Vectors

require magnitude as well as direction

quantities which follows vector laws are called
physical
Those complete representation and
for their
vectors.
into two types
Vector can be divided
1.Polar Vectors
vectors which have a starting point or a point of
These are those force etc.
application as a displacement,
2.Axial Vectors effect and act
which represent rotational
These are those vectors
axis of rotation in accordance with right hand screw rule
along the momentum etc.
as angular velocity, torque, angular

Scalars
no
Those physical quantities which require only magnitude but
direction for their complete representation, are called scalars.
Distance, speed, work, mass, density, etc are the examples of
scalars. Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by
simple algebric laws.

Tensors
Tensors are those physical quantities which have different values in
different dírections at the same point.
Moment of inertia, radius of gyration, modulus of elasticity, pressures
stress,. conductivity, resistivity, refractive index, wave velocity and
density, etc are the examples of tensors, Magnitude of tensor 15 10
unique.
Different Types of Vectors
(i) EqualVectors Two vectors of equal magnitude,
in same direction are called equal vectors.

(ii) Negative Vectors Two vectors of equal

magnitude but in opposite directions are called
negative vectors.

(ii) Zero Vector or Null Vector Avector whose magnitude is

zero is known as a zero or null vector. Its direction is not
defined. It is denoted by 0.
Velocity ofa stationary object, acceleration of an object moving
with uniform velocity and resultant of two equal and opposite
vectors are the examples of null vector.
(iv) Unit Vector A vector having unit magnitude is called au
vector.
A unit vector in the direction of vector A is given by

A unit vector is unitless and dimensionless vector and

represents direction only.
(v) Orthogonal Unit Vectors The unit vectors along the
direction of orthogonal axis, i.e., X-axis, Y-axis and Z-axis are
called orthogonal unit vectors. They aré represented by i, jand k.

+X galllse

(vi) Co-initial Vectors Vectors having a common initial point,

are called co-initial vectors.

A
(vi) Collinear Vectors Vectors having equal
unequal magnitudes but acting along the same or
parallel lines are called collinear vectors.
(vùi) Coplanar Vectors Vectors acting in the same plane avs
called coplanar vectors.
(ix) Localised Vector Avector whose initial point is fixed, i
called a localised vector.
(x) Non-localised or Free Vector Avector whose initial point
is not fixed is calleda non-localised or a free vector.
(xi) Position Vector A vector representing the straight line
distance and the direction of any point or object with respect to
the origin, is called position vecto
Addition of Vectors
1. Triangle Law of Vectors
If two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and
direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in one order, then their
resultant is represented by the third side of the triangle taken in the
opposite order.
If two vectors A and B acting at a point
are inclined at an angle 0, then their
resultant R
R=A+ B + 2AB cos 0 B

If the resultant vector R subtends an angle

Bwith vector A, then A
Bsin 0
tan ß =
A+ B cos

2. Parallelogram Law of Vectors

If two vectors acting at a point are represented in
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogrammagnitude
and
draw from a
point, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction
by the diagonal of the parallelogram draw from the
same point.

A
Resultant of vectors A and B is given by
R=A' +B+ 2AB cos 0
Tf the resultant vector R subtends an
angleB with vector A, then
B sin 0
tan ß =
A+ Bcos 0
3. Polygon Law of Vectors
It states that if number of
vectors
particle at a time are represented inacting on a D D
and direction by the various sides ofmagnitude E
an open
polygon taken in same order, their resultant vector E
represented in magnitude and direction by the R
closing side of polygon taken in opposite order. In
fact, polygon law of vectors is the outcome of A
triangle law of vectors.
R=A+ B+ C+ D+E
OE= 0A +AB+ BC + CD + DE
Properties of Vector Addition
i) Vector addition is commutative, i.e., A+ B=B+ A
(ii) Vector addition is associative, i.e.,
A+ (B+ C)= B+ (C+ A) =C+(A+ B)
(iii) Vector addition is distributive, i.e., m (A+ B) = mA+ mB
Rotation of a Vector
i) Ifa vector is rotated through an angle 0, which is not an integral
multiple of 21, the vector changes.
(ii) If the frame of reference is rotated or translated, the given
vector does not change. The components of the vector may,
however, change.

Resolution of aVector into Rectangular

Components
If any vector A subtends an angle with raxis, then its
Horizontal component A, = A cos
Vertical component A, = Asin 0
Magnitude of vector A= |A+ A, Ay A
tan =
A_ Ax
Direction Cosines of a Vector
If any vector A subtend angles a.,B and y with axis, y-axis and z
rospoctively and its components along these axes are A,, A, and A,, then
cO8 C=A, cos B=AyA cO8 Y= A,
A
and cos' a+ cos B+ cos y= 1
Subtraction of Vectors
Subtraction of a vector B from a vector A is defined as the addition of
vector -B (negative of vector B) to vector A.
Thus, A- B= A+(-B)

Multiplication of a Vector
1.By a Real Number
When a vector A is multiplied by a real number n, then its magnitude
becomes n times but direction and unit remains unchanged.
2. By a Scalar
When a vector A is multiplied by a scalar S, then its magnitude
becomes S times, and unit is the product of units of A and S but
direction remains same as that of vector A.

Scalar or Dot Product of Two Vectors

The scalar product of two vectors is equal to the
product of their magnitudes and the osine of the B

smaller angle between them. It is denoted by (dot).

A- B= AB cos A
The scalar or dot product of two vectors is a scalar.
Properties of Scalar Product
(1) Scalar product is commutative, i.e., A-B= BA
(ii) Scalar product is distributive, i.e., A-(B+ C) =A-B+A-C
(ii)) Scalar product of twoperpendicular vectors is zero,
A·B= AB cos 90° = 0
(iv) Scalar product of two parallel vectors is equal to the product of
their magnitudes, i.e., A-B= AB cos 0° = AB
(v) Scalar product of a vector with itself is equal to the
square of its
magnitude, i.e.,
AA= AA cos0° =A'
 (vi) Scalar product of orthogonal unit vectors
i.i-j-j=k k=1
and ij-jk=iki=0
(vii) Scalar product in cartesian coordinates
AB=(4i+ A,j+ 4,k-(B,î +B,j+ BI)
= AB, + A,B, + AB
Vector or Cross Product of Two Vectors
The vector product of two vectors is equal to the product of their
magnitudes and the sine of the smaller angle between them. It is
denoted by x (cross).
C=Ax B

Ax B= ABsin 0n
The direction of unit vector n can be obtained from right hand thumb rule.
If fingers of right hand are curled from A to B through smaller angle
between them, then thumb will represent the direction of vector (A x B).
The vector or cross product of two vectors is also a vector.

Properties of Vector Product

i) Vector product is not commutative, i.e.,
Ax B# Bx A [: (Ax B) = - (Bx A)]
(ii) Vector product is distributive, i.e.,
Ax(B+ C)= AxB+ Ax C
(in) Vector product of two parallel vectors is zero, i.e.,
Ax B= AB sin 0° = 0
(iv) Vector product of any vector with itself is zero.
Ax A= AA sin 0° =0
 orthogonal unit vectors
() Vector product of

ixi=jxj=kx k=0
and ix j=k, /xk=i, kxi-j
(vi) Vector product in cartesian coordinates
AxB=(A,i+ A,j+ 4,k) x(Bi +B,j+ BÍ

=|A, Ay A,
|B B, B,
=(A,B, -A,B,)i
-, -(4,B, - B,A,) j+(AB, - A,B)t
Direction of Vector Cross Product
When C= AxB, the direction of C is at right angles to the
containing the vectors A and B. The direction is determined bynlane
th
right hand screw rule and right hand thumb rule.
AxB
AxB

B
B

(a) (b)
i) Right Hand Screw
Rule Rotate a right handed screw from
first vector (A) towards second
which the right handed screw vector (B). The direction n
vector (C). moves gives the direction o
(i1) Right Hand Thumb
from Ato B. Then, theRule Curl the fingers of your right hanu
AxB. direction the erect thumb will
the direction of of pointin
 Laws of Motion
Inertia
The property of an object by virtue of which it cannot change its state
of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line its own, is called
inertia.
Inertia is a measure of mass of a body. Greater the mass of a body
greater will be its inertia or vice-versa.
Inertia is of three types:
(i) Inertia of Rest When a bus or train starts to move suddenly,
the passangers sitting in it falls backward due to inertia of rest.
(ii) Inertia of Motion When a moving bus or train stops
suddenly, the passangers sitting in it jerks in forward direction
due to inertia of motion.
(iii)) Inertia of Direction We can protect ourself from rain by an
umbrella because rain drops can not change its direction its own
due to inertia of direction.

Force
Force is a push or pull which changes or tries to change the state of
rest, the state of uniformn motion, size or shape of a body.
Its SI unit is newton (N) and its dimensional formula is MLT.
Forces can be categorized into two types:
(i) Contact Forces Frictional force, tensional force, spring force;
normal force, etc are the contact forces.
(ii) Action at a Distance Forces Electrostatic force,
gravitational
force, magnetic force, etc are action at a distance forces.

Impulsive Force
A force which acts on body for a short interval of time, and
large change in momentum is called an impulsive force. produces a
Linear Momentum
The total amount of motion present in a body is called its momentum,
Linear momentum of a body is equal to the product of its mass and
velocity. It is denoted by p.
Linear momentum p= mu.
Its SI unit is kg-m/s and dimensional formula is MLT].
of velocity t
It is a vector quantity and its direction is in the direction
the body.

Impulse called
The product of impulsive force and time for which it acts is
impulse.
Impulse = Force x Time = Change in momentum
MLT-1
Its SI unit is newton-second or kg-m/s and its dimension is
direction of force.
lt is a vector quantity and its direction is in the
Newton's Laws of Motion
1.Newton's First Law of Motion
A body continues to be in its state of rest or in uniform motion along a
straight line unless an external force is applied on it.
This law is also called law of inertia.
Examples
(i) When a carpet or a blanket is beaten with a stick then the dust
particles separate out from it.
(ii) If a moving vehicle suddenly stops then the passengers ins1de
the vehicle bend outward.

2. Newton's Second Lawof Motion

The rate of change of linear momentum is proportional to the apphed
force and change in momentum takes place in the direction of apphea
force.
Mathematically Fc
dp
dt
d
F=k (mv)
dt SI/
in
where, k is a constant of proportionality and its value is one
and CGS system.
mdy
F= = ma
dt
 Examples
() It is easier for a strong adult to push a full shopping cart than it is
for a baby to push the same cart. (This is depending on the net
force acting on the object).
(ii) It is easier for a person to push an empty shopping cart than a full
one (This is depending on the mass of the object).
3. Newton's Third Law of Motion
For every action there is an equal and opposite F12 F21
reaction and both acts on two different bodies. 1 2
a Mathematically Fp =- F
Examples
() Swimming becomes possible because of third law of motion.
(ii) Jumping of a man from a boat onto the bank of a river.
(i) Jerk isproduced in a gun when bullet is fired from it.
(iv) Pulling of cart by a horse.
Note Newton 's second law of motion is called real law of motion because first
and third laws of motion can be obtained by it.
The modern versionof these laws is
(i) A body continues in its initial state of rest or motion with
uniform velocity unless acted on by an unbalanced external
force.
(ii) Forces always occur in pairs. If body A exerts a force on body B.
an equal but opposite force is exerted by body B on body A.
Law of Conservationof Linear Momentum
If no external force acts on a system, then its total linear momentum remains
conserved.
Linear momentum depends on frame of reference but law of conservation of
linear momentum is independent of frame of reference.
Newton's laws of motion are valid only in inertial frame of reference.

Weight (w)
It is a field force, the force with which a body is
pulled towards the
centre of the earth due to gravity. It has the magnitude mg, where m is
the mass of the body andg is the
acceleration due to gravity.
W= mg
Apparent Weight in a Lift
moving with a R
() When a lift is at rest or
constant speed, then V=Constant
R= mg
The weighing machine will read the mg
actual weight.
lift is accelerating upward, then R1
(i) When a
apparent weight
R, =m(g+ a)
the apparent
The weighing machine will readactual weight. mg
weight,which is more than the
When a lift is accelerating downward, then R2
(iii)
apparent weight
R, = m (g- a)
apparent
The weighing machine will read theweight. mg
weight, which is less than the actual
then
(iv) When lift is falling freely under gravity,
R, = m (g- g) = 0
becomes zero.
The apparent weight of the body
If lift is accelerating downward with an acceleration greater
(v) ceiling of the lft.
than g, then body willlift from f1oor to the
Friction
force acting on the point of contact of the objects, which opposes the
friction.
relative motion is called
surfaces.
It acts parallel to the contact
Beictional forces are produced due to intermolecular interactions acting
between the molecules of the bodies in contact.