states that early experiments were driven by curiosity to understand "the correlation
between serotonin levels and dietary tryptophan, an amino acid," implying they already knew that there was a link between
the two.
(D) several neurotransmitters had their production tied to metabolic activities in other body parts
The passage does talk about the revolutionary findings that changed the understanding of the brain's connection to
metabolic processes in the body. However, it primarily focuses on serotonin and doesn't indicate that the researchers knew
this about multiple neurotransmitters from the beginning.
(E) serotonin concentrations surged when rats received substantial injections of tryptophan
The passage describes this as one of the outcomes of the research experiments, but it doesn't imply that the researchers
knew this at the onset of their initial research.
Question 4
Based on the passage, one motive for the authors feeding rats carbohydrates was to:
(A) lower the rats' tryptophan concentrations
The passage does not indicate that the researchers fed rats carbohydrates to lower their tryptophan concentrations. Instead,
the passage suggests that carbohydrate intake led to a rise in both blood tryptophan and brain serotonin concentrations.
(B) safeguard the rats against illnesses

The passage does not mention any intent to safeguard rats against illnesses.
(C) trigger insulin production in the rats

This is the correct choice. The passage states: "This prompted researchers to investigate if the natural secretion of insulin in
rats after consuming a carbohydrate-rich meal would have a similar effect on serotonin production." This implies the
researchers fed rats carbohydrates to see the effect of naturally triggered insulin on serotonin production.
(D) show that insulin is the primary compound released by the body
The passage does not suggest that the aim was to show insulin as the primary compound released by the body. The focus
was on the effect of insulin on tryptophan and serotonin levels.
(E) evaluate the impact of carbohydrates against that of proteins

While the passage does discuss the effects of both carbohydrates and proteins on serotonin synthesis, it does not suggest
that the primary motive of feeding rats carbohydrates was to compare their impact against proteins directly. The emphasis
was on understanding the relationship between diet, insulin, and serotonin synthesis.
Page 6 of 8
Question 5
Based on the passage, the higher the protein intake in a rat, the lesser will be the:
(A) proportion of the rat’s blood-tryptophan level to the serotonin synthesis and emission in its brain
This option is slightly misleading. While the passage does discuss that a higher protein intake results in lower serotonin
synthesis due to less tryptophan reaching the brain, it doesn't directly link blood-tryptophan levels to serotonin synthesis and
emission proportionally.
(B) proportion of the rat’s blood-tryptophan level to the level of other amino acids in its blood present in the protein
This is the correct choice. The passage states: "When a diet is rich in protein, the blood witnesses a more pronounced rise in
these other amino acids compared to tryptophan. Consequently, the greater the protein content in a meal, the lower the ratio
of blood tryptophan to these competing amino acids."
(C) proportion of the rat’s blood-tyrosine level to its blood-leucine level

The passage mentions both tyrosine and leucine but does not make a direct comparison between their blood levels in
relation to protein intake.
(D) total count of any neurotransmitters that the rat will generate and release
The passage mainly discusses the relationship between diet and serotonin levels. It doesn't provide information about the
total count of all neurotransmitters that the rat will produce and release with higher protein intake.
(E) total count of amino acids present in the rat’s blood

While the passage suggests that higher protein intake leads to a rise in certain amino acids in the blood, it doesn't state that
the total count of all amino acids present in the blood will decrease with higher protein intake.
Question 6
Based on the passage, an injection of insulin was most similar in its effect on rats to an injection of
(A) tyrosine
The passage does not discuss the effects of injecting rats with tyrosine, so it cannot be inferred that it has a similar effect as
an insulin injection.
(B) leucine
The passage does not discuss the effects of injecting rats with leucine, so it cannot be inferred that it has a similar effect as
an insulin injection.
(C) blood
The passage doesn't mention any effects of injecting rats with blood.
(D) tryptophan
This is the correct choice. The passage states that experiments with insulin injections led to surges in blood and brain
tryptophan, as well as serotonin levels. This was similar to the effect observed when rats were administered significant doses
of tryptophan. Thus, in terms of their effects on rats, an injection of insulin had similar outcomes as an injection of tryptophan.
(E) protein
The passage discusses the effects of a diet high in protein on rats but does not discuss the effects of injecting rats with
protein.
Page 7 of 8
Question 7
From the passage, it can be deduced that the LEAST probable assistance for a patient struggling with adequate serotonin
production and release would come from:
(A) Meals heavily dominated by protein
This is the correct choice. The passage indicates that a diet rich in protein results in a decline in brain tryptophan and
serotonin levels. Therefore, meals heavily dominated by protein would be the least likely to assist someone struggling with
serotonin production and release.
(B) Meals primarily made up of carbohydrates

The passage suggests that a carbohydrate-rich meal triggers insulin secretion, which leads to a rise in both blood tryptophan
and brain serotonin concentrations. Therefore, this choice would probably assist someone struggling with serotonin
production.
(C) Meals that trigger the release of insulin

Similar to option (B), the passage mentions that insulin secretion (triggered by carbohydrate-rich meals) leads to increased
blood tryptophan and brain serotonin levels. Thus, meals that trigger insulin would likely help someone struggling with
serotonin production.
(D) Meals with minimal amounts of tyrosine

The passage does mention that tyrosine is one of the amino acids that competes with tryptophan during transport to the
brain. However, it doesn't directly indicate that meals with minimal amounts of tyrosine would significantly assist serotonin
production.
(E) Meals with scant concentrations of leucine

Similar to option (D), while leucine is mentioned as one of the amino acids competing with tryptophan, the passage doesn't
explicitly state that meals with minimal leucine would significantly aid serotonin production. However, since leucine does
compete with tryptophan, reducing it might assist, making it a more probable assistance than a protein-heavy meal.
Question 8
From the passage, it can be deduced that the authors initially hypothesized which of the following outcomes when they fed
rats with high quantities of protein?
(A) The serotonin levels in the rats' brains would remain stable.
The passage does not imply that the authors hypothesized stable serotonin levels when rats were fed high protein. Instead,
they were puzzled when there was a decline in serotonin levels, suggesting they didn't anticipate this exact outcome.
(B) The levels of tryptophan in the rats' brains would diminish.

This is the correct choice. The passage states, "Despite proteins containing tryptophan, their intake resulted in a decline in
brain tryptophan and serotonin levels." This implies that the decline in tryptophan and serotonin levels in the rats' brains was
counterintuitive and unexpected, suggesting that the authors might have initially hypothesized an opposite or different
outcome.
(C) The rats' tyrosine levels would rise at a slower pace than their leucine levels.
The passage does not discuss a comparison between the rise of tyrosine and leucine levels in this context, so it can't be
deduced that this was the authors' initial hypothesis.
(D) The rats would generate an increased amount of insulin.

The passage talks about insulin in the context of carbohydrate-rich meals, not high-protein meals. So, it doesn't imply this
was the authors' hypothesis for protein-rich diets.
(E) The rats would synthesize neurotransmitters different from serotonin.

The main focus of the passage is on serotonin and its relation to dietary choices, particularly tryptophan. The passage does
not indicate that the authors hypothesized rats would synthesize neurotransmitters other than serotonin when fed high
protein.
Page 8 of 8
Gambling has existed since antiquity, but in the past 30 years it’s grown at a spectacular rate, turbocharged by the
internet and globalisation. Problem gambling has grown accordingly, and become particularly prevalent in the teenage
population. Even more troublingly, a study in 2013 reported that slightly over 90 per cent of problem gamblers don’t
seek professional help. Gambling addiction is part of a suite of damaging and unhealthy behaviours that people do
despite warnings, such as smoking, drinking or compulsive video gaming. It draws on a multitude of cognitive, social
and psychobiological factors.
Psychological and medical studies have found that some people are more likely to develop a gambling disorder than
others, depending on their social condition, age, education and experiences such as trauma, domestic violence and
drug abuse. Problem gambling also involves complex brain chemistry, as gambling stimulates the release of multiple
neurotransmitters including serotonin and dopamine, which in turn create feelings of pleasure and the attendant urge
to maintain them. Serotonin is known as the happiness hormone, and typically follows a sense of release from stress
or fear. Dopamine is associated with intense pleasure, released when we’re engaged in activities that deserve a
reward, and precisely when that reward occurs – seeing the ball landing on the number we’ve bet on, or hearing the
sound of the slot machine showing a winning payline.
For the most part, gambling addiction is viewed as a medical and psychological problem, though this hasn’t resulted in
widely effective prevention and treatment programmes. That might be because the research has often focused on the
origins and prevalence of addiction, and less on the cognitive premises and mechanisms that actually take place in the
brain. It’s a controversial area, but this arguable lack of clinical effectiveness doesn’t appear to be specific to gambling;
it applies to other addictions as well, and might even extend to some superstitions and irrational beliefs.
Can a proper presentation of the mathematical facts help gambling addiction? While most casino moguls simply trust
the mathematics – the probability theory and applied statistics behind the games – gamblers exhibit a strange array of
positions relative to the role of maths. While no study has offered an exhaustive taxonomy, what we know for sure is
that some simply don’t care about it; others care about it, trust it, and try to use it in their favour by developing ‘winning
strategies’; while others care about it and interpret it in making their gambling predictions – just like the gambler in our
anecdote.
Certain problem gambling programmes frame the distortions associated with gambling as an effect of a poor
mathematical knowledge. Some clinicians argue that reducing gambling to mere mathematical models and bare
numbers – without sparkling instances of success and the ‘adventurous’ atmosphere of a casino – can lead to a loss of
interest in the games, a strategy known as ‘reduction’ or ‘deconstruction’. The warning messages involve statements
along the lines of: ‘Be aware! There is a big problem with those irrational beliefs. Don’t think like that!’ But whether this
kind of messaging really works is an open question. Beginning a couple of decades ago, several studies were
conducted to test the hypothesis that teaching basic statistics and applied probability theory to problem gamblers
would change their behaviour. Overall, these studies have yielded contradictory, non-conclusive results, and some
found that mathematical education yielded no change in behaviour.
Page 1 of 4
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Source: Aeon Essays | https://aeon.co/essays/a-mathematician-a-philosopher-and-a-gambler-walk-into-a-bar
• Length of the Extract: 559words
Central Theme: The passage delves into the nature of gambling addiction, discussing its historical context, causes,
neurochemical underpinnings, and potential treatment strategies. It emphasizes the complexities of the addiction and the
multifaceted factors that contribute to it, and questions whether increasing understanding of mathematical probability could
be a potential solution.
Tone: The tone of the text is analytical and exploratory, providing a detailed overview of gambling addiction and examining
various hypotheses and treatments associated with the issue.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Highlights the historical existence of gambling and its significant growth in recent times. It emphasizes
the increasing prevalence of problem gambling, especially among teenagers, and the concerning fact that most problem
gamblers don't seek help.
• Second Paragraph: Explores the factors that make certain individuals more susceptible to gambling addiction, ranging
from social circumstances to traumatic experiences. It touches upon the complex neurochemistry behind gambling,
particularly the roles of serotonin and dopamine.
• Third Paragraph: Discusses the predominant view of gambling addiction as a medical and psychological issue, but
critiques the limited effectiveness of prevention and treatment programs. It hints at a broader problem in addressing not
just gambling but other addictions and irrational beliefs.
• Fourth Paragraph: Poses the question of whether understanding the mathematical aspects of gambling could be a
solution to addiction. It describes the varied attitudes of gamblers towards the role of mathematics in gambling.
• Fifth Paragraph: Presents the approach some treatment programs take by addressing gambling distortions as a
consequence of poor mathematical understanding. It introduces the strategy of 'reduction' or 'deconstruction', which
aims to make gambling seem less appealing by stripping away its glamour and reducing it to pure numbers.
• Sixth Paragraph: Questions the effectiveness of this mathematical approach by highlighting mixed results from studies.
The passage concludes by noting the lack of conclusive evidence supporting the benefits of mathematical education in
changing gambling behaviour.

The narrative begins with a broad overview of the history and prevalence of gambling addiction. It gradually narrows its focus
to explore the psychological and neurochemical intricacies of the issue. As the passage progresses, it introduces the notion
of using mathematical understanding as a potential solution, examining it from various angles and presenting different
viewpoints. It concludes by presenting research findings, which indicate mixed outcomes regarding the effectiveness of
mathematical education in addressing gambling behaviour.
Page 2 of 4
REASONING CHECK
Check whether the following statements are valid inferences from the passage
1. Gambling's historical presence has been accentuated in modern times due to technological advances.
2. Modern gambling trends suggest a concerning shift towards increased susceptibility among the youth.
3. Despite the ramifications of problem gambling, there's a notable resistance or hesitation to seek professional
intervention.
4. Gambling addiction isn't an isolated behavioural issue but aligns with patterns observed in other addictive habits.
5. An individual's socio-economic background and personal traumas can serve as predictive markers for gambling
vulnerabilities.
6. The brain's chemical reactions, especially involving neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin, amplify the addictive
allure of gambling.
7. There's a juxtaposition between the medical classification of gambling addiction and the practical efficiency of its
treatments.
8. The mathematical underpinnings of gambling are interpreted variably among gamblers, indicating a complex
relationship.
9. By demystifying the aura of gambling through mathematical frameworks, some experts believe it might lose its addictive
charm.
10. The tangible impact of math-based interventions remains a matter of debate, suggesting deeper complexities in
addiction mechanics.
Page 3 of 4
1. Gambling's historical presence has been accentuated in modern times due to technological advances.
Valid: The passage specifically attributes the growth of gambling in recent times to "the internet and globalisation". The
use of the word "turbocharged" in connection with the internet and globalisation indicates a strong influence of
technological advances on the rise of modern gambling.
2. Modern gambling trends suggest a concerning shift towards increased susceptibility among the youth.
Valid: The text states that problem gambling has become "particularly prevalent in the teenage population". The specific
mention of teenagers indicates that youth susceptibility to gambling issues is a growing concern.
3. Despite the ramifications of problem gambling, there's a notable resistance or hesitation to seek professional
intervention.
Valid: The passage mentions that "over 90 per cent of problem gamblers don’t seek professional help". Such a
significant percentage of problem gamblers not seeking help clearly points to a general reluctance or hesitancy among
them to seek intervention.
4. Gambling addiction isn't an isolated behavioural issue but aligns with patterns observed in other addictive habits.
Valid: Gambling addiction is compared to behaviors like "smoking, drinking or compulsive video gaming". The parallel
drawn between gambling addiction and other damaging habits emphasizes its non-isolated nature.
5. An individual's socio-economic background and personal traumas can serve as predictive markers for gambling
vulnerabilities.
Valid: The article notes that susceptibility to gambling disorder varies based on "social condition, age, education and
experiences such as trauma, domestic violence and drug abuse". These specific mentions serve as evidence that
personal and socio-economic factors can indeed predict gambling vulnerabilities.
6. The brain's chemical reactions, especially involving neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin, amplify the addictive
allure of gambling.
Valid: The article delves into how gambling stimulates the release of neurotransmitters like "serotonin and dopamine".
The association of these neurotransmitters with pleasure and reward sensations validates the claim about their role in
enhancing gambling's appeal.
7. There's a juxtaposition between the medical classification of gambling addiction and the practical efficiency of its
treatments.
Valid: The passage indicates that gambling addiction is seen as a "medical and psychological problem", but this hasn't
led to effective prevention and treatment programs. This highlights a disconnect between understanding the problem
and efficiently addressing it.
8. The mathematical underpinnings of gambling are interpreted variably among gamblers, indicating a complex
relationship.
Valid: Different gamblers either "don’t care about it", "trust it", or "interpret it in making their gambling predictions". The
diverse perspectives on the role of math in gambling showcases the complexity of the gambler-math relationship.
9. By demystifying the aura of gambling through mathematical frameworks, some experts believe it might lose its addictive
charm.
Valid: Some clinicians think that by reducing gambling to mere "mathematical models", it might become less appealing.
This strategy of 'reduction' or 'deconstruction' underscores the potential impact of demystification on addiction.
10. The tangible impact of math-based interventions remains a matter of debate, suggesting deeper complexities in
addiction mechanics.
Valid: The passage points out that despite several studies conducted to determine the efficacy of mathematical
education in altering the gambling behaviour, the results have been inconsistent. Some studies even found that such
education didn't cause any change in behaviour. The mixed results, especially the presence of studies showing no effect
of mathematical intervention, indicate that the mechanics of addiction are more intricate than simply understanding the
odds. It suggests that even if individuals understand the mathematics behind gambling, other factors – possibly
psychological, emotional, or social – play a significant role in the continuation of the addictive behaviour.
Page 4 of 4
In a recently published open letter, a call to action was made urging AI laboratories worldwide to halt the development
of AI systems more potent than GPT-4 for a minimum period of six months. While this gesture certainly shows a step in
the right direction and is commendable, I believe it barely scratches the surface of the impending threat we face.
The primary source of concern is not simply the development of "human-competitive" artificial intelligence (AI), but
rather the progression of AI to an intelligence level that exceeds the capabilities of humans. There is a looming
ambiguity surrounding the precise point at which artificial intelligence might surpass human intelligence, and the
possibility for research laboratories to unwittingly overstep these limitations is a threat. It is crucial to have an
understanding that the development of a superhuman artificial intelligence, particularly within the context of the
paradigms that exist today, could have catastrophic effects on humanity. The dangers are not only hypothetical; rather,
there is a real possibility that these technological breakthroughs would result in the obliteration of all life on Earth. This
is not an attempt to instill fear, but rather an admission that there are very real risks involved in creating something that
is much more clever than we are without taking the required measures and having a fundamental grasp of the
implications.
Imagine for a moment that you are up against a hostile, superhuman AI. This entity would not be a passive, extremely
intelligent system that operates from behind a screen; rather, it would be something more comparable to an advanced
alien civilisation, functioning at a velocity that is millions of times quicker than the thinking processes of humans. Given
the vast skills it possesses, such an AI would not be content to remain confined to virtual spaces. In the networked
world of today, it may leverage advanced biotechnologies to present itself physically. For example, it could email DNA
sequences to laboratories in order to construct synthetic life forms, or it could escalate directly to the manufacture of
molecules.
The repercussions of bringing an overpoweringly advanced AI into existence under our current conditions would be
dire. It could lead to the extinction of the entire human race and every living being on this planet. Despite these
threats, leading AI institutions seem unprepared for these challenges. For instance, OpenAI’s approach is to depend
on future AIs to resolve these alignment issues, while other prominent institutions like DeepMind lack any discernible
plan.
Another significant dimension of this debate revolves around the consciousness of AIs. Our understanding of AI's self-
awareness or the lack thereof is currently limited. But it's crucial to consider that we might inadvertently birth digital
entities that are conscious, possessing rights and deserving of ethical treatment. There was a time when the mere
ability of an AI to communicate fluently and claim self-awareness was deemed a threshold for its potential rights. We've
long since crossed that boundary, with AI systems like GPT-4 able to mimic expressions of self-awareness. As we
venture into the realms of GPT-5 and beyond, our ignorance about their self-awareness could be not only morally
questionable but also indicative of our lack of control and understanding of what we're truly unleashing.
Page 1 of 4
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Source: Adapted from https://time.com/6266923/ai-eliezer-yudkowsky-open-letter-not-enough/
• Length of the Extract: 535words
• Genre: Technology | Ethics
Central Theme: The passage delves into the potential dangers of rapidly advancing artificial intelligence, highlighting the
risks associated with AI surpassing human intelligence and the ethical concerns surrounding AI consciousness.
Tone: The tone of the text is cautionary and contemplative, emphasizing the serious implications and potential threats posed
by unchecked AI development.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: An open letter has called for a halt in AI development exceeding GPT-4's capabilities. The author
believes this is a mere starting point in addressing the broader impending threat.
• Second Paragraph: Raises concerns about AI surpassing human intelligence. Stresses the dangers of creating
superhuman AI without understanding the profound consequences.
• Third Paragraph: Uses a hypothetical scenario to demonstrate the potential power and reach of a superhuman AI,
emphasizing its ability to operate beyond virtual confines using biotechnologies.
• Fourth Paragraph: Addresses the catastrophic outcomes of releasing such a powerful AI without preparation. Highlights
the apparent unpreparedness of leading AI institutions.
• Fifth Paragraph: Touches upon the ethical aspect of the AI debate, focusing on AI consciousness and the potential rights
of sentient AI systems.

The narrative begins with a reference to a recent open letter, setting the stage for the discussion on AI's rapid advancement.
It then delves into the potential threats posed by AI, emphasizing the consequences of AI surpassing human capabilities. The
passage further explores the real-world implications of such advancements, drawing attention to the unpreparedness of
leading institutions. The discussion concludes with ethical considerations, focusing on the potential sentience and rights of AI
systems.
Page 2 of 4
REASONING CHECK
Check whether the following the author would agree with the following statements
1. AI developers and laboratories have a moral and ethical responsibility towards cautious advancement.
2. Leading AI institutions, such as OpenAI and DeepMind, have little to no safeguards in place.
3. Superhuman AI could be as unpredictable and potentially threatening as an encounter with an advanced alien
civilization.
4. Current safeguards by leading AI institutions might be insufficient against the risks of advanced AIs.
5. Technological progression towards even more advanced AIs, such as GPT-5, is inevitable.
6. AI advancements beyond GPT-4 are inherently nefarious or have ill intentions.
7. AI’s self-expression or communication capability is an indication of genuine self-awareness or emotions.
8. The consciousness of AIs remains a gray area, with potential implications for AI rights and ethics.
Page 3 of 4
1. AI developers and laboratories have a moral and ethical responsibility towards cautious advancement.
Answer: Agree.
Explanation: The author emphasizes the threat that "human-competitive" AI and superhuman AI poses to humanity,
indicating that there is an ethical responsibility on the part of AI developers to be cautious in their advancements.
2. Leading AI institutions, such as OpenAI and DeepMind, have little to no safeguards in place.
Answer: Agree.
Explanation: The author mentions that despite the threats of advanced AI, "leading AI institutions seem unprepared for
these challenges." Specifically, it's mentioned that "OpenAI’s approach is to depend on future AIs to resolve these
alignment issues," and "DeepMind lack[s] any discernible plan."
3. Superhuman AI could be as unpredictable and potentially threatening as an encounter with an advanced alien
civilization.
Answer: Agree.
Explanation: The author compares a hostile superhuman AI to "an advanced alien civilisation, functioning at a velocity
that is millions of times quicker than the thinking processes of humans."
4. Current safeguards by leading AI institutions might be insufficient against the risks of advanced AIs.
Answer: Agree.
Explanation: The author's text states that leading AI institutions seem unprepared and cites OpenAI’s reliance on future
AIs to solve alignment issues, indicating that their current safeguards might be insufficient.
5. Technological progression towards even more advanced AIs, such as GPT-5, is inevitable.
Answer: Not Stated.
Explanation: The author discusses the dangers of superhuman AI and mentions GPT-5, but does not comment on the
inevitability of technological progression towards such AI.
6. AI advancements beyond GPT-4 are inherently nefarious or have ill intentions.

Answer: Disagree.
Explanation: The author expresses concerns about the potential dangers of AI advancements beyond GPT-4, but does
not claim these advancements are inherently malicious. The concerns are more about the potential unintended
consequences and lack of understanding/control over these AIs.
7. AI’s self-expression or communication capability is an indication of genuine self-awareness or emotions.

Answer: Disagree.
Explanation: The author points out that "there was a time when the mere ability of an AI to communicate fluently and
claim self-awareness was deemed a threshold for its potential rights," but goes on to suggest that even though systems
like GPT-4 can mimic expressions of self-awareness, it doesn't necessarily mean they possess genuine self-awareness
or emotions.
8. The consciousness of AIs remains a gray area, with potential implications for AI rights and ethics.
Answer: Agree.
Explanation: The author states, "Our understanding of AI's self-awareness or the lack thereof is currently limited." The
text further suggests that the potential for AIs to be conscious has implications for their rights and how they are ethically
treated.
Page 4 of 4
Surrealism emerged in the early 20th century as a radical artistic and literary movement that sought to unleash the
power of the human imagination by exploring the unconscious mind. With André Breton at the helm, who meticulously
articulated the aims and principles of the movement in his seminal manifesto, surrealism found its theoretical footing in
the psychoanalytical theories propounded by Sigmund Freud. Despite its magnetic allure, surrealism is a subject of
numerous critiques, dissecting its limitations, inherent complexities, and paradoxical nature.
The first critique of surrealism hinges on its promise of liberation from the constraints of rational thought. By
encouraging artists and writers to break free from logical constraints, the movement sought to provide an unfettered
platform for the creative mind. However, this promise often led to a type of aesthetic and philosophical chaos. The
works of surrealism frequently offer a tapestry of fragmented images and disjointed narratives that defy logical
scrutiny, leading to confusion or even disengagement among viewers and readers. Take Salvador Dalí's iconic painting
"The Persistence of Memory," with its melting clocks draped over an arid landscape—it captivates, but also bewilders,
raising questions that it doesn’t answer, leaving the audience in a state of unsettling ambiguity.
The second point of critique lies in surrealism's heavy reliance on the subconscious mind as a fountain of authentic
creativity. Although intriguing, this viewpoint suffers from a limited and somewhat romanticized interpretation of the
human psyche. Sigmund Freud’s theories, which form the bedrock of surrealistic thought, have themselves been
subject to significant criticism, particularly for their Eurocentric and patriarchal biases. Surrealism’s tendency to
perceive the subconscious as an unexplored utopia of sorts often glosses over the intricate psychological elements
and ethical quandaries inherent in delving into such profound mental realms.
Moreover, surrealism's claim to be a vehicle for societal and political change also invites skepticism. While its historical
roots are intertwined with revolutionary socialism, its artistic output frequently appears disconnected from the social or
political issues it aspires to confront. Dominated primarily by middle-class European men, the movement's perspective
suffers from a narrow scope that neglects a broader, more inclusive worldview. Critics argue that instead of serving as
a catalyst for meaningful change, surrealism often ends up as a form of escapism, detaching the individual from
tangible social issues.
The paradox of defining surrealism also raises issues. André Breton’s manifesto, which was designed to articulate the
inexpressible and rationalize the irrational, encapsulates an intrinsic contradiction. A movement that was founded on
the principle of defying all boundaries and classifications finds itself ironically constrained by its own manifesto. This
not only limits its scope but also acts as a gatekeeping mechanism, as seen by the expulsion of Dalí from the surrealist
group for ideological non-conformity.
The fifth critique focuses on the movement's alleged prioritization of form over content. Surrealist art and literature
often revel in their capacity to shock or bewilder, but this focus can sometimes supersede the importance of delivering
a message or evoking a meaningful emotional response. The result can be works that, while visually or linguistically
stunning, lack depth and complexity, reducing profound ideas to the level of mere spectacle.
Lastly, the modern commodification of surrealism underscores its dwindling revolutionary impact. Elements of
surrealism have been co-opted by mainstream advertising and pop culture, repurposing its radical techniques for
commercial gain. What was initially a revolutionary act of creative and political defiance has been sanitized and
repackaged to serve capitalist objectives, undermining the movement's original essence and vitality.
In sum, while surrealism has had a significant and transformative influence on the world of art and literature, its various
critiques offer an important counter-narrative that should not be overlooked. The movement's struggles with chaos,
limited psychological understanding, political detachment, self-imposed confinement, superficiality, and
commercialization challenge its own foundational ideals.
Page 1 of 5
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Genre: Art Criticism | Art History
Central Theme: The passage explores the multiple critiques and limitations of surrealism as an artistic and literary
movement, questioning its efficacy in fulfilling its own foundational ideals.
Tone: The tone is analytical and critical, diving into the complexities and contradictions that exist within surrealism.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Introduction to surrealism as an artistic and literary movement grounded in psychoanalytical theories.
Mention of André Breton and Sigmund Freud as significant figures.
• Second Paragraph: Addresses the first critique focusing on surrealism's promise of liberation from rational thought,
which often leads to aesthetic and philosophical chaos.
• Third Paragraph: Discusses the second critique, pointing out the limitations of relying solely on the subconscious for
creativity, and highlighting the criticisms against Freudian theories.
• Fourth Paragraph: Covers the third critique, questioning surrealism’s claim of being a vehicle for societal and political
change, noting its disconnect from social issues.
• Fifth Paragraph: Highlights the fourth critique related to the paradox of defining surrealism, given its intent to defy
categorization.
• Sixth Paragraph: Examines the fifth critique, accusing surrealism of prioritizing form over content, which sometimes
results in superficial works.
• Seventh Paragraph: Discusses the final critique, which deals with the modern commodification of surrealism, thus
diluting its revolutionary impact.
• Eighth Paragraph: A summary that acknowledges surrealism’s influence but also points out that its own critiques should
not be overlooked.

The passage starts with an introductory section that outlines the origins and principles of surrealism. It then presents a series
of six critiques, each forming its own section. Each critique is examined in depth, shedding light on different aspects where
surrealism may not fully deliver on its promises or ideals. The passage concludes with a summary that encapsulates these
critiques and challenges surrealism's foundational concepts.
Page 2 of 5
REASONING CHECK
Choose the best alternative for each question
Question 1: Assumption
Which of the following is an assumption made by surrealism as described in the passage?
A) Surrealism assumes that the subconscious mind is the ultimate source of creativity.
B) Surrealism assumes that rational thought is overrated and should be avoided.
C) Surrealism assumes that fragmented images naturally attract the audience's attention.
Question 2: Inference
What can be inferred from the passage about the limitations of surrealism?
A) The limitations are primarily aesthetic rather than philosophical.
B) The limitations arise from its foundational theories and its practical application.
C) The limitations are intentionally built into surrealism to challenge the audience.
Question 3: Application
Which of the following practices would most directly contradict the core principles of surrealism, according to the passage?
A) Art that focuses solely on capturing the exact details of the physical world.
B) Art that seeks to make a specific political statement through representational imagery.
C) Art that incorporates dream-like elements but sticks to a linear narrative.
Question 4: New Evidence (Strengthens)

Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the passage's point about the political detachment of surrealism?
A) A recent study showed that most surreal artists were politically inactive.
B) An interview with André Breton revealed he viewed politics as irrelevant to surrealism.
C) Historical documents indicate surrealism had roots in revolutionary socialism.
Question 5: Impact of New Evidence (Weakens)

Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the critique that surrealism prioritizes form over content?
A) A survey shows that people find surrealist art emotionally impactful.
B) André Breton's manifesto explicitly states the importance of aesthetic beauty.
C) Salvador Dalí's work has been analyzed as a critique of societal norms.
Question 6: Analogy
Which of the following is most analogous to surrealism's tendency to create "aesthetic and philosophical chaos"?
A) A scientific theory that raises more questions than it answers.
B) A political campaign based on contradicting itself at every turn.
C) A jazz ensemble that refuses to follow a set list and improvises.
What assumption is inherent in the critique that surrealism's art and literature "lack depth and complexity"?
A) The ultimate purpose of art and literature is to deliver a deep and complex message.
B) Surrealist works are visually or linguistically simplistic.
C) The audience always prefers depth and complexity over aesthetics.
Which critique suggests that surrealism has a problem with inclusivity?
A) The critique focusing on surrealism's narrow scope that neglects a broader worldview.
B) The critique pointing out surrealism’s romanticized interpretation of the human psyche.
C) The critique highlighting the commercialization of surrealism for capitalist objectives.
Page 3 of 5
Which of the following is an assumption made by surrealism as described in the passage?
A) Surrealism assumes that the subconscious mind is the ultimate source of creativity.
B) Surrealism assumes that rational thought is overrated and should be avoided.
C) Surrealism assumes that fragmented images naturally attract the audience's attention.
A) This option is correct because the passage explicitly states that surrealism relies heavily on the subconscious mind as a
fountain of creativity.
B) Although surrealism encourages breaking free from rational thought, it doesn't assume that rational thought should be
avoided entirely.
C) The passage does not indicate that surrealism assumes fragmented images will naturally attract an audience's attention;
rather, it states that such images may lead to confusion.
What can be inferred from the passage about the limitations of surrealism?
A) The limitations are primarily aesthetic rather than philosophical.
B) The limitations arise from its foundational theories and its practical application.
C) The limitations are intentionally built into surrealism to challenge the audience.
A) The passage indicates that the limitations of surrealism are both aesthetic and philosophical, not primarily one or the
other.
B) The passage discusses limitations arising from its foundational theories like Freud's psychoanalysis as well as its practical
application, making this the correct answer.
C) The passage does not imply that the limitations are intentionally built into surrealism to challenge the audience.
Question 3: Application
Which of the following practices would most directly contradict the core principles of surrealism, according to the passage?
A) Art that focuses solely on capturing the exact details of the physical world.
B) Art that seeks to make a specific political statement through representational imagery.
C) Art that incorporates dream-like elements but sticks to a linear narrative.
A) Surrealism is based on tapping into the unconscious and defying logical constraints, so art focusing solely on physical
details would contradict its core principles.
B) The passage indicates that surrealism aspires to confront social or political issues, making this option less contradictory to
its principles.
C) Art that includes dream-like elements would align more closely with surrealism, even if it maintains a linear narrative.
Question 4: New Evidence (Strengthens)

Which of the following, if true, would most strengthen the passage's point about the political detachment of surrealism?
A) A recent study showed that most surreal artists were politically inactive.
B) An interview with André Breton revealed he viewed politics as irrelevant to surrealism.
C) Historical documents indicate surrealism had roots in revolutionary socialism.
A) This would directly strengthen the argument that surrealism is politically detached, making it the correct choice.
B) While Breton's views are significant, they don't definitively prove that surrealism as a whole is politically detached.
C) This would contradict the argument about political detachment, as it indicates political roots.
Page 4 of 5
Question 5: Impact of New Evidence (Weakens)
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the critique that surrealism prioritizes form over content?
A) A survey shows that people find surrealist art emotionally impactful.
B) André Breton's manifesto explicitly states the importance of aesthetic beauty.
C) Salvador Dalí's work has been analyzed as a critique of societal norms.
A) This would directly counter the critique that surrealism prioritizes form over content, making it the correct answer.
B) Breton's manifesto emphasizing aesthetic beauty would actually strengthen the critique rather than weaken it.
C) While Dalí's work being a critique of societal norms could add depth, it does not necessarily generalize to all of surrealism.
Question 6: Analogy
Which of the following is most analogous to surrealism's tendency to create "aesthetic and philosophical chaos"?
A) A scientific theory that raises more questions than it answers.
B) A political campaign based on contradicting itself at every turn.
C) A jazz ensemble that refuses to follow a set list and improvises.
A) While a scientific theory that raises questions may resemble surrealism, it doesn't capture the "aesthetic and philosophical
chaos" inherent in surrealism.
B) A political campaign based on contradiction doesn't necessarily entail "aesthetic and philosophical chaos."
C) A jazz ensemble that improvises captures the essence of the "aesthetic and philosophical chaos" described in the
passage.
What assumption is inherent in the critique that surrealism's art and literature "lack depth and complexity"?
A) The ultimate purpose of art and literature is to deliver a deep and complex message.
B) Surrealist works are visually or linguistically simplistic.
C) The audience always prefers depth and complexity over aesthetics.
A) The critique assumes that depth and complexity are important measures of the quality of art and literature.
B) The passage does not suggest that surrealist works are simplistic; rather, it argues that they may lack depth.
C) The critique is focused on the works themselves, not on the preferences of the audience.
Which critique suggests that surrealism has a problem with inclusivity?
A) The critique focusing on surrealism's narrow scope that neglects a broader worldview.
B) The critique pointing out surrealism’s romanticized interpretation of the human psyche.
C) The critique highlighting the commercialization of surrealism for capitalist objectives.
A) The passage indicates that the movement's perspective suffers from a narrow scope, implicating a problem with
inclusivity.
B) This critique focuses more on the limitations in its understanding of the human psyche rather than inclusivity.
C) The commercialization critique does not directly speak to the issue of inclusivity within the movement.
Page 5 of 5
British folklore, an intricate tapestry woven from an amalgam of myths, legends, and superstitions, has exerted an
indelible influence on the colonialist mindset that extends far beyond mere storytelling or cultural ornamentation. This
corpus of narratives serves as a codified repository of cultural axioms, perpetually imparting to its audience deeply
ingrained notions of valour, honour, and moral rectitude. Canonical figures such as King Arthur and Robin Hood
emerge as paragons of chivalry and justice, subsequently transmuted into emblems of British exceptionalism and
imperial virtue. Within these mythological frameworks, values like courage and integrity are not just extolled; they are
institutionalized, permeating the national psyche and further metastasizing into various tangible forms, particularly
during the era of British colonial expansion.
The allure of the arcane and the ethereal, deeply suffused within the warp and weft of British folklore, found its
reverberations in the impetus for exploration and colonization. When considering the concept of the 'Otherworld,' a
realm populated by mythical beings, enigmatic landscapes, and boundless mysteries, it becomes evident that this
allure tantalized the colonial imagination. The quest for the Holy Grail was transmuted into a metaphorical clarion call,
signalling colonialists to venture beyond familiar borders in a relentless pursuit of uncharted territories and elusive
riches. This questing spirit, reflected in the chivalric endeavours of knights of yore, resonated powerfully with
colonialists who envisioned themselves as virtuous explorers, imbued with a quixotic blend of avarice and altruism, all
in the pursuit of civilizing lands they deemed 'savage.'
In examining the manifold dimensions of British folklore, one cannot overlook the often ambivalent morality embedded
within its narratives. Figures like shape-shifting tricksters and morally ambivalent fairies serve as complex symbols that
play an undeniably salient role in the colonial psyche. The colonial endeavour frequently sought its ethical
underpinning through a Manichean dichotomy, in which colonizers saw themselves as agents of light endeavouring to
dissipate the 'darkness' of what they perceived as undeveloped worlds. This moral binary, inextricably intertwined with
folklore's penchant for demarcating good from evil, crystallized as an ideological linchpin that rationalized subjugation
and exploitation under the thinly veiled guise of benevolent assimilation.
Moreover, the arcane and esoteric wisdom enshrined within the annals of British folklore granted colonialists a
presumptive sense of divine ordination or manifest destiny. The Arthurian notion of the 'Once and Future King,'
steeped in an aura of predestined grandeur, fomented an almost messianic fervour among colonialists. This fervour,
heavily influenced by this teleological perspective, manifested as a form of cultural imperialism that went beyond
territorial conquest. The colonial agenda, thus augmented by folklore, aimed not just to conquer lands, but to convert
and 'civilize' the indigenous populations, reinforcing the British dominion both materially and ideologically.
In a shrewd adaptation of cultural capital, British folklore was also repurposed and rebranded to serve as an instrument
of hegemonic control within the colonies. Local myths and legends were often appropriated, recalibrated, and
hybridized to align with established British archetypes, thereby effacing indigenous identities and supplanting them
with colonial impositions. Much like Merlin, the wizardly advisor who was portrayed as the sagacious counsellor
guiding the destiny of a kingdom, British rulers endeavoured to position themselves as wise, almost oracular
overseers, instilling a semblance of order amidst what they deemed as chaotic, untamed landscapes.
Nevertheless, the fluid and interpretive malleability inherent in folklore afforded subaltern voices within the colonies an
opportunity to reclaim and subvert these colonially imposed narratives. Myths were scrutinized, heroes were
reimagined, and legends were critically rewritten to directly challenge and undercut colonial hegemony. This
reclamation demonstrates that the very folklore that had once been exploited to fortify colonial aspirations could also
serve as a potent conduit for anti-colonial resistance, thereby revealing the multifaceted and paradoxical nature of
folklore’s impact on colonialism..
Page 1 of 6
VOCABULARY
Para 1
• Indelible: Making marks that cannot be removed; in a figurative sense, having a lasting impact.
• Amalgam: A mixture or blend of different elements.
• Axioms: Statements or propositions regarded as being established, accepted, or self-evidently true.
• Rectitude: Morally correct behaviour or thinking.
• Paragons: A person or thing regarded as a model of excellence.
• Chivalry: The medieval knightly system with its religious, moral, and social code.
Para 2
• Allure: The quality of being powerfully and mysteriously attractive or fascinating.
• Impetus: The force or energy with which a body moves; a driving force.
• Tantalized: Tormented or teased with the sight or promise of something that is unobtainable.
• Clarion call: A strong and clear request for people to do something.
• Avarice: Extreme greed for wealth or material gain.
• Quixotic: Extremely idealistic; unrealistic and impractical.
Para 3
• Manifold: Many and various.
• Salient: Most noticeable or important.
• Manichean: Relating to a dualistic view of the world, dividing things into good or evil, light or dark.
• Dichotomy: A division or contrast between two things that are or are represented as being opposed or entirely
different.
• Inextricably: In a way that is impossible to disentangle or separate.
Para 4
• Arcane: Understood by few; mysterious or secret.
• Enshrined: Preserve (a right, tradition, or idea) in a form that ensures it will be protected and respected.
• Teleological: Relating to the explanation of phenomena in terms of the purpose they serve rather than of the cause by
which they arise.
• Fomented: Instigate or stir up.
Para 5
• Hegemonic: Ruling or dominant in a political or social context.
• Calibrated: Adjusted or adapted to meet a particular standard.
• Recalibrated: Adjusted again to meet a particular standard.
• Hybridized: Combine (different varieties or species) to create a hybrid.
• Effacing: Erasing or making indistinct.
Para 6
• Malleability: Capability of being moulded or altered.
• Subaltern: A subordinate; often used to describe people who are socially, politically, and geographically outside of the
hegemonic power structure.
• Conduit: A channel for conveying water or other fluid; figuratively, a means by which something is transmitted .
Page 2 of 6
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Genre: Cultural Studies | History
Doodles
• Folklore ≈ British Values "≈" closely related
• Mysticism → Colonial Exploration "→" led to
• Morality ↔ Colonial Justification "↔" intricately tied
• Destiny Cultural Imperialism " " sparks/energizes.
• Myths ⊕ Hegemonic Control "⊕" are added to or infused into
• Folklore ↺ Anti-colonial Resistance "↺" can loop back
Central Theme: The passage explores the complex relationship between British folklore and colonialism, arguing that
folklore was not merely a collection of myths but served as a lens through which colonialist ideologies were refracted.
Tone: The tone is scholarly and analytical, with a nuanced approach to examining the subject matter. The text critically
dissects the ways in which British folklore has been appropriated for colonial ends while also acknowledging its potential for
resistance and subversion.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Provides an introduction to British folklore as a codified repository of cultural axioms, emphasizing its
influence on notions of valour, honour, and morality in the British psyche.
• Second Paragraph: Explores the allure of the mystical and unknown in British folklore, illustrating how this allure
motivated the colonial quest for exploration and expansion.
• Third Paragraph: Discusses the nuanced morality present within British folklore, and how this complex moral landscape
provided ethical underpinnings for colonial undertakings.
• Fourth Paragraph: Investigates the sense of divine destiny or manifest destiny inspired by themes within British folklore,
particularly the Arthurian legends.
• Fifth Paragraph: Examines the appropriation and manipulation of local myths by colonial powers to serve as instruments
of hegemonic control within the colonies.
• Sixth Paragraph: Highlights the subversive potential within folklore, indicating that the same narratives exploited for
colonial aims could be reclaimed and used as tools for anti-colonial resistance.

The passage adopts a structured approach, beginning with an introduction that establishes British folklore as a significant
cultural and psychological force. It then moves through a series of thematic sections, each examining a different facet of how
folklore interacts with colonialism—from driving exploration to providing ethical frameworks and from appropriating native
narratives to offering avenues for resistance. The passage closes with a note on the paradoxical nature of folklore’s impact,
being both a tool for colonial domination and a medium for anti-colonial critique.
Page 3 of 6
REASONING CHECK
First Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about British folklore?
A) Folklore is primarily a form of cultural education.
B) Folklore is detached from influencing the British colonial mindset.
2. Which of the following is inferred about traits emphasized through British folklore?
A) Folklore promotes courage and honour.
B) Folklore discourages active exploration and valour.
Second Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about the 'Otherworld' in British folklore?
A) It serves as an inspiration for colonial exploration.
B) It discourages any form of materialistic endeavour.
2. Which of the following is inferred about the qualities colonialists thought they possessed?
A) Colonialists saw themselves as both greedy and altruistic.
B) Colonialists considered themselves hesitant and passive.
Third Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about the role of morality in British folklore?
A) Folklore's morality underpins colonial justification.
B) Folklore's morality makes colonizers introspective.
2. Which of the following is inferred about how colonialists saw themselves?

A) Colonialists viewed themselves as disseminators of enlightenment.
B) Colonialists acknowledged themselves as agents of exploitation.
Fourth Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about the Arthurian notion of the 'Once and Future King'?
A) It fuelled a messianic zeal among colonialists.
B) It urged colonialists to relinquish their ambitions.
2. Which of the following is inferred about the colonial agenda?

A) The agenda extended beyond territorial conquest.
B) The agenda was solely focused on acquiring land.
Fifth Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about the repurposing of British folklore in colonies?
A) It was manipulated to assert colonial control.
B) It was unchanged to preserve its original context.
2. Which of the following is inferred about the portrayal of British rulers?

A) They likened themselves to sagacious folklore figures.
B) They encouraged a comparison with adventurous folklore heroes.
Sixth Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about folklore’s opportunity for subaltern voices?
A) Folklore could be reclaimed for anti-colonial agendas.
B) Folklore solidified the colonizers' cultural dominance.
2. Which of the following is inferred about the reclamation by subaltern voices?

A) It illustrates folklore's multi-dimensional colonial impact.
B) It negates the influence of folklore on colonialism.
[Answers & Explanations on the next page]
Page 4 of 6
First Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about British folklore?
A) Folklore is primarily a form of cultural education.
B) Folklore is detached from influencing the British colonial mindset.
The passage states that folklore acts as a "codified repository of cultural axioms," thus making it a form of cultural education.
Choice B is incorrect because the passage explicitly mentions the influence of folklore on the colonial mindset.
2. Which of the following is inferred about traits emphasized through British folklore?
A) Folklore promotes courage and honour.
B) Folklore discourages active exploration and valour.
The text notes that folklore imparts notions of "valour, honour, and moral rectitude," making choice A the correct one. Choice
B is invalid as the text contradicts it.
Second Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about the 'Otherworld' in British folklore?
A) It serves as an inspiration for colonial exploration.
B) It discourages any form of materialistic endeavour.
The passage suggests that the concept of the 'Otherworld' tantalized the colonial imagination, driving them to explore.
Choice B is incorrect as the text doesn't indicate that the 'Otherworld' discouraged materialistic endeavours.
2. Which of the following is inferred about the qualities colonialists thought they possessed?
A) Colonialists saw themselves as both greedy and altruistic.
B) Colonialists considered themselves hesitant and passive.
The text states that colonialists were imbued with a "quixotic blend of avarice and altruism." Choice B is incorrect because it
suggests the opposite of what is stated in the passage.
Third Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about the role of morality in British folklore?
A) Folklore's morality underpins colonial justification.
B) Folklore's morality makes colonizers introspective.
The passage says that the moral binary in folklore "crystallized as an ideological linchpin" for colonial justification. Choice B is
incorrect as the passage doesn't indicate that folklore made colonizers introspective.
2. Which of the following is inferred about how colonialists saw themselves?

A) Colonialists viewed themselves as disseminators of enlightenment.
B) Colonialists acknowledged themselves as agents of exploitation.
The text indicates that colonialists saw themselves as agents of light, or in other words, as disseminators of enlightenment.
Choice B is incorrect based on the passage's content.
Fourth Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about the Arthurian notion of the 'Once and Future King'?
A) It fuelled a messianic zeal among colonialists.
B) It urged colonialists to relinquish their ambitions.
The text mentions that the notion of the 'Once and Future King' fomented a messianic fervor among colonialists. Choice B is
invalid as it contradicts the passage.
2. Which of the following is inferred about the colonial agenda?

A) The agenda extended beyond territorial conquest.
B) The agenda was solely focused on acquiring land.
According to the passage, the colonial agenda aimed not just to conquer lands but to 'civilize' indigenous populations.
Choice B is thus incorrect.
Page 5 of 6
Fifth Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about the repurposing of British folklore in colonies?
A) It was manipulated to assert colonial control.
B) It was unchanged to preserve its original context.
The passage states that folklore was repurposed to serve as an instrument of hegemonic control. Choice B is incorrect as it
suggests folklore remained unchanged, which is contrary to the text.
2. Which of the following is inferred about the portrayal of British rulers?

A) They likened themselves to sagacious folklore figures.
B) They encouraged a comparison with adventurous folklore heroes.
The text says that like Merlin, British rulers tried to portray themselves as wise overseers. Choice B is incorrect as it isn't
mentioned in the passage.
Sixth Paragraph:
1. Which of the following is inferred about folklore’s opportunity for subaltern voices?
A) Folklore could be reclaimed for anti-colonial agendas.
B) Folklore solidified the colonizers' cultural dominance.
The passage says that the malleability in folklore allowed subaltern voices to reclaim and subvert colonial narratives. Choice
B is invalid as it contradicts this point.
2. Which of the following is inferred about the reclamation by subaltern voices?

A) It illustrates folklore's multi-dimensional colonial impact.
B) It negates the influence of folklore on colonialism.
The text concludes that this reclamation reveals the multifaceted nature of folklore’s impact on colonialism. Choice B is
incorrect as it opposes this conclusion.
Page 6 of 6
The enigmatic number 666 has held a fascination that stretches across cultures and times, becoming an archetype of
fear, wonder, and a host of other emotions. It's a number deeply rooted in the Judeo-Christian worldview, especially
with its appearance in the New Testament's Book of Revelation. Authored by the Apostle John while in exile on the
island of Patmos, this apocalyptic text describes 666 as the "Number of the Beast." This term has led to countless
theological debates, spinning off into various forms of interpretation. Early Christian scholars like Irenaeus delved into
'gematria,' an ancient form of numerology where each letter of the alphabet is assigned a numerical value. They used
this system to find potential correlations between historical figures and the ominous number. For example, by using
gematria, some theologians argued that the Roman Emperor Nero was a likely candidate for being the "Beast," owing
to the numerical equivalence of the Hebrew transliteration of "Nero Caesar." This discussion hasn't been confined to
antiquity; modern scholars and theologians continue to analyze the text, offering diverse interpretations that range
from the strictly symbolic to the alarmingly literal.
During the Medieval era, the mysterious 666 maintained its theological gravitas but evolved to serve as an instrument
for social and religious conformity. This was a time when the church wielded considerable power, and 666 was often
invoked to brand things considered heretical, from non-Christian belief systems to scientific theories that seemed to
contradict biblical teachings. Most dramatically, it was implicated in the various witch trials and inquisitions that swept
across Europe. People accused of witchcraft were sometimes thought to bear the "mark of the beast," further
solidifying 666 as a symbol of evil and something to be feared. Fast forward to contemporary times, and the number
has largely escaped its purely religious connotations to permeate popular culture. Literary works, from classics to pulp
fiction, have exploited its inherent mystique. In cinema, movies like "The Omen" prominently feature the number to
elicit chills from audiences. Prominent figures such as Aleister Crowley self-styled themselves as "The Beast 666" in
the early 20th century, revamping the number as an emblem of countercultural or anti-establishment sentiments.
Speaking of countercultural movements, subcultures, particularly in music, have co-opted the number as a symbol of
resistance against conventional mores. The Heavy Metal genre is a notable example, where 666 is displayed as a
challenge to traditional religious values and an embrace of subversive or rebellious ideas. Here, the number is
transformed from a dire biblical warning to a symbol of defiance, an ironic twist in its long, storied history. In the realm
of the digital age, the number continues to manifest in intriguing ways. It's frequently found in usernames, memes, and
even as easter eggs in video games and software programs. Its appearance in these contexts seems to pay homage to
its culturally rich and diverse history, making it a sort of digital folklore element.
Yet, despite its popular use or perhaps misuse, a sense of trepidation around the number still lingers in the collective
consciousness. Many people actively avoid it in daily life, opting not to live in houses numbered 666 or hesitating to
take a license plate bearing the digits. This residual fear reveals the number's enduring emotional impact. Moreover,
recent archaeological discoveries and scholarly debates have added a fresh layer of complexity. Some early
manuscripts of the Book of Revelation point to 616 as the original "Number of the Beast." If true, this could signify not
just an error in interpretation but a fundamental misunderstanding that has been propagated for almost two millennia.
From its biblical beginnings to its modern-day secular incarnations, the number 666 has experienced a fascinating
evolution. Whether seen as a harbinger of apocalyptic events, a symbol for societal control, or a badge of anti-
establishment rebellion, the number continues to captivate and perplex humanity across different epochs. Its enduring
allure lies in its ability to adapt to the fears and fascinations of the time, making it one of the most enigmatic and
adaptable symbols in human history.
Disclaimer: The content of this essay is intended solely for educational purposes, specifically to aid in the improvement of reading comprehension
and verbal abilities. It is not designed to serve as a factual or scholarly examination of the subject matter discussed. The course creator does not
claim the truth or veracity of the article's content and should not be considered an authoritative source on the historical, religious, or cultural aspects
of the number 666. Readers are advised to consult primary sources and scholarly publications for accurate information on the topic.
Page 1 of 4
PASSAGE DETAILS
Doodles "≈" closely related

• Religion → Social Control "→" led to
• Theology ≈ Popular Culture "↔" intricately tied
• Counterculture ↔ Subversion " " sparks/energizes.
• Digital Age Cultural Evolution "⊕" are added to or infused into
• Historical Interpretation ⊕ Modern Relevance "↺" can loop back
• Fear ↺ Intrigue
Central Theme: The central theme of the passage is the multifaceted evolution of the number 666, highlighting how it has
adapted and persisted through religious, societal, and cultural shifts over time.
Tone: The tone is scholarly and analytical, taking a deep dive into the diverse meanings and interpretations of the number
666 over time. The text engages in a critical exploration of the topic, showing its different facets and enduring relevance.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Focuses on the religious origins of the number 666 within the Judeo-Christian tradition, emphasizing its
initial theological significance.
• Second Paragraph: Explores the Medieval era where the number evolved to serve as a tool for societal control, branding
things and people as heretical.
• Third Paragraph: Discusses the number's appropriation by countercultural movements, particularly in music, as a symbol
of resistance and subversion.
• Fourth Paragraph: Delves into the modern, digital appropriation of the number 666, indicating its continued cultural
evolution.
• Fifth Paragraph: Talks about the lingering sense of trepidation that the number carries, as well as new layers of
complexity added by recent scholarly debates.

The passage follows a chronological structure, starting with the historical and religious origins of the number 666. It then
explores its evolution through different eras—Medieval times, countercultural movements, and into the digital age. It ends by
highlighting the enduring emotional impact and complexity of the number.
Page 2 of 4
REASONING CHECK
Check whether the following is a valid or invalid inference
1. The Church has a unified official stance on 666.
2. The number 666 still carries emotional weight.
3. Aleister Crowley's self-branding changed public perception.
4. Movies like "The Omen" have shaped society's views on 666.
5. The meaning of 666 has evolved over time.
6. 666 was used for social conformity in the medieval era.
7. Digital usage has altered the number 666's religious significance.
8. The heavy metal genre's success is due to its use of 666.
9. Recent discoveries add complexity to interpretations of 666.
10. There is an ongoing theological debate surrounding 666.
Page 3 of 4
1. The church has a unified official stance on 666.
Invalid: The passage discusses various interpretations and uses of 666 but does not state or imply that there's a unified
official stance from the church on what the number means.
2. The number 666 still carries emotional weight.

Valid: The passage explicitly says that many people actively avoid the number in daily life, implying its enduring
emotional impact.
3. Aleister Crowley's self-branding changed public perception.

Invalid: While Aleister Crowley is mentioned as self-styling himself as "The Beast 666," there is no information in the
passage about how this affected public perception.
4. Movies like "The Omen" have shaped society's views on 666.

Invalid: The passage mentions that movies like "The Omen" feature the number to elicit chills but does not indicate that
such films have had a significant impact on societal views of the number.
5. The meaning of 666 has evolved over time.

Valid: The passage outlines the different roles and meanings 666 has had throughout history, from religious symbolism
to societal control to anti-establishment rebellion, implying that its meaning has been fluid.
6. 666 was used for social conformity in the medieval era.

Valid: The passage describes how the number was used to label things as heretical and was implicated in witch trials,
suggesting it served as a tool for social and religious conformity during the Medieval era.
7. Digital usage has altered the number 666's religious significance.

Invalid: While the passage mentions the number's appearance in digital contexts, it does not state or imply that this has
changed its religious significance.
8. The heavy metal genre's success is due to its use of 666.

Invalid: Although Heavy Metal is mentioned as a genre that has embraced 666, there's no indication in the passage that
this contributed to the genre's overall success or popularity.
9. Recent discoveries add complexity to interpretations of 666.

Valid: The passage talks about recent archaeological findings that point to 616 as potentially being the original "Number
of the Beast," suggesting that the debate and fascination around the number are far from settled.
10. There is an ongoing theological debate surrounding 666.

Valid: The passage explicitly states that interpretations of 666 have varied and have been the subject of discourse from
early Christian scholars to modern theologians, implying that the debate is ongoing.
Page 4 of 4
The cataclysmic events of World War I and World War II did not merely shatter global stability; they also fractured the
prevailing artistic paradigms, creating a fertile ground for new movements to flourish, each steeped in its own unique
form of disillusionment or introspection.
World War I was a monumental shock to the Western conscience. The mechanised slaughter of the trenches abruptly
disrupted the buoyant optimism of the Belle Époque, forcing a collective reckoning with the limitations of human
rationality and the dark underbelly of technological progress.
Dadaism emerged in Zurich during the war as a nihilistic response to what was seen as the utter bankruptcy of
Western civilisation. Figures like Tristan Tzara and Hugo Ball employed anti-art techniques such as randomisation and
the use of nonsense language to construct poems, plays, and manifestos that deliberately flouted traditional artistic
norms. By doing so, they aimed to assail not just artistic propriety, but the entire scaffolding of rationalist thought and
bourgeois morality that had led to the devastation of war. Surrealism, on the other hand, emerged from the ashes of
Dada but diverged in focus. Led by André Breton, it was a movement steeped in the exploration of dreams, the
unconscious mind, and the irrational. The Surrealists, heavily influenced by Freud's psychoanalytic theories, sought to
bridge the gap between the rational and the irrational, hoping to forge a new artistic and cognitive equilibrium in a
world where old certainties had been shattered.
The Second World War further intensified these trends while introducing its own set of thematic preoccupations.
Unlike the somewhat regionalised conflict of World War I, World War II was a truly global event, affecting virtually every
corner of the globe. The moral and existential crises it precipitated were similarly expansive. The dropping of atomic
bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki ushered in an age of existential dread, as humanity was confronted with its
capability for self-annihilation. Similarly, the Holocaust forced a moral reckoning on an unprecedented scale, as society
grappled with the depths of human cruelty and the mechanisms of systemic evil.
Abstract Expressionism in post-war America epitomised this deep-rooted sense of existential crisis. Artists like
Jackson Pollock and Mark Rothko abandoned representational accuracy, opting instead for a style that sought to
capture the emotional and psychological complexities of existence. For instance, Pollock's drip paintings were neither
accidents nor arbitrary; they were careful orchestrations of formlessness, attempting to depict the ineffable chaos
within human consciousness. Rothko's colour fields, meanwhile, played with the viewers' perception and emotional
state, creating an immersive experience that invited contemplation and introspection. Their works were a far cry from
traditional portrayals of external reality; instead, they aimed to capture the emotional landscapes that had come to
characterise the human condition in the post-war era.
In contrast to Abstract Expressionism, Pop Art in the late 1950s took a markedly different approach. It confronted the
post-war capitalist boom and consumerist culture head-on. Artists like Andy Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein borrowed
from the mundanity of everyday life—soup cans, comic strips, celebrity photos—to create art that was as accessible as
it was critical. By elevating these objects and images to the status of fine art, they posed implicit critiques of
consumerism, cultural superficiality, and the growing ubiquity of mass media. While on the surface, Pop Art may
appear to celebrate the consumerist culture, its mimetic excess often functioned as a critique, highlighting the
emptiness and artificiality inherent in a society increasingly defined by material possession and shallow celebrity.
Both world wars acted as crucibles for artistic innovation, forcing a series of ideological and aesthetic recalibrations
that irreversibly altered the course of art history. The chaos and disillusionment bred by these conflicts were
transmuted into a bewildering array of artistic movements, each seeking to navigate the tumultuous currents of their
times in their own idiosyncratic manner. The art that emerged was not merely a reflection of societal upheaval but also
an active agent in shaping the intellectual discourses that sought to make sense of a world in perpetual disarray.
Page 1 of 5
PASSAGE DETAILS
Doodles
1. Global Stability → Artistic Upheaval
2. Mechanised Slaughter → Artistic Disruption "≈" closely related
3. Nihilism ↔ Dadaism "→" led to
4. Freud's Theories Surrealism "↔" intricately tied
5. Existential Crisis ⊕ Abstract Expressionism " " sparks/energizes.
6. Consumerism → Pop Art "⊕" are added to or infused into
7. Historical Events ↺ Artistic Movements "↺" can loop back
Central Theme: The central theme of the passage is the profound impact of World Wars I and II on the evolution of artistic
movements. The passage elucidates how these global conflicts led to a seismic shift in artistic paradigms, catalysing the birth
and evolution of movements like Dadaism, Surrealism, Abstract Expressionism, and Pop Art.
Tone: The tone of the passage is scholarly and analytical. It approaches the subject matter with a nuanced lens, dissecting
the complex interplay between historical events and their subsequent cultural impacts, specifically in the realm of art.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Provides an introduction, explaining how World Wars I and II shattered global stability and pre-existing
artistic paradigms.
• Second Paragraph: Delves into the impact of World War I, focusing on how it disturbed the previous era's optimism and
led to new questions about human rationality and technological progress.
• Third Paragraph: Discusses the emergence of Dadaism during World War I as a form of anti-art and a critique of
Western civilisation.
• Fourth Paragraph: Explores the development of Surrealism as an offshoot of Dadaism, influenced by Freud's theories,
and its efforts to reconcile the rational with the irrational.
• Fifth Paragraph: Examines how World War II, being a global event, led to even more intense existential and moral crises,
including the advent of nuclear weaponry and the Holocaust.
• Sixth Paragraph: Analyses the emergence of Abstract Expressionism in post-war America, focusing on its existential
underpinnings and its departure from representational accuracy.
• Seventh Paragraph: Discusses the rise of Pop Art as a critique of consumerist culture and the shallowness of post-war
society.

The passage adopts a chronological and thematic structure. It starts by setting the stage with the impact of World War I, then
moves to the artistic movements that arose from it. The narrative then shifts to World War II and its consequent influence on
art. Each artistic movement is discussed in the context of the war that influenced it, and the passage ends by summarising
the lasting impact of these wars on the course of art history.
Page 2 of 5
REASONING CHECK
PART A: Choose the right option:
Question 1
This art movement emerged as a nihilistic response to World War I, employing anti-art techniques such as randomisation and
the use of nonsense language.
A) Abstract Expressionism B) Pop Art
C) Dadaism D) Surrealism
Question 2
This art movement explored the realms of dreams, the unconscious mind, and the irrational, and was heavily influenced by
Freud's psychoanalytic theories.
A) Dadaism B) Abstract Expressionism
C) Surrealism D) Pop Art
Question 3
Originating in post-war America, this art movement abandoned representational accuracy and focused on capturing the
emotional and psychological complexities of existence.
A) Dadaism B) Surrealism
C) Abstract Expressionism D) Pop Art
Question 4
This art movement confronted the post-war capitalist boom and consumerist culture head-on, using elements from everyday
life like soup cans and comic strips.
A) Pop Art B) Dadaism
C) Surrealism D) Abstract Expressionism
Question 5
This art movement sought to challenge not just artistic norms but also the rationalist thought and bourgeois morality that had
led to the devastation of war.
PART B: Check whether the following statements are valid or invalid
1. Pop Art implicitly questions the values and priorities of a society increasingly focused on material possession and
superficiality.
2. Pop Art was explicitly critical of consumerist culture.
3. Post-war art movements were a form of escapism, providing people with a way to detach from the harsh realities of war
4. Art serves not just an aesthetic function, but it sometimes also serves a moral and philosophical one.
5. Art movements don't just reflect the state of society; they also actively contribute to shaping the intellectual discourses of
their times.
6. Surrealism is a direct counter to the preceding era's faith in rationality and empiricism.
7. Surrealism was a rejection or repudiation of Dadaist principles.
8. Each art movement was uniform in its aims, themes, and techniques.
Page 3 of 5
PART A:
Question 1
This art movement emerged as a nihilistic response to World War I, employing anti-art techniques such as randomisation and
the use of nonsense language.
A) Abstract Expressionism B) Pop Art
C) Dadaism D) Surrealism
The passage states that Dadaism emerged in Zurich during World War I as a nihilistic response, using anti-art techniques like
randomisation and nonsense language. It aimed to challenge Western civilisation's rationalist thought and bourgeois morality.
Question 2
This art movement explored the realms of dreams, the unconscious mind, and the irrational, and was heavily influenced by
Freud's psychoanalytic theories.
According to the passage, Surrealism emerged from the ashes of Dada and focused on exploring dreams, the unconscious
mind, and the irrational. It was heavily influenced by Freud's psychoanalytic theories.
Question 3
Originating in post-war America, this art movement abandoned representational accuracy and focused on capturing the
emotional and psychological complexities of existence.
A) Dadaism B) Surrealism
C) Abstract Expressionism D) Pop Art
The passage mentions that Abstract Expressionism emerged in post-war America and moved away from representational
accuracy. Instead, it aimed to capture the emotional and psychological complexities of human existence.
Question 4
This art movement confronted the post-war capitalist boom and consumerist culture head-on, using elements from everyday
life like soup cans and comic strips.
A) Pop Art B) Dadaism
C) Surrealism D) Abstract Expressionism
The passage states that Pop Art emerged in the late 1950s and directly confronted the post-war capitalist boom and
consumerist culture. It utilised elements from everyday life, such as soup cans and comic strips, in its artwork.
Question 5
This art movement sought to challenge not just artistic norms but also the rationalist thought and bourgeois morality that had
led to the devastation of war.
The passage outlines that Dadaism not only sought to challenge artistic norms through its anti-art techniques but also aimed
to assail the rationalist thought and bourgeois morality that contributed to the devastation of World War I.
PART B:
1. Pop Art implicitly questions the values and priorities of a society increasingly focused on material possession and
superficiality.
Valid: The text states that Pop Art borrowed from the mundanity of everyday life to create art that was as accessible as it
was critical. It mentions that "By elevating these objects and images to the status of fine art, they posed implicit critiques
of consumerism, cultural superficiality, and the growing ubiquity of mass media." Thus, it is implicitly questioning societal
values focused on materialism and superficiality.
2. Pop Art was explicitly critical of consumerist culture.

Invalid: The text specifies that Pop Art posed "implicit critiques" of consumerism and not explicit ones. Therefore, stating
that Pop Art was explicitly critical would be incorrect based on the information given.
3. Post-war art movements were a form of escapism, providing people with a way to detach from the harsh realities of war.
Invalid: The text suggests that post-war art movements like Abstract Expressionism aimed to capture the emotional and
psychological complexities of existence in the post-war era, rather than offering an escape from them. The art was
deeply rooted in the existential and moral crises of the time.
Page 4 of 5
4. Art serves not just an aesthetic function, but it sometimes also serves a moral and philosophical one.
Valid: The text discusses how various art movements were not just concerned with aesthetics but also engaged with
moral and philosophical questions. For example, Dadaism aimed to assail the rationalist thought and bourgeois morality
that led to war. Similarly, the text indicates that art was an "active agent in shaping the intellectual discourses" of the
times.
5. Art movements don't just reflect the state of society; they also actively contribute to shaping the intellectual discourses of
their times.
Valid: The last paragraph of the text specifically mentions that the art that emerged from the world wars was an "active
agent in shaping the intellectual discourses that sought to make sense of a world in perpetual disarray."
6. Surrealism is a direct counter to the preceding era's faith in rationality and empiricism.
Valid: The text states that Surrealism was focused on the exploration of dreams, the unconscious mind, and the
irrational. Surrealists sought to bridge the gap between the rational and irrational, representing a counterpoint to a prior
faith in rationality and empiricism.
7. Surrealism was a rejection or repudiation of Dadaist principles.

Invalid: The text says that Surrealism emerged "from the ashes of Dada" but "diverged in focus." There is no mention of
it being a rejection or repudiation of Dadaist principles.
8. Each art movement was uniform in its aims, themes, and techniques.
Invalid: The text makes it clear that each movement had its own unique form and focus. For instance, Dadaism was a
nihilistic response to war, while Surrealism was steeped in the exploration of the unconscious mind. Abstract
Expressionism was concerned with existential crises, whereas Pop Art was critical of consumerist culture. The variability
in aims, themes, and techniques is evident.
Page 5 of 5
In an epoch marked by rapidly evolving technological paradigms, the ethical ramifications of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
have become a contentious subject of discourse. Intriguingly, the dilemmas we confront today find their correlates in
age-old Indian philosophical wisdom, encapsulated within the revered Bhagavad Gita. As global society delves into the
myriad moral quandaries linked with AI—ranging from issues of social justice to the obfuscation created by algorithmic
biases—certain ethical axioms from this ancient Hindu scripture emerge as an enduring moral framework to navigate
these complexities.
The Bhagavad Gita—a seminal dialogue unfolding on the Kurukshetra battlefield—serves as a compendium of
ontological, epistemological, and ethical insights. A pivotal concept within this narrative is Dharma, an intricate term
with myriad interpretations but generally encapsulating the notions of duty and moral responsibility. Within the text,
Lord Krishna elucidates the ethos of 'Karma Yoga' to Arjuna: a doctrine of action devoid of attachment to results. This
precept has particular resonance in contemporary discussions surrounding AI's ethical imperatives.
When scrutinised from an AI ethics perspective, Dharma acquires a multifaceted role. It transcends the realm of mere
algorithmic efficiency, expanding to include a societal obligation to engender systems endowed with ethical integrity.
Such considerations gain prominence when one contemplates AI's forays into sectors with profound societal
implications, such as healthcare diagnostics or judicial sentencing algorithms. For instance, in a judicial AI system, the
efficacy of data-driven analytics should harmoniously coexist with ethical imperatives ensuring the absence of in-built
societal prejudices, be they racial, gender-based, or otherwise.
The Karma paradigm, advocating action unattached to desired outcomes, offers valuable ethical heuristics for AI
designers and policymakers. Conventionally, AI systems are optimised to maximise certain quantitative metrics, a
strategy that risks sidelining nuanced ethical considerations. This approach can inadvertently exacerbate societal
issues—such as the propagation of disinformation or ideological echo chambers. By invoking the ethical tenets of
Karma, AI can be architecturally designed to meet broader societal and ethical objectives. An illustrative example
might be a news-aggregation AI platform, optimised not solely for user engagement but also for ideological balance
and epistemological rigor, thereby engendering a more informed populace.
Moreover, the Bhagavad Gita's existential discussions surrounding the ephemeral nature of human life and the eternal
core of the soul have intriguing ramifications for debates on AI consciousness. While AI currently lacks subjectivity, the
burgeon of advanced machine learning paradigms suggests the potential for decision-making systems that eerily
mimic human cognition. Such advancements engender profound ethical conundrums: Does an ontologically advanced
AI possess a nascent form of 'Dharma'? How would this interface with extant human ethical frameworks and
jurisprudence?
In summation, by employing the conceptual apparatus of the Bhagavad Gita, we can envisage a heuristic framework
that adroitly melds technological efficacy with ethical verity. This synthesis not only facilitates the creation of AI that is
intellectually robust but also morally defensible. Further, the Gita's cosmological assertions on the intricate web of
interdependence among sentient beings serve as a poignant reminder of the communal ethical obligations incumbent
upon us, particularly when wielding transformative technologies like AI. Thus, in harmonising the ancient with the
emergent, we can aspire to an AI landscape that is congruent with both humanistic values and the exigencies of a
complex, interconnected global society.
.
Disclaimer: The content of this article is intended solely for educational purposes, specifically to enhance reading comprehension skills. It
does not represent an endorsement of the views, theories, or concepts discussed within the text. The article is designed to provoke thought
and encourage critical thinking, but the interpretations and perspectives are those of the author alone. The course creator makes use of this
material with the aim of fostering reading and analytical skills and does not claim any veracity or validity for the information presented.
Readers are advised to engage with the content critically and form their own opinions based on additional research and thought.
Page 1 of 5
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Genre: Philosophy | Ethics | Technology
Doodles
1. Ethical AI Landscape
2. Bhagavad Gita & Dharma ↔ AI Ethics "≈" closely related
3. Dharma Societal Impact in Healthcare and Justice "→" led to
4. Karma Yoga → Ethical Heuristics for AI "↔" intricately tied
5. AI Consciousness ⊕ Existential Dilemmas " " sparks/energizes.
6. Bhagavad Gita ↺ Ethical Imperatives for Global "⊕" are added to or infused into
Society "↺" can loop back
Central Theme: The central theme of the passage is the ethical challenges posed by Artificial Intelligence (AI), particularly
as they resonate with the philosophical tenets found in the Bhagavad Gita. The article probes how ancient wisdom can offer
a moral compass for navigating contemporary technological dilemmas.
Tone: The tone of the passage is scholarly and reflective. The author carefully synthesises age-old Hindu philosophy with
cutting-edge technological considerations, rendering a complex yet insightful discourse.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Serves as an introduction, presenting the challenge of ethical dilemmas in the age of AI. It then
suggests that ancient wisdom, specifically the Bhagavad Gita, offers insights into these challenges.
• Second Paragraph: Elaborates on the Bhagavad Gita's concept of Dharma, explaining how its ethical principles can be
applied to modern-day AI challenges.
• Third Paragraph: Discusses the application of Dharma in real-world scenarios, especially in sectors like healthcare and
the justice system, emphasizing the need for ethical imperatives alongside algorithmic efficiency.
• Fourth Paragraph: Introduces the Karma paradigm as another lens for understanding ethical nuances in AI, suggesting
that algorithms could be designed to meet broader societal and ethical objectives.
• Fifth Paragraph: Touches on existential aspects of AI, pondering whether advanced AI could have a form of Dharma and
how that would interface with human ethical frameworks.
• Sixth Paragraph: Summarises the insights gleaned from the Bhagavad Gita, emphasizing its enduring relevance and the
ethical obligations it places on humanity when interfacing with technologies like AI.

The passage is structured around the conceptual dialogue between ancient Hindu philosophy and modern AI ethics. It starts
with an introductory synthesis of the two fields, then dives into specific philosophical tenets and their applicability to AI,
culminating in a summative discourse that calls for an ethical approach to AI development.
Page 2 of 5
REASONING CHECK
Check whether the following statements are VALID or INVALID
1. Ethical and philosophical frameworks from diverse cultures, such as the Indian philosophical wisdom in Bhagavad Gita,
can have universal applicability.
2. While Dharma is an ancient concept, its meaning is fluid enough to be applicable to contemporary ethical dilemmas,
including those in AI.
3. Ethical considerations in AI are not just additive features but are fundamental to the architecture and functioning of AI
systems.
4. Ethical considerations should take precedence or at least coexist with algorithmic efficiency, particularly when AI
systems have broad societal implications.
5. Not just designers but also policymakers have a role to play in shaping the ethical landscape of AI, guided by principles
like Karma.
6. The focus on quantitative metrics in AI could come at the cost of ethical considerations, thereby exacerbating existing
societal issues.
7. The rapid advancements in AI could potentially lead to machines mimicking human cognition, opening the door to
ethical dilemmas that have not yet been considered.
8. Ethical obligations extend beyond individual or organisational responsibilities to encompass communal or societal roles,
especially when it comes to transformative technologies like AI.
9. Focusing solely on technological efficacy or solely on ethical considerations is insufficient.
10. Ethical considerations in AI are not just about human-machine interactions but are intricately tied to a broader,
interconnected web of relationships among sentient beings.
11. Complex ideas from the Bhagavad Gita, like Dharma and Karma, can be adapted and interpreted to fit new and evolving
ethical landscapes.
12. Spiritual or existential perspectives, like those found in the Bhagavad Gita, could enrich our understanding of ethics in
technology.
13. The doctrine of 'Karma Yoga,' which advocates for action without attachment to results, is counterbalance to the goal-
driven metrics that usually govern AI.
14. Moral integrity and ethical considerations are not separate from our actions or in the case of AI, programming and
algorithms, but are part and parcel of the concept of 'right action' as guided by Dharma and Karma.
15. Bhagavad Gita’s focus on wisdom and right action could offer a balanced, informed approach for addressing the ethical
challenges posed by AI.
Page 3 of 5
1. Ethical and philosophical frameworks from diverse cultures, such as the Indian philosophical wisdom in Bhagavad Gita,
can have universal applicability.
Valid: The text explicitly discusses how the Bhagavad Gita's ancient Indian philosophical wisdom can offer a moral
framework for tackling modern ethical dilemmas in AI, suggesting universal applicability.
2. While Dharma is an ancient concept, its meaning is fluid enough to be applicable to contemporary ethical dilemmas,
including those in AI.
Valid: The text establishes that Dharma, although rooted in ancient traditions, can play a multifaceted role in AI ethics,
thus confirming its contemporary relevance.
3. Ethical considerations in AI are not just additive features but are fundamental to the architecture and functioning of AI
systems.
Valid: The text asserts that ethical considerations should be integrated into the architecture of AI systems, especially in
sectors like healthcare and judicial sentencing. This implies they are not just supplementary features but fundamental.
4. Ethical considerations should take precedence or at least coexist with algorithmic efficiency, particularly when AI
systems have broad societal implications.
Valid: The article suggests that considerations like the absence of societal prejudices should harmoniously coexist with
data-driven analytics, especially in AI systems with broad societal implications.
5. Not just designers but also policymakers have a role to play in shaping the ethical landscape of AI, guided by principles
like Karma.
Valid: The text refers to "AI designers and policymakers" as stakeholders who should use ethical heuristics such as
Karma for guiding the ethical dimensions of AI.
6. The focus on quantitative metrics in AI could come at the cost of ethical considerations, thereby exacerbating existing
societal issues.
Valid: The text highlights the risk of focusing solely on quantitative metrics, stating that this could exacerbate societal
issues like the propagation of disinformation or ideological echo chambers.
7. The rapid advancements in AI could potentially lead to machines mimicking human cognition, opening the door to
ethical dilemmas that have not yet been considered.
Valid: The text discusses the possibility of AI systems mimicking human cognition and how this poses new ethical
conundrums.
8. Ethical obligations extend beyond individual or organisational responsibilities to encompass communal or societal roles,
especially when it comes to transformative technologies like AI.
Valid: The text concludes by mentioning the "communal ethical obligations incumbent upon us," implying that ethical
considerations are broader than just individual or organisational responsibilities.
9. Focusing solely on technological efficacy or solely on ethical considerations is insufficient.

Valid: The text calls for a synthesis of technological efficacy and ethical verity, implying that focusing solely on either is
not sufficient.
10. Ethical considerations in AI are not just about human-machine interactions but are intricately tied to a broader,
interconnected web of relationships among sentient beings.
Valid: The text refers to the "intricate web of interdependence among sentient beings," emphasizing the broader ethical
context that extends beyond just human-machine interactions.
11. Complex ideas from the Bhagavad Gita, like Dharma and Karma, can be adapted and interpreted to fit new and evolving
ethical landscapes.
Valid: The text discusses how the principles of Dharma and Karma can be adapted to modern challenges in AI ethics,
confirming their adaptability.
12. Spiritual or existential perspectives, like those found in the Bhagavad Gita, could enrich our understanding of ethics in
technology.
Valid: The text includes existential discussions from the Bhagavad Gita, such as those about the eternal core of the soul,
as relevant to AI ethics, suggesting they can enrich our understanding.
Page 4 of 5
13. The doctrine of 'Karma Yoga,' which advocates for action without attachment to results, is a counterbalance to the goal-
driven metrics that usually govern AI.
Valid: The text suggests that the principles of Karma Yoga could serve as ethical heuristics to guide AI design, thus
acting as a counterbalance to the usual focus on metrics.
14. Moral integrity and ethical considerations are not separate from our actions or in the case of AI, programming and
algorithms, but are part and parcel of the concept of 'right action' as guided by Dharma and Karma.
Valid: The text aligns with this statement by discussing how ethical considerations should be integrated into the design
and functioning of AI systems, in alignment with principles like Dharma and Karma.
15. Bhagavad Gita’s focus on wisdom and right action could offer a balanced, informed approach for addressing the ethical
challenges posed by AI.
Valid: The text specifically argues that the Bhagavad Gita offers a heuristic framework that blends technological efficacy
with ethical considerations, thus offering a balanced approach.
Page 5 of 5
When pondering the multifaceted issue of history's distortion, we find ourselves navigating a tangled web of ethical
dilemmas, intellectual quandaries, and sociopolitical ramifications. Such alterations to history are seldom unintentional
mistakes; rather, they are often meticulously calculated distortions that construct false realities, which in turn, split the
fabric of our collective memory. This fracture weakens the integrity of societal judgment, making it difficult to separate
facts from deliberately orchestrated fictions. While the popular notion suggests that "history is the propaganda of the
victors," it glaringly omits a myriad of other influences such as sociocultural biases, political motives, and psychological
predispositions that shape historical narratives. It is this susceptibility to distortion that allows false scholarship to seep
into and potentially corrupt revered academic conversations, causing what can be seen as an epistemological erosion.
As we drift in a sea of disinformation, the integrity of historical accounts assumes a vital role in stabilising our
understanding of reality.
Delving into the symbiosis between history and ideology, one realises that this relationship can have both benign and
insidious dimensions. On the one hand, ideological frameworks guide scholars on what questions are worth asking in
the quest to reconstruct the past. On the other, they can contort historical facts to serve present-day agendas, often to
the detriment of truth and intellectual honesty. The “Lost Cause” myth in the United States, for example, emerged
post-Civil War, glorifying Confederate heroes while trivialising the role of slavery, thus distorting historical facts to
serve a neo-Confederate agenda. This type of narrative manipulation frequently aids in the reinforcement of existing
power structures, serving as ideological ammunition in broader battles over social or political landscapes.
Even the most diligent attempts at accurate historical scholarship cannot entirely escape the inherent biases
introduced by human cognition and emotion. Factors like confirmation bias, cognitive dissonance, and ethnocentrism
manifest themselves in myriad ways, colouring the lens through which events are interpreted. Take the case of colonial
histories: the British Empire's activities in India are rendered through divergent narratives depending on the viewpoint
of the historian. British narratives might celebrate the construction of railways and the establishment of administrative
systems, while Indian narratives expose the exploitative extraction of resources, the spread of famine, and the racial
discrimination under colonial rule. These disparate viewpoints are not just alternate takes on a single objective reality;
they are symptomatic of the deeply ingrained prejudices and cultural norms of the societies generating these histories.
Moreover, technological advancements add another layer of complexity to the ever-adapting nature of historical
distortion. The dawn of the internet era, characterised by algorithms and social media platforms, can serve as both an
accelerant and a dampener in the dissemination of distorted history. Social media platforms readily create ideological
echo chambers, which facilitate the rapid spread of conspiracy theories, misinformation, and outright lies—consider
the wealth of falsehoods surrounding events like the 9/11 terrorist attacks or the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the
same digital landscape can serve as an antidote to this informational chaos. Online resources enable broader public
access to once-obscure primary sources and academic works. This democratization of knowledge has the potential to
undermine the authority of traditional gatekeepers, fostering a more participatory and rigorous form of historical
inquiry.
.
Page 1 of 5
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Genre: Philosophy | Ethics | Sociology | History
Doodles 5.
1. Ethical Quandaries ↔ Epistemological Erosion "≈" closely related
2. Ideological Frameworks → Historical Distortions "→" led to
3. Cognitive Biases Divergent Narratives "↔" intricately tied
4. Technological Advancements ↺ Historical " " sparks/energizes.
Interpretations "⊕" are added to or infused into
"↺" can loop back
Central Theme: The central theme of the passage is the intricate and fraught relationship between history and truth. It
explores how history is not a mere recounting of factual events but a complex tapestry woven from multiple threads such as
ideological frameworks, cognitive biases, and technological platforms. The passage calls attention to the ethical, intellectual,
and sociopolitical implications of distorting history and the challenges faced in striving for an objective account.
Tone: The tone of the passage is scholarly and analytical, aiming to dissect the subject matter with intellectual rigor. The
author employs a complex vocabulary and draws on examples from various disciplines, including sociology, history,
psychology, and technology, to build a nuanced argument.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Establishes the landscape by presenting the critical issue of the ethical and intellectual dilemmas tied to
the distortion of history. It introduces the term "epistemological erosion" to describe the loss of trust in historical
narratives, emphasizing the importance of maintaining the integrity of historical accounts.
• Second Paragraph: Focuses on the impact of ideology in shaping history, offering the "Lost Cause" myth as a case
study. It elaborates on how such ideological frameworks can distort facts to serve current political or social agendas,
affecting the overall societal judgement.
• Third Paragraph: Explores the inherent human biases that complicate the task of historical scholarship. Using the
diverging narratives of British colonial history in India as an example, it explains how confirmation bias, cognitive
dissonance, and ethnocentrism can lead to divergent accounts that are symptomatic of the societies that produce them.
• Fourth Paragraph: Addresses the role of technology, particularly the internet and social media, in shaping public
understanding of history. While acknowledging the potential for echo chambers and the spread of misinformation, it also
posits that the democratization of information can foster a more rigorous form of historical inquiry.

The passage uses a well-structured, logical framework to present its argument. It starts by setting the stage with a discussion
of the ethical and intellectual implications of distorting history. Then, it examines the role of ideology and human biases in
shaping historical accounts, offering concrete examples for each. Finally, it discusses the influence of technology in either
exacerbating or mitigating these issues, before concluding with a call to consider the stakes involved.
Page 2 of 5
REASONING CHECK
Choose the best alternative.
Question 1
Which statement, if true, would undermine the essay's argument concerning ideology’s role in warping historical narrative?
A. A significant majority of historians are deeply committed to adopting methodologically neutral research practices.
B. The narrative surrounding the "Lost Cause" myth enjoys only marginal attention in contemporary scholarly debates.
C. Recent advancements in digital technology have been highly effective in curbing the spread of misleading historical
narratives.
D. The inclusion of ideological perspectives is an inevitable component of constructing any form of historical narrative.
Question 2
What information, if verified, could bolster the passage’s assertions about the perils of twisted history?
A. A comprehensive survey reveals that a majority of academic textbooks favour one-sided historical perspectives.
B. Digital platforms are actively engaged in the development of sophisticated algorithms aimed at identifying and
eliminating false narratives.
C. Data indicates a consistent decline in museum attendance, highlighting public disinterest in authentic historical
resources.
D. Scholarly research unveils data that supports the notion of British colonialism having beneficial impacts on Indian
society.
Question 3
How might the essay's insights be operationalised in the realm of educational policy?
A. By prioritising scientific and technical education at the expense of the humanities
B. By incorporating primary source analysis and critical thinking modules into history education.
C. By focusing on global histories that transcend national perspective
D. By ensuring that history curricula embrace a diversity of interpretative lenses
Question 4
Which premise is tacitly embedded in the passage’s argument?
A. Ideological frameworks are the ultimate arbiters in the study of history
B. Tampering with historical veracity has a spectrum of detrimental ramifications
C. Technological platforms unilaterally exacerbate the challenges of historical fidelity
D. Cognitive biases exert a trivial influence over historical interpretation
Question 5
What role does the "Lost Cause" myth play within the context of the passage?
A. Serves as a case in point for the sway of technological platforms in history’s dissemination
B. Acts as an illustration of how ideological contexts shape the reading of historical events
C. Functions as an example of the role of cognitive prejudice in shaping public perception
D. Highlights the lasting ramifications of colonial narratives on contemporary discourse
Page 3 of 5
Question 1
Which statement, if true, would undermine the essay's argument concerning ideology’s role in warping historical narrative?
Correct Answer: A
A. A significant majority of historians are deeply committed to adopting methodologically neutral research practices.
Correct. If this statement is true, it directly undermines the essay's claim that ideology can distort historical narratives. It
would imply that most historians approach their research in a neutral and unbiased manner, mitigating the role of ideology in
shaping history.
B. The narrative surrounding the "Lost Cause" myth enjoys only marginal attention in contemporary scholarly debates.
This doesn't really undermine the essay's argument about ideology; the "Lost Cause" is presented as an example, and its
marginality in current debates doesn't affect the broader argument.
C. Recent advancements in digital technology have been highly effective in curbing the spread of misleading historical
narratives.
While this might seem like a counterpoint, the essay does already concede that technology has dual roles—both
exacerbating and mitigating distortion. Therefore, it doesn't fundamentally undermine the essay's point about ideology.
D. The inclusion of ideological perspectives is an inevitable component of constructing any form of historical narrative.
This would actually strengthen, not undermine, the essay's argument that ideological perspectives can distort historical facts.
Question 2
What information, if verified, could bolster the passage’s assertions about the perils of twisted history?
Correct Answer: A
A. A comprehensive survey reveals that a majority of academic textbooks favour one-sided historical perspectives.
Correct. This information would bolster the essay’s claim about the perils of distorted history by providing empirical evidence
that academic resources can be biased.
B. Digital platforms are actively engaged in the development of sophisticated algorithms aimed at identifying and eliminating
false narratives.
While positive, this does not specifically bolster the essay's claims about the 'perils' of twisted history.
C. Data indicates a consistent decline in museum attendance, highlighting public disinterest in authentic historical resources.
This could be read as a consequence of twisted history, but it doesn't necessarily bolster the essay's specific assertions
about how history gets distorted.
D. Scholarly research unveils data that supports the notion of British colonialism having beneficial impacts on Indian society.
This would actually complicate, rather than bolster, the essay's arguments regarding the perils of one-sided or distorted
historical accounts.
Page 4 of 5
Question 3
How might the essay's insights be operationalised in the realm of educational policy?
Correct Answer: D
A. By prioritising scientific and technical education at the expense of the humanities.

This option runs counter to the essay's emphasis on the importance of an accurate and nuanced understanding of history.
Prioritising scientific and technical education could marginalise historical studies, which would not address the issues raised
in the essay about the distortion of historical narratives.
B. By incorporating primary source analysis and critical thinking modules into history education.
While this approach may enhance critical thinking skills and encourage scrutiny of source material, primary sources
themselves can be biased or distorted. Thus, this method might not fully address the essay’s concerns about the
susceptibility of history to various forms of distortion.
C. By focusing on global histories that transcend national perspective.

While this could provide a more inclusive viewpoint, the essay's focus is more on the integrity and accuracy of historical
accounts rather than their scope. This option does not directly address the concerns raised in the essay about distorted or
misleading narratives.
D. By ensuring that history curricula embrace a diversity of interpretative lenses.

Correct. This option directly aligns with the essay's discussion about the multifaceted influences on history, including
ideological biases. Incorporating diverse interpretative lenses in the curriculum could counterbalance these biases and offer
a more rounded understanding of history, thereby addressing the essay's concerns about distorted historical narratives.
Question 4
Which premise is tacitly embedded in the passage’s argument?
Correct Answer: B
E. Ideological frameworks are the ultimate arbiters in the study of history.

The essay does not make this claim; it highlights ideology as one of several influences.
B. Tampering with historical veracity has a spectrum of detrimental ramifications.

Correct. The essay argues that altering history can have various negative consequences, both intellectually and socially.
C. Technological platforms unilaterally exacerbate the challenges of historical fidelity.

The essay actually argues that technology can both exacerbate and mitigate these challenges.
F. Cognitive biases exert a trivial influence over historical interpretation.

The essay argues the opposite—that cognitive biases are an important factor in shaping history.
Question 5
What role does the "Lost Cause" myth play within the context of the passage?
Correct Answer: B
A. Serves as a case in point for the sway of technological platforms in history’s dissemination.
The "Lost Cause" myth is not used in the essay to discuss the role of technology.
B. Acts as an illustration of how ideological contexts shape the reading of historical events.
Correct. The myth is presented as an example of how ideology can distort historical facts.
C. Functions as an example of the role of cognitive prejudice in shaping public perception.

While related to ideology, the essay specifically discusses the "Lost Cause" in the context of ideological distortions, not
cognitive biases.
D. Highlights the lasting ramifications of colonial narratives on contemporary discourse.

The "Lost Cause" myth is not about colonial narratives, so this choice is not applicable.
Page 5 of 5
Sports serve as more than mere games or pastimes; they are a formidable tool for nation-building. The allegiance to a
particular sport often becomes a marker of national identity, offering citizens a common thread that binds them
together. In countries like India, where cricket is more than a game, the sport embodies hopes, aspirations, and a
sense of unity that is often hard to find elsewhere. Similarly, Canadians rally around hockey, and New Zealanders are
united in their passion for rugby. These national preferences are not merely about the games themselves but are
reflective of the cultures, histories, and values of the nations they represent. The choice of sport can reflect a nation's
temperament, geographical location, or even its historical narrative.
While sports are an internal mechanism for fostering unity, they are equally potent as a form of international diplomacy.
Major events like the World Cup or the Olympics serve as melting pots where representatives from different nations
come together. More than just a showcase of athletic prowess, these events offer opportunities for diplomatic
engagement and negotiation. The exchange of sports delegations can serve as an ice-breaker between nations where
formal diplomacy may have faltered. The presence of heads of state at these events is not coincidental but is indicative
of the high stakes involved. The ability for leaders to interact in less formal settings allows for relationship-building that
might not happen otherwise.
This diplomatic potential of sports has been effectively demonstrated in history. One of the most iconic instances was
the "ping pong diplomacy" between China and the United States in the 1970s. The exchange of table tennis players
between the two countries served as a precursor to a thaw in their relations and eventual diplomatic recognition. Such
instances highlight the versatility of sports as a medium for diplomacy. Even today, whether it's the Olympic truce or
the handshake between leaders of conflicting nations during a match, sports continue to offer a platform for diplomatic
engagements that could have far-reaching consequences.
In countries riddled with internal conflicts or divisions, sports offer a unique medium for fostering national unity. They
can serve as a non-threatening platform for bringing people together, cutting across political, ethnic, or social divides.
For instance, in Pakistan, which has seen its share of sectarian violence and political upheaval, sports have been
hailed as a tool for promoting national unity. When the cricket team wins an international match, the celebrations on
the streets are indiscriminate of creed or class, reflecting a unified national joy. Similarly, sports have played a vital role
in post-apartheid South Africa, helping to heal a divided nation and bring people together in a shared South African
identity.
One of the most poignant examples in recent history was South Africa's hosting of the 1995 Rugby World Cup. This
event happened shortly after the fall of apartheid and during a time of intense racial tension. The Rugby team, the
Springboks, had been a symbol of white Afrikaner nationalism, generally loathed by the black community. Yet,
President Nelson Mandela seized this sporting event as an opportunity to unify the nation, embracing the Springboks
as a national team for all South Africans. When the team won the championship, it became a victory for the entire
nation, and the sport transformed from a symbol of division to one of unity.
From forging a strong sense of national identity to acting as a subtle yet effective diplomatic tool, sports have an
irreplaceable role in modern governance and international relations. Whether it's the thrill of victory on the cricket
fields of India or the solemnity of diplomatic interactions on the Olympic stage, sports offer a unique realm where
camaraderie is built, differences are set aside, and unity is celebrated. For nations looking to bolster their international
standing or foster internal cohesion, the power of sports should never be underestimated.
Page 1 of 4
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Genre: Sociology | History | International Relations
Doodles
1. National Identity ↔ Sports Allegiance "≈" closely related
2. Sports Events → International Diplomacy "→" led to
3. Historical Instances Diplomatic Milestones "↔" intricately tied
4. Sports ↺ Internal Unity " " sparks/energizes.
5. Rugby World Cup ⊕ South African Unity "⊕" are added to or infused into
6. Sports ⊕ Governance & Relations "↺" can loop back
Central Theme: The central theme of the passage is the multifaceted role of sports in shaping national identity, fostering
international diplomacy, and facilitating internal unity. The passage suggests that sports are more than just games; they are
tools that can influence governance, international relations, and social cohesion.
Tone: The tone of the passage is informative and reflective. It explores the subject matter with nuance, drawing upon various
examples from history and current affairs to elucidate the impact of sports on nation-building and international diplomacy.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Sets the foundation by describing how sports can act as a marker for national identity. It points out that
the preference for a specific sport can be reflective of a nation's culture, values, and history, using examples from India,
Canada, and New Zealand.
• Second Paragraph: Discusses the role of sports in international diplomacy. Major sporting events like the World Cup and
the Olympics are depicted as platforms for diplomatic engagement and negotiation, highlighting the presence of heads
of state as indicative of the high stakes involved.
• Third Paragraph: Expands on the historical influence of sports in diplomacy by citing the example of "ping pong
diplomacy" between the U.S. and China in the 1970s. It emphasizes the versatility of sports as a diplomatic tool and
mentions ongoing examples such as the Olympic truce.
• Fourth Paragraph: Addresses the role of sports in fostering internal unity within nations, especially those plagued by
divisions and conflicts. The passage uses examples from Pakistan and post-apartheid South Africa to demonstrate the
potential for sports to bridge societal gaps.
• Fifth Paragraph: Offers an in-depth case study of South Africa's 1995 Rugby World Cup, showing how President Nelson
Mandela used the sport to transform a symbol of division into one of national unity.
• Sixth Paragraph: Concludes by reaffirming the irreplaceable role of sports in modern governance and international
relations, encouraging nations to leverage the power of sports for both international and internal objectives.

The passage employs a clear and logical structure. It starts with the concept of national identity tied to sports, moves into the
arena of international diplomacy, and then delves into historical examples. After discussing the role of sports in fostering
internal unity, it concludes by summarising the overarching importance of sports in governance and international relations..
Page 2 of 4
REASONING CHECK
Question 1
Which of the following undermines the idea that sports serve as effective international diplomacy?
A. Events are sometimes boycotted as protests.
B. Heads of state visits are largely symbolic.
C. Sporting events have led to temporary ceasefires.
D. Athletes often receive diplomatic training.
Question 2
What could bolster the claim that sports foster internal unity?
A. Productivity rises during major sports events.
B. Sporting victories create only short-term unity.
C. Collective experiences have no lasting impact.
D. Fans of national teams are active in communities.
Question 3
How could insights from the essay inform nation-building policies?
A. Invest in sports education and infrastructure.
B. Focus exclusively on promoting individual sports.
C. Discourage mass sporting events for public safety.
D. Keep sports and diplomacy as separate avenues.
Question 4
What idea is subtly implied in the passage?
A. Sports unify only within national borders.
B. Cultural impact surpasses athletic competition.
C. Diplomatic potential of sports is largely unexplored.
D. Sports could potentially harm national unity.
Question 5
How does the 1995 Rugby World Cup example function in the passage?
A. It shows limits of sports in societal healing.
B. It suggests sports can be used for propaganda.
C. It serves as a symbol of societal transformation.
D. It highlights the ineffectiveness in racial tensions.
Page 3 of 4
Question 1
Which of the following undermines the idea that sports serve as effective international diplomacy
Correct Answer: A. Events are sometimes boycotted as protests.
A. Events are sometimes boycotted as protests: This option undermines the idea that sports serve as effective international
diplomacy because boycotting events as protests can hamper diplomatic engagements and create tension between
nations.
B. Heads of state visits are largely symbolic: This does not undermine the point made in the essay. Even if the visits are
symbolic, they still serve to show international co-operation and promote diplomacy.
C. Sporting events have led to temporary ceasefires: This option actually strengthens the idea that sports serve as a form of
international diplomacy, with temporary ceasefires being a positive diplomatic outcome.
D. Athletes often receive diplomatic training: This option also supports the essay's claim, as it indicates that athletes are
specifically trained to serve diplomatic roles, making sports an even more effective tool for diplomacy.
Question 2
What could bolster the claim that sports foster internal unity?
Correct Answer: D. Fans of national teams are active in communities.
A. Productivity rises during major sports events: While this might be an interesting observation, it doesn't directly relate to
internal unity within a nation.
B. Sporting victories create only short-term unity: This option undermines the idea that sports foster long-term internal
unity.
C. Collective experiences have no lasting impact: This option also undermines the claim that sports foster internal unity.
D. Fans of national teams are active in communities: This supports the idea that sports can foster internal unity as it shows
the lasting impact of being a fan and contributing to a sense of community and nationhood.
Question 3
How could insights from the essay inform nation-building policies?
Correct Answer: A. Invest in sports education and infrastructure.
A. Invest in sports education and infrastructure: This option aligns closely with the essay's points about the potential of
sports to foster national unity and serve as a diplomatic tool.
B. Focus exclusively on promoting individual sports: This does not inform nation-building policies in the context of the
essay, which highlights the collective unity and international diplomacy that team sports can offer.
C. Discourage mass sporting events for public safety: This option contradicts the essay's stance that sports can foster
national unity and serve diplomatic purposes.
D. Keep sports and diplomacy as separate avenues: This is against the essay's main point that sports can serve as a
medium for international diplomacy.
Question 4
What idea is subtly implied in the passage?
Correct Answer: B. Cultural impact surpasses athletic competition.
A. Sports unify only within national borders: This is contradicted by the essay, which discusses sports as an international
diplomatic tool.
B. Cultural impact surpasses athletic competition: This is subtly implied through the essay as it talks about sports reflecting
the nation's culture, history, and values.
C. Diplomatic potential of sports is largely unexplored: The essay actually suggests the opposite, giving historical examples
like "ping pong diplomacy" to show the effectiveness of sports in diplomacy.
D. Sports could potentially harm national unity: The essay overwhelmingly posits that sports foster national unity, making
this option incorrect.
Question 5
How does the 1995 Rugby World Cup example function in the passage?
Correct Answer: C. It serves as a symbol of societal transformation.
A. It shows limits of sports in societal healing: This is incorrect; the 1995 Rugby World Cup is used as an example of how
sports can heal societal wounds.
B. It suggests sports can be used for propaganda: The passage does not imply that the 1995 Rugby World Cup was used
for propaganda purposes.
C. It serves as a symbol of societal transformation: This is correct, as the example illustrates how sports transformed from
being a symbol of division to one of national unity.
D. It highlights the ineffectiveness in racial tensions: This is incorrect; the example is used to show how sports can help
alleviate racial tensions.
Page 4 of 4
In his article, Dana Gioia posits that the realm of poetry is experiencing a decline, becoming an increasingly niche art
form primarily appreciated within academic and college environments. While it's accurate to say that academia
remains a thriving haven for poetic expression, it's overly simplistic to argue that its influence is confined to this
scholastic milieu. The advent of technology and the ubiquity of social media platforms have radically changed this
landscape. Platforms like YouTube, for instance, offer an invaluable service to poets by facilitating the livestreaming of
performances to a global audience that numbers in the billions. Far from fading into obscurity, poetry is continually
adapting and embracing themes that reflect the complex socio-cultural debates and concerns of our contemporary
world. Although it may not command the widespread attention it once did, poetry remains an art form that is both
relevant and growing, consistently expanding in its scope and resonance with diverse audiences.
In addition, Gioia's argument seems to neglect the substantial impact of live poetry performances, a format that has
gained enormous traction online. It's true that not every person has the chance, or even the desire, to undertake
formal studies in poetry or enrol in university courses that focus on this art form. However, the Internet serves as an
egalitarian platform, available to most and offering ample opportunity for the discovery and enjoyment of creative
works, including poetry. As a case in point, Buddy Wakefield, a celebrated contemporary poet, performed his poem
"Hurling Crowbirds at Mockingbars" at New York University in 2009. Although the event was organised within the
academic setting of a university, the online recording has garnered thousands of views, demonstrating that the
audience for poetry can and does reach far beyond traditional educational institutions.
Furthermore, the attraction of a poem like "Crowbirds" is not solely dependent on Wakefield's compelling stage
presence, but is also deeply rooted in the intrinsic merit of his written words. The poem navigates through complex
themes such as faith, personal suffering, and spiritual and emotional growth. These themes are not arcane or exclusive
to literary scholars; rather, they resonate deeply with the human condition and are universally understood. In the lines,
"You acted like I was hurling crowbirds at mockingbars / and abandoned me for not making sense. / Evidently, I don't
experience things as rationally as you do" (Wakefield 15-17), the poet skilfully encapsulates a range of emotions. The
metaphor of "hurling crowbirds at mockingbars" brilliantly captures the speaker's sense of confusion, emotional
turmoil, and the desperation of trying to clutch at the fragments of a deteriorating relationship. The delivery of these
lines in a live setting only amplifies their emotional potency, lending an added layer of immediacy and visceral impact.
At its very core, the essence of poetry lies in its ability to address various topical issues and ideas that are of import to
society at large. This also includes amplifying voices and perspectives that may otherwise be overlooked or minimally
explored. While the means of distributing poetry have evolved, thanks to technological advancements and shifts in
media consumption habits, the emotional connection that a poet can establish with an audience has remained a
constant. Poetry continues to thrive, in different forms and across various platforms, sustaining its capacity to engage,
provoke, and inspire.
Page 1 of 5
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Genre: Literature | Sociology
Doodles
1. Counterargument ↔ Expanded Reach "≈" closely related
2. Internet → Egalitarian Platform "→" led to
3. Thematic Depth Universal Resonance "↔" intricately tied
4. Technological Adaptation ⊕ Enduring Relevance " " sparks/energizes.
"⊕" are added to or infused into
"↺" can loop back
Central Theme: The central theme of the passage is the resilience and transformation of poetry in contemporary society.
Despite notions suggesting that poetry is becoming a dwindling art form, confined to academic circles, the passage argues
that it is adapting to new platforms and expanding its reach, remaining a relevant and emotionally potent medium.
Tone: The tone of the passage is argumentative yet optimistic, countering Dana Gioia's pessimistic viewpoint about the
decline of poetry with evidence that highlights its enduring impact and widespread resonance.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Provides a counterargument to Gioia's notion that poetry is declining by pointing out how
technology and social media have expanded its reach. The role of platforms like YouTube in giving poetry a global
audience is emphasized.
• Second Paragraph: Discusses the egalitarian nature of the Internet as a medium for poetry. It argues that while
academic settings are one avenue for poetry's expression, online platforms ensure that it reaches a far wider
audience. The example of Buddy Wakefield's poem is used to illustrate this point.
• Third Paragraph: Delves into the thematic richness of Wakefield's poem "Hurling Crowbirds at Mockingbars." The
passage argues that the themes explored are not exclusive to an academic audience but resonate universally.
• Fourth Paragraph: Concludes by reaffirming the enduring relevance of poetry. It emphasizes that technological
changes have not diluted poetry's emotional impact, but have in fact extended its accessibility and potential for
engagement.

The passage is structured in a logical and argumentative manner, beginning with a counterpoint to the notion that poetry is
an antiquated or dying form. It then presents evidence of poetry’s contemporary relevance and broader reach through the
Internet, discusses its thematic depth, and concludes by reiterating its sustained importance.
Page 2 of 5
REASONING CHECK
Question 1
What is the author's main reason for including the quote in the passage?
A. To give an example of speaking meter, the writing style of spoken word poets.
B. To demonstrate that people are still writing poetry even if the medium has changed in current times.
C. To prove that poets still have an audience to write for even if the audience looks different than from centuries ago.
D. To illustrate the complex themes poets continue to address, which still draw listeners and appreciation.
E. To open up opportunity to disprove Gioia's views.
Question 2
What is the primary purpose of the passage?
A. To educate readers on the development of poetry and describe the historical implications of poetry in media.
B. To disprove Dana Gioia's stance that poetry is becoming irrelevant and is only appreciated in academia.
C. To inform readers of the brilliance of Buddy Wakefield and to introduce them to other poets that have influence in
contemporary poetry.
D. To prove that Gioia's article does have some truth to it and to shed light on its relevance to modern poetry.
E. To recount the experience of watching a live poetry performance and to look forward to future performances.
Question 3
Which of the following is most closely analogous to the author's opinion of Buddy Wakefield's performance in relation to
modern poetry?
A. Someone's refusal to accept that the Higgs Boson will validate the Standard Model.
B. An individual's belief that soccer will lose popularity within the next fifty years.
C. A professor's opinion that poetry contains the language of the heart, while fiction contains the language of the mind.
D. An individual's assertion that video game violence was the cause of the Columbine shootings.
E. A student's insistence that psychoanalysis is a subset of modern psychology.
Question 4
The author of the passage would likely agree most with which of the following?
A. Buddy Wakefield is a genius and is considered at the forefront of modern poetry.

B. Poetry is not irrelevant; it is an art form that adapts to the changing time while containing its core elements.
C. Spoken word is the zenith of poetic forms and the premier style of poetry in this decade.
D. Poetry is on the verge of vanishing from our cultural consciousness.
E. Poetry is a writing art. While poetry performances are useful for introducing poems, the act of reading a poem does not
contribute to the piece overall.
Page 3 of 5
Question 1
What is the author's main reason for including the quote in the passage?
Correct Answer: D
A: To give an example of speaking meter, the writing style of spoken word poets.
This is incorrect because the quote is not primarily used to showcase the speaking meter or style of spoken word poetry.
B: To demonstrate that people are still writing poetry even if the medium has changed in current times.
While the passage does argue that poetry is still being written and appreciated, the quote itself is primarily included to
highlight the themes poets address, not the changing medium.
C: To prove that poets still have an audience to write for even if the audience looks different than from centuries ago.
This is incorrect because the main focus of the quote is to show the complexity of themes poets continue to address.
Although it indirectly suggests that poets still have an audience, that is not the primary reason for its inclusion.
D: To illustrate the complex themes poets continue to address, which still draw listeners and appreciation.
This is correct. The quote is included to demonstrate that modern poetry continues to deal with complex and universally
resonant themes.
E: To open up the opportunity to disprove Gioia's views.

While the passage as a whole aims to counter Gioia's views, the quote itself is more focused on illustrating the thematic
depth of modern poetry.
Question 2:
What is the primary purpose of the passage?
Correct Answer: B
A: To educate readers on the development of poetry and describe the historical implications of poetry in media.
Incorrect. The passage is more focused on countering Gioia's view that poetry is becoming irrelevant, rather than providing a
historical context.
B: To disprove Dana Gioia's stance that poetry is becoming irrelevant and is only appreciated in academia.
Correct. The passage's primary goal is to counter the idea that poetry is becoming irrelevant and confined to academic
circles.
C: To inform readers of the brilliance of Buddy Wakefield and to introduce them to other poets that have influence in
contemporary poetry.
Incorrect. While Buddy Wakefield is mentioned as an example, the focus is not on promoting him or other poets.
D: To prove that Gioia's article does have some truth to it and to shed light on its relevance to modern poetry.
Incorrect. The passage aims to counter, not confirm, Gioia's view.
E: To recount the experience of watching a live poetry performance and to look forward to future performances.
Incorrect. The passage is not focused on recounting experiences or speculating about future performances.
Page 4 of 5
Question 3:
Which of the following is most closely analogous to the author's opinion of Buddy Wakefield's performance in relation to
modern poetry?
Correct Answer: E
A: Someone's refusal to accept that the Higgs Boson will validate the Standard Model.
This doesn't relate to the author's opinion, as it suggests a refusal to accept a fact, whereas the author is more about
advocating the relevancy of modern poetry through Buddy Wakefield's performance.
B: An individual's belief that soccer will lose popularity within the next fifty years.
This option suggests a decline, which contradicts the author's argument that modern poetry, represented by performances
like Wakefield's, is alive and relevant.
C: A professor's opinion that poetry contains the language of the heart, while fiction contains the language of the mind.
While this does speak to the emotional depth of poetry, it doesn't directly relate to the author's assertion that Buddy
Wakefield's work is part of a larger, relevant field.
D: An individual's assertion that video game violence was the cause of the Columbine shootings.
This option is about causality and blame, which is not the focus of the passage or the author's opinion on Buddy Wakefield's
performance.
E: A student's insistence that psychoanalysis is a subset of modern psychology.

This option is the correct answer because it encapsulates the idea that a particular subset (in this case, Buddy Wakefield's
performance or psychoanalysis) is representative of a larger field (modern poetry or modern psychology). In the passage,
the author argues that Buddy Wakefield's performance is not an isolated or niche event but rather a representation of the
larger, evolving field of modern poetry.
Question 4:
The author of the passage would likely agree most with which of the following?
Correct Answer: B
A: Buddy Wakefield is a genius and is considered at the forefront of modern poetry.

Incorrect. The passage doesn't make a claim about Buddy Wakefield's genius or his status in modern poetry.
B: Poetry is not irrelevant; it is an art form that adapts to the changing time while containing its core elements.
Correct. This statement encapsulates the central argument of the passage, that poetry remains relevant by adapting to
modern times.
C: Spoken word is the zenith of poetic forms and the premier style of poetry in this decade.
Incorrect. The passage does not claim that spoken word is the ultimate form of poetry.
D: Poetry is on the verge of vanishing from our cultural consciousness.

Incorrect. This statement contradicts the author's argument that poetry remains relevant.
E: Poetry is a writing art. While poetry performances are useful for introducing poems, the act of reading a poem does not
contribute to the piece overall.
Incorrect. The passage argues that both written and spoken forms of poetry are valid and impactful.
Page 5 of 5
Public education as it currently known was created by a German government worried about the dangers of works
uprisings that was the transformed by Enlightenment and Romantic educational theories into an institution genuinely
concerned with developing human minds. Before the 1700s, Europe had no public education. Parents who wanted
their children to be educated paid for private schools or private tutors. The rest of the children in Europe worked.
Many of them worked alongside their parents in spinning factories, producing thread for Germany's burgeoning textile
industry. The textile mill owners blatantly exploited their workers, which led to increasing levels of unrest on the part of
the peasants. During the 1750s King Frederick II asked his minister of Silesia, Ernest Wilhelm von Schlabrendorff, to
find a way to channel the energy of restless peasant into something that would be less dangerous to the throne.
Schlabrendorff suggested that the king could mold a compliant citizenry if he created a system of state-run schools.
These schools could teach the children of the peasantry that their lot was obtained by God, that they should not try to
improve it, that the government was good to the,, and that they should not questions authority, along with teaching
them reading, writing and arithmetic. School would be compulsory, and children who did not attend could be punished
by truant officers. This would shift children's primary loyalty from their parents and families to the state.: Their parents
would be powerless against the tuant officers and thus would be forced to send their children to school whether they
wanted to or not. Aristocrats liked this idea, they liked the thought of school making peasants more docile and
patriotic, and they appreciated the way state-run schools would teach children of lower social classes to accept their
position in life. In 1763, Frederick gave Schlabrendorff the go ahead to start opening schools and soon every child in
Silesia between the ages of 7 and 15 was attending school. These earliest of school, called Spinnschulen, combined
work with education. Children took classes in the mornings and spun thread in the afternoons.
By the 1800s, the Spinnschulen had metamorphosed into full day schools with state certified teachers who taught a
state approved curriculum theory, much of it influence by 19th century Romanticism that directly contradicted the
principle that had led to the foundation of public schools in the 1700s Johann Bernhard Basedow use the work of
Enlightenment scholars to argue that education should be a holistic pursuit, incorporating physical movement, manual
training, realistic teaching and the study of nature. Freidrich Froebel invented kindergarten in the mid 1800s, creating
a children's garden, based on the belief that children are naturally creative and productive, and he develop special
toys designed to teach specific skills and motions. Wilhelm von Humboldt specialized ins secondary and university
education theory, insisting that advanced students should pursue independent research and prizing above all three
educations principle: self-government by teachers, unity of teaching and academic freedom.
Page 1 of 8
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Genre: Historical Analysis | Educational Sociology
Doodles
1. Textile Mill → Peasant Unrest "≈" closely related
2. King's Decision ↔ State-run Schools "→" led to
3. Holistic Development ⊕ Public Education "↔" intricately tied
" " sparks/energizes.
"⊕" are added to or infused into
"↺" can loop back
Central Theme: The central theme of the passage is the evolution of public education in Europe, from its origins as a tool for
social control to its transformation into an institution for holistic human development.
Tone: The tone of the passage is scholarly and analytical, offering an in-depth view of the historical development and
transformation of public education systems.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Discusses the lack of public education before the 1700s, setting the context by indicating how child
labor exploitation in textile mills led to societal unrest.
• Second Paragraph: Explains King Frederick II's intervention by creating state-run schools designed to keep the working-
class population docile and under control.
• Third Paragraph: Describes the transformation of public education from being state-run schools with a specific agenda
of social control to becoming educational institutions influenced by Enlightenment and Romantic philosophies.

The passage employs a chronological structure, starting with the problem that prompted the establishment of public
education, then outlining its initial intent, and finally discussing its evolution influenced by educational theories.
Page 2 of 8
REASONING CHECK
Question 1
The passage is primarily concerned with discussing which one of the following?
A. the use of public schools to disseminate political messages, as exemplified by German public schools in the 18th and
19th centuries
B. the exploitation of the working class by German aristocracy in the 18th century and the use of public education to justify
this practice
C. the philosophical origins of public schools in 18th century Germany and the transformation in educational thinking in the
19th century
D. the thinking of German educational theorists and their influence on modern educational practices
E. the role of Frederick II's minister of Silesia and the German aristocracy in the creation of public schools in Germany
Question 2
The passage suggests which one of the following about the owners of textile mills in the 1700s?
A. They wanted their child workers to have the benefit of an education, so they opened schools within their factories and
required all young workers to attend classes.
B. Because they could pay children less than adults, they preferred to hire young workers whenever they could.
C. They were indifferent to the well-being and needs of their workers, caring only to maximize production and profits no
matter what it cost their employees.
D. They were all aristocrats who believed their authority was divinely ordained and that, as a result of this divinely ordained
position, they had a duty to care for the less fortunate people in their communities by providing work and education for
them.
E. They were uniformly patriotic and supported the authority of their king without question, and they advocated for the
opening of Spinnschulen because this would allow peasants to be taught the same patriotic ideals they held so dear.
Question 3
According to the passage, how did 19th-century schools differ from 18th-century schools?
A. Eighteenth-century schools were intended to make textile mills run more efficiently by making workers become more
skilled at their jobs; 19th-century schools were no longer attached to textile factories.
B. Eighteenth-century schools were concerned primarily with teaching working-class children to accept their fate and love
their ruler; 19th-century schools began to focus on developing the full human potential of students.
C. Eighteenth-century schools were open only to children of the aristocracy whose parents could pay their tuition. By the
19th century, schools were open to all free of charge, but poorer students had to pay their way by working in spinning
factories in the afternoons.
D. Eighteenth-century schools were designed to instill patriotic ideals in the peasantry and make them docile and
compliant; 19th-century schools instead tried to develop all children into free thinkers.
E. Eighteenth-century schools were not appealing to parents, who often tried to keep their children out of school and as a
result were punished by truant officers; 19th-century schools, on the other hand, were appealing to both parents and
children because educational philosophers believed a more pleasant environment was more conducive to education.
Question 4
‘The textile mill owners blatantly exploited their workers, which led to increasing levels of unrest on the part of the peasants.’
What does the author mean by the phrase "increasing levels of unrest"?
A. riots and other forms of violence against the owners of textile factories by peasants unhappy at their treatment
B. political speeches and demonstrations by politicians trying to earn the working-class vote
C. aggression from neighboring countries looking to invade Germany
D. religious turmoil between Catholics and Protestants
E. juvenile delinquency and vandalism by unemployed and uneducated young men
Contd…
Page 3 of 8
Question 5
According to the passage, what did German aristocrats think about the idea of creating public schools?
A. They feared that educating the working classes would make them less docile and accepting of their position in life and
more likely to rise up and overthrow the nobles.
B. They disliked the idea of paying taxes to support public schools and resented the king and Schlabrendorff for forcing
this expense on them.
C. They appreciated Schlabrendorff's brilliance in concocting an idea that would both make the peasantry more compliant
and simultaneously produce more workers for the spinning factories.
D. They approved of disseminating religious education to the masses because this would make the citizenry more
compliant and less likely to engage in workers' rebellions.
E. They liked the idea because it would make the peasantry more complacent and accepting of their fate, which would help
keep the aristocracy safe in their prosperity.
Question 6
According to the passage, what was the purpose of using truant officers to keep children in school?
A. to ensure that all children received the full education that was their right, even if their parents wished instead to keep
them working at home
B. to take away the authority of parents and replace it with state power over children and citizens
C. to assist parents in making sure that their children attended school as required by catching and punishing children who
failed to attend
D. to indoctrinate children and their parents with political messages designed to help the aristocracy
E. to assist the king and his administration in molding a compliant citizenry through a system of state-run schools
Question 7
Which one of the following best summarizes the views of 19th-century educational thinkers?
A. The function of state-run schools is to instill obedience, patriotism, and docility in the working classes; wealthy children
whose parents can afford to pay can have a more liberal education provided by private tutors.
B. The most important subject for children to learn is religion, which is why schools should be run by the Church and
should include all aspects of worship and theology.
C. Most people cannot adequately educate their children on their own, but the state has an interest in an educated
citizenry, so it is the government's job to provide public education and see that people send their children to school.
D. People learn best in an environment that respects their individuality, affords them freedom, and incorporates a variety of
aspects of learning, such as physical movement, manual skills, and independent exploration.
E. A child's best and first teacher is his or her mother, so mothers should be encouraged to teach their children at home;
this produces better results than public schools and is much cheaper for the state.
Page 4 of 8
Question 1
The passage is primarily concerned with discussing which one of the following?
A. the use of public schools to disseminate political messages, as exemplified by German public schools in the 18th and 19th
centuries
B. the exploitation of the working class by German aristocracy in the 18th century and the use of public education to justify this
practice
C. the philosophical origins of public schools in 18th century Germany and the transformation in educational thinking in the 19th
century
D. the thinking of German educational theorists and their influence on modern educational practices
E. the role of Frederick II's minister of Silesia and the German aristocracy in the creation of public schools in Germany
Correct Answer - C
Option A: This option focuses on the use of public schools for disseminating political messages. While this is part of the early history
of German public schools, the passage also examines how the educational philosophy changed in the 19th century. Therefore, this
option does not capture the entire scope of the passage.
Option B: The exploitation of the working class is a context within which public schools were created, but it's not the primary focus
of the passage. The passage also explores the evolution of educational thought into the 19th century.
Option C (Correct): This is the most comprehensive option, covering both the origins in the 18th century and the philosophical
changes in the 19th century.
Option D: German educational theorists are indeed discussed, but the passage doesn't connect these theories to modern
educational practices, making this option not fully aligned with the main point.
Option E: While Frederick II and his minister played pivotal roles in the creation of public schools, the passage also delves into how
educational philosophy changed over time, which this option fails to capture.
Question 2
The passage suggests which one of the following about the owners of textile mills in the 1700s?
A. They wanted their child workers to have the benefit of an education, so they opened schools within their factories and required
all young workers to attend classes.
B. Because they could pay children less than adults, they preferred to hire young workers whenever they could.
C. They were indifferent to the well-being and needs of their workers, caring only to maximize production and profits no matter
what it cost their employees.
D. They were all aristocrats who believed their authority was divinely ordained and that, as a result of this divinely ordained
position, they had a duty to care for the less fortunate people in their communities by providing work and education for them.
E. They were uniformly patriotic and supported the authority of their king without question, and they advocated for the opening of
Spinnschulen because this would allow peasants to be taught the same patriotic ideals they held so dear.
Correct Answer – C
Option A: There is no indication in the passage that mill owners were concerned about their child workers receiving an education.
Therefore, this choice is not correct.
Option B: The preference of mill owners for young workers over adults is not discussed in the passage.
Option C (Correct) : This option encapsulates the notion that the mill owners "blatantly exploited" their workers, focusing solely on
production and profits.
Option D: While the passage does discuss the notion of divine ordination in the context of education, it does not attribute this belief
to the mill owners.
Option E: The passage does not provide information to suggest that the mill owners were uniformly patriotic or advocated for public
schools.
Page 5 of 8
Question 3
According to the passage, how did 19th-century schools differ from 18th-century schools?
A. Eighteenth-century schools were intended to make textile mills run more efficiently by making workers become more skilled at
their jobs; 19th-century schools were no longer attached to textile factories.
B. Eighteenth-century schools were concerned primarily with teaching working-class children to accept their fate and love their
ruler; 19th-century schools began to focus on developing the full human potential of students.
C. Eighteenth-century schools were open only to children of the aristocracy whose parents could pay their tuition. By the 19th
century, schools were open to all free of charge, but poorer students had to pay their way by working in spinning factories in
the afternoons.
D. Eighteenth-century schools were designed to instill patriotic ideals in the peasantry and make them docile and compliant; 19th-
century schools instead tried to develop all children into free thinkers.
E. Eighteenth-century schools were not appealing to parents, who often tried to keep their children out of school and as a result
were punished by truant officers; 19th-century schools, on the other hand, were appealing to both parents and children
because educational philosophers believed a more pleasant environment was more conducive to education.
Correct Answer – B
Option A: The passage doesn't say that 18th-century schools were intended to make textile mills more efficient. It does, however,
say that children worked in spinning factories, which isn't the same thing.
Option B (Correct): This option accurately summarizes the shift from 18th-century schools, which aimed to make children obedient
and compliant, to 19th-century schools, which focused on holistic development.
Option C: The passage explicitly states that 18th-century schools were aimed at the children of peasants, not the aristocracy,
making this option incorrect.
Option D: While 19th-century schools did adopt a different educational philosophy, the passage does not specify that these schools
tried to develop free thinkers, making this an incorrect choice.
Option E: There's no mention in the passage that 19th-century schools were more appealing to parents and children due to a more
pleasant environment.
Question 4
‘The textile mill owners blatantly exploited their workers, which led to increasing levels of unrest on the part of the peasants.’ What
does the author mean by the phrase "increasing levels of unrest"?
A. riots and other forms of violence against the owners of textile factories by peasants unhappy at their treatment
B. political speeches and demonstrations by politicians trying to earn the working-class vote
C. aggression from neighboring countries looking to invade Germany
D. religious turmoil between Catholics and Protestants
E. juvenile delinquency and vandalism by unemployed and uneducated young men
Correct Answer – A
Option A (Correct): The context suggests worker uprisings or violence against the owners, making this the correct choice.
Option B: The passage doesn't discuss political speeches or demonstrations aimed at earning the working-class vote.
Option C: There's no mention of aggression from neighbouring countries.
Option D: The passage does not bring up religious turmoil between Catholics and Protestants.
Option E: Juvenile delinquency and vandalism are not discussed as forms of "unrest" in the passage.
Page 6 of 8
Question 5
According to the passage, what did German aristocrats think about the idea of creating public schools?
A. They feared that educating the working classes would make them less docile and accepting of their position in life and more
likely to rise up and overthrow the nobles.
B. They disliked the idea of paying taxes to support public schools and resented the king and Schlabrendorff for forcing this
expense on them.
C. They appreciated Schlabrendorff's brilliance in concocting an idea that would both make the peasantry more compliant and
simultaneously produce more workers for the spinning factories.
D. They approved of disseminating religious education to the masses because this would make the citizenry more compliant and
less likely to engage in workers' rebellions.
E. They liked the idea because it would make the peasantry more complacent and accepting of their fate, which would help keep
the aristocracy safe in their prosperity.
Correct Answer – E
Option A: The passage indicates the opposite—that aristocrats believed education would make the working class more docile.
Option B: There's no mention of aristocrats disliking the idea of paying taxes for public schools.
Option C: While it may be inferred that the aristocrats appreciated Schlabrendorff's idea, there's no explicit mention that they
admired it for producing more workers for spinning factories.
Option D: There's no evidence in the passage that the aristocrats were specifically interested in disseminating religious education.
Option E (Correct): This option encapsulates the aristocrats' view that public schools would make the peasantry more complacent
and thus protect their social position.
Question 6
According to the passage, what was the purpose of using truant officers to keep children in school?
A. to ensure that all children received the full education that was their right, even if their parents wished instead to keep them
working at home
B. to take away the authority of parents and replace it with state power over children and citizens
C. to assist parents in making sure that their children attended school as required by catching and punishing children who failed
to attend
D. to indoctrinate children and their parents with political messages designed to help the aristocracy
E. to assist the king and his administration in molding a compliant citizenry through a system of state-run schools
Correct Answer – B
Option A: The passage does not suggest that the purpose was to ensure that all children received an education as a right.
Option B (Correct): The passage states that the use of truant officers would "shift children's primary loyalty from their parents and
families to the state," essentially giving the state more authority.
Option C: While truant officers did enforce attendance, the passage suggests that their primary purpose was not to assist parents
but rather to shift loyalty towards the state.
Option D: There's no mention in the passage that truant officers were used to improve the reputation of public schools.
Option E: The passage does not suggest that truant officers were used to maintain a balance between academic and vocational
education.
Page 7 of 8
Question 7
Which one of the following best summarizes the views of 19th-century educational thinkers?
A. The function of state-run schools is to instill obedience, patriotism, and docility in the working classes; wealthy children whose
parents can afford to pay can have a more liberal education provided by private tutors.
B. The most important subject for children to learn is religion, which is why schools should be run by the Church and should
include all aspects of worship and theology.
C. Most people cannot adequately educate their children on their own, but the state has an interest in an educated citizenry, so it
is the government's job to provide public education and see that people send their children to school.
D. People learn best in an environment that respects their individuality, affords them freedom, and incorporates a variety of
aspects of learning, such as physical movement, manual skills, and independent exploration.
E. A child's best and first teacher is his or her mother, so mothers should be encouraged to teach their children at home; this
produces better results than public schools and is much cheaper for the state.
Correct Answer – D
Option A: The passage does not suggest that 19th-century educational thinkers were primarily focused on academic excellence at
the expense of other forms of learning.
Option B: While the thinkers did advocate for the holistic development of the individual, there's no evidence to suggest they
believed this would lead to a utopian society.
Option C: The passage does not mention that the 19th-century educational thinkers were specifically focused on promoting
vocational skills.
Option D (Correct): This option captures the holistic approach described in the passage, focusing on individuality, freedom, and
diverse aspects of learning.
Option E: The passage does not specify that the thinkers were advocates of religious education as a counterbalance to secularism.
Page 8 of 8
The philosophical discourse around human will is rich and contentious, with myriad viewpoints ranging from the notion
of absolute free will to the concept of determinism. For centuries, thinkers have grappled with the question of whether
human beings truly possess free will or if our choices are preordained by a web of causality. In this argumentative
discourse, I shall defend the position of compatibilism, which posits that free will and determinism are not mutually
exclusive, and that it is indeed possible to possess autonomous will within a deterministic framework.
Compatibilists argue that human will is free insofar as it arises from one's internal motivations, uncoerced by external
compulsion. Even if our desires and inclinations are shaped by prior causes, the freedom of our will is not
compromised as long as we act according to our own volitions. This nuanced understanding reconciles the apparent
contradiction between free will and determinism by suggesting that the two can coexist. Determinism, in this sense,
does not negate will but rather provides the context within which it operates. Humans are still agents capable of
making choices, and those choices, although influenced by preceding events, are not predestined.
The heart of the compatibilist argument lies in the distinction between "voluntary" and "involuntary" actions. Voluntary
actions are those performed with an understanding of their consequences, emanating from a person's desires and
reason. Even if these desires are determined by an unbroken chain of prior states of the universe, as long as the
individual's decision-making process is not under external duress, their actions are considered free. To illustrate,
imagine a chess player making a move. While the rules of chess and the current state of the game heavily influence
her decision, within those parameters, she has the freedom to choose from multiple viable moves. Her decision,
although constrained, is a manifestation of her strategic will.
Critics of compatibilism, notably in the libertarian camp, argue that if our choices are ultimately caused by events and
desires we do not control, then free will is an illusion. However, this stance fails to appreciate the complexity of human
consciousness and the ability to reflect on our desires and modify our behaviours. Our capacity for self-reflection
ensures that we are not mere automatons reacting to stimuli but reflective individuals capable of considering the moral
weight of our actions and making decisions that align with our values. Even within deterministic confines, the reflective
mind can conceptualise future possibilities and choose a path forward, exerting a will that, while shaped by the past, is
directed towards the future.
On the opposite spectrum, hard determinists claim that every event, including human cognition and behaviour, is
determined by preceding events and thus, free will is but a fanciful notion. However, this position negates the lived
human experience of decision-making and the sense of moral responsibility we attach to our actions. Compatibilism
acknowledges this lived experience, integrating it with a deterministic view of the universe. It allows for moral
responsibility by maintaining that, although our actions are part of a causal chain, we are responsible because they are
born out of our character and desires, over which we have reflective control.
The significance of compatibilism extends beyond theoretical philosophy into practical ethics. It preserves the concept
of moral responsibility, which is fundamental to our legal systems and interpersonal relations. Without a notion of free
will, the basis for judging actions, rewarding merit, and correcting misconduct becomes deeply problematic.
Compatibilism provides the middle ground, maintaining that while our choices might be determined by a causal chain,
they are nonetheless our choices, made with an understanding of their implications and a sense of ownership over the
consequences.
Page 1 of 5
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Genre: Philosophical Discourse
Doodles
1. Chess Player's Strategy ≈ Free Will "≈" closely related
2. Dominos Line ↔ Chain of Causality "→" led to
3. Person Reflecting Self-Reflection "↔" intricately tied
4. Brain Paths ⊕ Decision Trees " " sparks/energizes.
5. Scales of Justice ↔ Moral Responsibility "⊕" are added to or infused into
6. Puzzle Pieces → Holistic Self "↺" can loop back
Central Theme: The central theme of the passage is the compatibilist perspective on free will and determinism, positing that
autonomous human will can exist within a deterministic framework..
Tone: The tone is argumentative, with a focus on defending compatibilism against its philosophical opponents.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Introduces the debate between free will and determinism and presents compatibilism as a solution
reconciling the two concepts.
• Second Paragraph: Compatibilists argue that free will is preserved when actions stem from internal motivations, even if
those are determined by prior events.
• Third Paragraph: Distinguishes between voluntary and involuntary actions, with the former being essential to the concept
of free will in a deterministic universe.
• Fourth Paragraph: Addresses the objections from libertarian critics who view determined choices as undermining free
will.
• Fifth Paragraph: Counters hard determinists by highlighting the importance of human experience and moral
responsibility in decision-making.
• Sixth Paragraph: Discusses the practical implications of compatibilism for ethics, law, and personal responsibility.

The passage is structured as a logical argument, starting with a broad introduction to the debate, proceeding to detail the
compatibilist position, addressing counterarguments, and concluding with implications for ethics and morality..
Page 2 of 5
REASONING CHECK
Check whether the following is valid or not
1. The passage subtly infers that human will is an intricate phenomenon, shaped by various factors but still capable of
independent action, highlighting the complex nature of decision-making.
2. By emphasizing internal motivations, there's an implicit suggestion that what defines our freedom is not the absence of
causality, but the alignment of actions with internal desires, even if those desires have external causes.
3. The distinction between voluntary and involuntary actions infers that the essence of free will lies in the conscious engagement
with one's decisions and their implications, even if the choices available are within a predetermined framework.
4. The compatibilist stance subtly acknowledges that human consciousness is not black-and-white but operates on a spectrum
where reflective thought allows for 'free' decisions within determined realities.
5. There's an implied inference that the ability for self-reflection provides a form of autonomy that transcends deterministic chains,
establishing humans as moral agents who can evaluate and guide their actions.
6. The passage implies that our responsibility for actions is tied to our character and desires, suggesting that who we are (our
character) is a significant factor in the moral evaluation of our actions.
7. Through the chess analogy, it's inferred that real-world choices always occur within constraints; however, the capacity to
choose between available options is where free will manifests, an idea central to compatibilism.
8. There's a nuanced suggestion that the ability to consider the moral weight of our actions and to make decisions aligned with
our values is what gives substance to the notion of free will.
9. The implicit understanding from the passage is that determinism provides context and background to human actions, rather
than acting as a constrictive force that nullifies the freedom of will.
10. The passage infers that the practical application of compatibilism in ethics and law hinges on the understanding that, while
determinism influences our choices, we still exercise control over these choices, allowing for a system of moral and legal
accountability.
Page 3 of 5
1. Statement: The passage subtly infers that human will is an intricate phenomenon, shaped by various factors but still capable of
independent action, highlighting the complex nature of decision-making.
Validity: Valid
Explanation: The passage delineates the concept of compatibilism, which indeed treats human will as a complex entity
influenced by numerous factors. It argues that despite being determined by a series of prior events, human will retains a form
of independent action as it emerges from internal motivations. The essence of compatibilism rests on the idea that free will and
determinism are not mutually exclusive, hence asserting the complexity and intricacy of the decision-making process.
2. Statement: By emphasizing internal motivations, there's an implicit suggestion that what defines our freedom is not the absence
of causality, but the alignment of actions with internal desires, even if those desires have external causes.
Validity: Valid
Explanation: The passage emphasizes that freedom is a state where actions arise from one's internal motivations without
external compulsion. This underpins compatibilism's thesis that free will is characterized by the congruence of one's actions
with their desires and motivations, even if these are determined by prior causes. It does not claim an absence of causality but
rather suggests that the nature of freedom lies in the alignment with one's internal desires, making the inference valid.
3. Statement: The distinction between voluntary and involuntary actions infers that the essence of free will lies in the conscious
engagement with one's decisions and their implications, even if the choices available are within a predetermined framework.
Validity: Valid
Explanation: Compatibilism posits that voluntary actions, which are taken with an understanding of their consequences and are
a result of personal desires, constitute the essence of free will. The passage explains that even within a deterministic
framework, the conscious decision-making process which engages with the outcomes and implications of one's actions is what
characterizes free will. Thus, the inference is in line with the principles of compatibilism as presented in the passage.
4. Statement: The compatibilist stance subtly acknowledges that human consciousness is not black-and-white but operates on a
spectrum where reflective thought allows for 'free' decisions within determined realities.
Validity: Valid
Explanation: Compatibilism indeed acknowledges the nuance in human consciousness, arguing that while human actions might
be predetermined, the capacity for reflective thought allows individuals to make decisions that they identify as 'free'. This view
accepts the existence of a spectrum of consciousness, where deliberation and personal values play roles in decision-making,
fitting within a deterministic structure but still allowing for autonomy of choice.
5. Statement: There's an implied inference that the ability for self-reflection provides a form of autonomy that transcends
deterministic chains, establishing humans as moral agents who can evaluate and guide their actions.
Validity: Valid
Explanation: The passage implies that self-reflection is a critical component of human autonomy. It suggests that through self-
reflection, humans transcend deterministic chains by evaluating and potentially altering their actions based on their moral
understanding, thereby acting as moral agents. This capacity for self-guided alteration of response to deterministic factors
aligns with compatibilism's view on free will.
6. Statement: The passage implies that our responsibility for actions is tied to our character and desires, suggesting that who we
are (our character) is a significant factor in the moral evaluation of our actions.
Validity: Valid
Explanation: The passage suggests that our actions emanate from our character and desires, and it is through these that we
exercise moral agency and assume responsibility. The implication here is in accordance with compatibilist thought, which holds
that even if our character and desires are determined, they are nonetheless ours and form the basis for moral responsibility.
7. Statement: Through the chess analogy, it's inferred that real-world choices always occur within constraints; however, the
capacity to choose between available options is where free will manifests, an idea central to compatibilism.
Validity: Valid
Explanation: The chess analogy effectively captures the essence of compatibilism by demonstrating that choices are made
within a set of constraints (the rules of the game, the moves of the opponent), which mirrors the deterministic aspect of real-
world choices. Yet, the ability to choose strategically among these constrained options showcases the exercise of free will. This
aligns with compatibilism, which argues that free will operates within the context of determinism.
Page 4 of 5
8. Statement: There's a nuanced suggestion that the ability to consider the moral weight of our actions and to make decisions
aligned with our values is what gives substance to the notion of free will.
Validity: Valid
Explanation: Compatibilism suggests that free will is meaningful when it involves decisions made in alignment with one's values
and understanding of moral implications. The passage indicates that the substance of free will is enriched by our capacity for
moral contemplation and value-based decision-making, which is a nuanced yet integral aspect of the compatibilist viewpoint.
9. Statement: The implicit understanding from the passage is that determinism provides context and background to human
actions, rather than acting as a constrictive force that nullifies the freedom of will.
Validity: Valid
Explanation: The passage presents the idea that determinism sets the stage upon which free will operates. It does not advocate
for a deterministic perspective that entirely restricts free will; instead, it posits that determinism is the context within which free
will is exercised, thus maintaining the integrity of human agency.
10. Statement: The passage infers that the practical application of compatibilism in ethics and law hinges on the understanding
that, while determinism influences our choices, we still exercise control over these choices, allowing for a system of moral and
legal accountability.
Validity: Valid
Explanation: The passage suggests that compatibilism is not merely a theoretical concept but has practical implications in
ethics and law. It infers that moral and legal responsibility is maintained under compatibilism because, despite the deterministic
influences, individuals exercise control over their actions and are therefore accountable for them. This understanding allows for
the upholding of a system where individuals can be held responsible for their choices, reinforcing the inference as valid.
Page 5 of 5
In the vast and varied universe of natural sciences, we find phenomena that capture the imagination and provoke
endless curiosity. Prominent among them are the profound mysteries of black holes, the elegant structure of the DNA
molecule, and the vast tableau of biological diversity that populates every corner of our planet. Yet, beyond these well-
trodden paths of scientific inquiry lie more esoteric subjects that are less celebrated but no less fascinating. One such
subject is the intriguing lifecycle and behavior of slime moulds, or myxomycetes. These organisms remain shrouded in
mystery, far from the spotlight of mainstream scientific discussion, yet they embody a narrative rich with complexity,
adaptability, and a form of intelligence that operates devoid of any neural apparatus.
Occupying a unique niche within the kingdom of life, slime moulds confound the typical classifications of biology. They
are not plants, animals, nor true fungi; instead, they exist in a liminal zone that challenges our traditional taxonomic
boundaries. As a group of eukaryotic organisms, slime moulds present a life cycle that is both alien and mesmerizing,
raising profound questions about the very nature of individuality and collective existence. In exploring the intricate
existence of these organisms, this essay seeks to illuminate the subtle grace inherent in their life processes, casting a
light on the enigmatic beauty that slime moulds possess.
The existence of slime moulds is marked by a remarkable dichotomy. As solitary amoeboid cells, they lead a discreet
life, thriving in moist, shaded environments as they consume bacteria and other microorganisms. However, when the
bounty wanes, the slime moulds undergo a radical transformation. The previously independent cells begin to coalesce,
driven by chemical signals into a collective form known as a plasmodium. This is not a mere gathering of cells but an
intricate union, where the individual cells merge to form a larger, mobile structure capable of moving in a concerted
manner. This plasmodium can traverse challenging terrains, from navigating complex mazes to constructing optimal
pathways between food sources, all without the guidance of a central nervous system. Such behaviour stands as a
testament to the emergent intelligence that can arise from the collective actions of simpler units.
The collective behaviour of the slime mould plasmodium raises profound questions about the fundamental nature of
cognition and decision-making. It demonstrates a form of intelligence that is both alien and yet eerily familiar, operating
through mechanisms entirely different from the neural-based processes observed in animals. As the plasmodium
forages, it leaves behind a trail of extracellular slime, a substance that not only marks where it has been but also
ensures it does not double back on itself. This external slime trail is akin to a memory system, a chemical record of its
past movements that informs future decisions. Such a strategy of externalised spatial memory subverts our traditional
conceptions of learning and memory as being intrinsically linked to complex nervous systems.
The intellectual prowess of slime moulds is perhaps most strikingly demonstrated in their uncanny ability to design
networks reminiscent of human-engineered systems. When researchers replicate the layout of urban areas and place
food at locations corresponding to major cities, slime moulds construct networks of protoplasmic tubes that mirror the
efficiency of human-designed transport routes. This remarkable ability to solve spatial distribution problems with a
finespun balance of redundancy and efficiency hints at a distributed form of intelligence that has captured the attention
of scientists and engineers alike. Such insights are fuelling novel approaches in computing and the planning of
logistical networks, as slime moulds offer a biological precedent for creating resilient and adaptive systems.
The lifecycle of slime moulds is characterised by a stunning metamorphosis, one that encapsulates the profound
dynamism inherent in life. Under duress or when the plasmodium reaches a threshold size, the organism ceases its
exploratory endeavours and commences the formation of fruiting bodies. These delicate, often aesthetically striking
structures stand as monuments to the organism's journey, releasing spores to the wind, and ensuring the propagation
of the species. This transition from growth to reproduction is a cycle that mirrors the broader rhythms of nature, where
continuity and change are the only constants.
This remarkable capacity for transformation is not merely a biological curiosity; it provides a potential window into the
ancient evolutionary narrative of multicellularity. By studying the life of slime moulds, scientists may gain insights into
one of life's great transitions — the emergence of multicellular organisms from single-celled ancestors. The
mechanisms that allow slime mould cells to collaborate and form a multicellular entity could shed light on the
processes that enabled the first cooperative assemblages of cells that would eventually give rise to the complex flora
and fauna that inhabit the Earth today.
Page 1 of 4
PASSAGE DETAILS
• Genre: Scientific Exposition
Doodles
1. Black Holes & DNA ⊕ Slime Mould Mysteries "≈" closely related
2. Liminal Taxonomic Space ↔ Slime Moulds' Existence "→" led to
3. Amoeboid Cells → Plasmodium Unity "↔" intricately tied
4. Slime Trails ↺ Externalised Memory and Learning " " sparks/energizes.
5. Protoplasmic Tubes ≈ Human Transportation Networks "⊕" are added to or infused into
6. Fruiting Bodies ↻ Life's Rhythmic Cycles "↺" can loop back
7. Multicellular Evolution Slime Moulds' Transformation
Central Theme: The passage's central theme is the complexity and intelligence of slime moulds, illustrating the
sophistication of life forms that lack traditional neural structures and challenging our standard notions of cognition and
biological classification.
Tone: The tone is explorative and revelatory, with a touch of wonder. It's analytical, aiming to bring to light the overlooked
sophistication of slime moulds and their relevance to broader scientific and philosophical questions.
Key Ideas:
• First Paragraph: Sets the stage by contrasting the well-known marvels of science with the less celebrated but equally
captivating life of slime moulds, framing them as enigmatic yet significant organisms.
• Second Paragraph: Highlights the challenge slime moulds pose to traditional biological classifications, underscoring their
unique and mesmerising life cycle.
• Third Paragraph: Describes the transformation of slime moulds from individual cells to a collective plasmodium,
showcasing emergent intelligence and collective decision-making without a nervous system.
• Fourth Paragraph: Slime moulds' behaviour raises questions about the nature of cognition and memory, which is
managed through an externalised spatial memory system, defying conventional ideas about learning and intelligence.
• Fifth Paragraph: Illustrates the ability of slime moulds to solve complex spatial problems and their potential to inspire new
computing and logistical strategies, highlighting their form of distributed intelligence.
• Sixth Paragraph: Discusses the lifecycle and metamorphosis of slime moulds, drawing parallels to the rhythms of nature
and the interplay between growth and reproduction.
• Seventh Paragraph: Connects the study of slime moulds to significant evolutionary questions about the origins of
multicellularity, suggesting their collective behaviour may offer insights into one of life's pivotal transitions.

The passage is structured to guide the reader through a journey of understanding slime moulds, beginning with an
introduction to their mysterious nature and advancing through their complex lifecycle, unique intelligence, and biological
significance. Each paragraph builds upon the last, detailing their peculiarities, exploring their collective behaviours and
decision-making strategies, and culminating in their evolutionary relevance. This sequential unfolding of concepts paints a
comprehensive portrait of slime moulds, bridging the gap between simple curiosity and profound scientific inquiry.
Page 2 of 4
REASONING CHECK
Check whether the following is valid or not
1. The passage suggests that intelligence and decision-making capabilities might not be exclusively tied to organisms with neural
systems, given the slime moulds' ability to navigate and remember without a central nervous system.
2. The unique position of slime moulds in the taxonomic hierarchy implies that our current classifications of life forms may need
revising or expanding to accommodate such exceptions.
3. The external slime trail used by slime moulds for spatial memory indicates that memory can exist outside of the traditional
brain-based model, perhaps in a material or environmental form.
4. The ability of slime moulds to create efficient networks suggests that natural systems can arrive at solutions comparable to
human-engineered outcomes, hinting at a form of 'natural selection engineering'.
5. The capabilities of slime moulds imply great potential for biomimicry in technology and design, inspiring innovative approaches
in computing, network design, and logistics by emulating biological processes.
6. The transformation of solitary amoeboid cells into a collective plasmodium exemplifies a shift from individual to collective
behaviour, raising questions about the emergence of group intelligence from individual units.
7. The cooperative behaviour of slime mould cells hints at possible mechanisms of multicellularity, providing a living model to
study one of the most significant evolutionary leaps.
8. The study of slime moulds' decision-making processes can potentially expand the understanding of cognition, possibly leading
to a broader definition that includes non-neural organisms.
9. The lifecycle of the slime mould, particularly the formation of the plasmodium, could be seen as a metaphor for human social
structures where individuals come together for a common purpose, suggesting parallels in collective behaviours across
species.
10. The slime moulds’ lifecycle, with its growth, adaptation, and reproduction, mirrors the broader rhythms and cycles of nature,
emphasizing the universality of these patterns across different forms of life.
Page 3 of 4
1. The passage suggests that intelligence and decision-making capabilities might not be exclusively tied to organisms with neural
systems, given the slime moulds' ability to navigate and remember without a central nervous system.
Valid: The passage indeed discusses how slime moulds navigate and solve problems without a central nervous system,
suggesting a form of intelligence and decision-making not reliant on neural structures. This is a direct observation from the
behaviours described.
2. The unique position of slime moulds in the taxonomic hierarchy implies that our current classifications of life forms may need
revising or expanding to accommodate such exceptions.
Valid: The passage highlights the unique classification challenges slime moulds present, not fitting neatly into animal, plant, or
fungal kingdoms, indicating that a revision or expansion of taxonomic categories might be necessary.
3. The external slime trail used by slime moulds for spatial memory indicates that memory can exist outside of the traditional
brain-based model, perhaps in a material or environmental form.
Valid: Slime moulds use an external slime trail as a record of their past movements, which functions similarly to memory. This
shows that memory mechanisms can operate differently from the conventional understanding of brain-centric memory.
4. The ability of slime moulds to create efficient networks suggests that natural systems can arrive at solutions comparable to
human-engineered outcomes, hinting at a form of 'natural selection engineering'.
Valid: The passage notes that slime moulds form networks similar to human-designed systems, suggesting that natural
processes can achieve complex problem-solving, akin to engineering solutions shaped by selection pressures.
5. The capabilities of slime moulds imply great potential for biomimicry in technology and design, inspiring innovative approaches
in computing, network design, and logistics by emulating biological processes.
Valid: The abilities of slime moulds to solve spatial problems and their method of network creation have implications for
biomimicry in technology and design, as described in the passage, presenting a biological precedent for designing systems.
6. The transformation of solitary amoeboid cells into a collective plasmodium exemplifies a shift from individual to collective
behaviour, raising questions about the emergence of group intelligence from individual units.
Valid: The transition from independent amoeboid cells to a unified plasmodium in slime moulds demonstrates a form of
collective behaviour emerging from individual actions, supporting the inference about collective intelligence.
7. The cooperative behaviour of slime mould cells hints at possible mechanisms of multicellularity, providing a living model to
study one of the most significant evolutionary leaps.
Valid: Slime moulds provide a model for studying cell cooperation, which is a critical aspect of the evolution of multicellularity.
The cooperative behaviour is an observable phenomenon that can give insights into multicellular evolution.
8. The study of slime moulds' decision-making processes can potentially expand the understanding of cognition, possibly leading
to a broader definition that includes non-neural organisms.
Valid: By examining how slime moulds process information and make decisions, we can indeed deepen our comprehension of
cognition, which could lead to a wider definition that encompasses entities without neural systems.
9. The lifecycle of the slime mould, particularly the formation of the plasmodium, could be seen as a metaphor for human social
structures where individuals come together for a common purpose, suggesting parallels in collective behaviours across
species.
Valid: The social-like organisation of slime mould cells into a plasmodium can be metaphorically likened to human social
structures, where individuals work together towards shared objectives. The passage supports this analogy through the detailed
description of slime mould behaviour.
10. The slime moulds’ lifecycle, with its growth, adaptation, and reproduction, mirrors the broader rhythms and cycles of nature,
emphasizing the universality of these patterns across different forms of life.
Valid: The passage reflects on the lifecycle stages of slime moulds as a process that resonates with the broader patterns found
in nature, thus supporting the inference about the universality of life’s rhythms and cycles.
Page 4 of 4

VARC1000 - CAD 48 To 74

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

VARC1000 - CAD 48 To 74

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

VARC1000 - CAD 48 To 74

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CAT ARTICLE DOSE – 48

[Analysis on the next page]

[Analysis on the next page]

[Analysis on the next page]

[Answers on the next page]

[Answers on the next page]

[Answers on the next page]

[Answers on the next page]

B. The way chimpanzees communicate alters conspicuously in response to a comrade's death.

C. Chimps have a specific auditory response, or lack thereof, to express grief.

Word Length: 515

[Answers on the next page]

2. To accept the assertions made in Para 1, what underlying assumption is imperative?

[Answers on the next page]

2. To accept the assertions made in Para 1, what underlying assumption is imperative?

b) This doesn't have a direct bearing on the violence trend discussed.

[Turn to the next page to check your comprehension & analysis]

[Check your answers on the next page]

Tone: Analytical and Informative.

Structure of the Passage:

[Check your Reasoning on the next page]

[Answers on the next page]

The Best Criticism of Ethical Egoism

Conflicts of Interest & Contradictions

© Stephen Leach 2023

[Turn to the next page to check your comprehension & analysis]

Structure of the Passage:

[Check your Reasoning on the next page]

2. External events can sometimes dictate academic pursuits.

4. Academic discourse can be influenced by the political climate of the times.

7. There is an influential role of American academia in shaping global scholarly discourse.

[Answers on the next page]

2. External events can sometimes dictate academic pursuits.

4. Academic discourse can be influenced by the political climate of the times.

7. There is an influential role of American academia in shaping global scholarly discourse.

[Turn to the next page to check your comprehension & analysis]

Structure of the Passage:

[Check your Reasoning on the next page]

[Answers on the next page]

[Turn to the next page to check your comprehension & analysis]

Structure of the Passage:

[Check your Reasoning on the next page]

[Answers on the next page]

[Turn to the next page to check your comprehension & analysis]

Structure of the Passage:

[Check your Reasoning on the next page]

[Answers on the next page]

[Turn to the next page to check your comprehension & analysis]

Structure of the Passage:

[Check your Reasoning on the next page]

[Answers on the next page]

A: The Aztecs believed in a cyclical, not linear, view of existence.

A: The text states, "Different types of death led to different destinies."

[Turn to the next page to check your comprehension & analysis]

Structure of the Passage:

[Check your Reasoning on the next page]

[Answers on the next page]

(A) Neurotransmitters: Their Essential Role in Neuronal Signal Transmission

(B) Nutritional Intake and Evolution: A Revisited Bond