The growing trend in the history of research is a rise in the use and application quantitative

methods of social investigations. This has been orchestrated by global challenges that require
the application of positivist methodologies in scientific inquiries. With the aid of relevant
examples:

(a) Distinguish between descriptive and inferential statistics.

Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics that involves organizing, summarizing, and

presenting data in an informative way. It provides a summary of the main features of a data set,
such as the central tendency, variability, and distribution. Descriptive statistics can be
presented using numerical measures (such as mean, median, mode, range, variance, and
standard deviation) or graphical representations (such as histograms, bar charts, and box plots).
The goal of descriptive statistics is to provide a clear and concise description of the data, making
it easier to understand and interpret. It is often used as a first step in data analysis, before more
advanced statistical techniques are applied.

1. Distribution: Descriptive statistics involve studying the distribution of data, which refers
to the frequency of each value in the data set. Example: In a survey of 200 people, 50
people said they visited the library 0-4 times in the past year, 40 people visited 5-8
times, and so on.

2. Central tendency: This refers to the average of the data set, which can be measured
using the mean, median, or mode. Example: The mean number of library visits is 9.5, the
median is 7.5, and the mode is 3.

3. Mean: This is the sum of all values divided by the total number of values. It is sensitive
to outliers. Example: The mean number of library visits is 9.5.
4. Median: This is the middle value in a data set. It is not affected by outliers. Example: The
median number of library visits is 7.5.

5. Mode: This is the most frequently occurring value in a data set. Example: The mode
number of library visits is 3.

6. Variability: This refers to how spread out the data is. It can be measured using the
range, variance, or standard deviation. Example: The standard deviation of library visits
is 9.18.

7. Range: This is the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.
Example: The range of library visits is 24.

8. Variance: This is the average of the squared deviations from the mean. It reflects the
degree of spread in the data set. Example: The variance of library visits is 84.3.

9. Standard deviation: This is the square root of the variance. It is a measure of the
average distance of each value from the mean. Example: The standard deviation of
library visits is 9.18.

10. Univariate descriptive statistics: This involves studying one variable at a time. Example:
The mean number of library visits is 9.5, the standard deviation is 9.18, and the range is
24.

11. Bivariate descriptive statistics: This involves studying the relationship between two
variables. Example: In a survey of 200 people, we found that women visited the library
more often than men.

12. Frequency distribution: This is a table or graph that shows the frequency of each value
in a data set. Example: A table showing the number of people who visited the library 0-4
times, 5-8 times, and so on.
Inferential statistics is a branch of statistics that involves making inferences or predictions
about a population based on a sample of data. It allows researchers to draw conclusions about
a larger group based on the characteristics of a smaller group.

1. Estimating population parameters: Inferential statistics can be used to estimate

population parameters, such as the mean or standard deviation, based on sample
statistics. Example: A researcher wants to estimate the average height of all adults in a
country. They collect data from a random sample of 1000 adults and calculate the mean
height. They can then use inferential statistics to estimate the mean height of the entire
population.

2. Sampling distribution: Inferential statistics relies on the concept of a sampling

distribution, which is the distribution of a statistic (such as the mean) calculated from all
possible samples of a given size. Example: A researcher wants to estimate the mean
income of all workers in a company. They take 100 random samples of 50 workers each
and calculate the mean income for each sample. The distribution of these sample means
is the sampling distribution.

3. Standard error: The standard error is a measure of the variability of a sample statistic,
such as the mean. It is used to calculate confidence intervals for population parameters.
Example: A researcher wants to estimate the mean score on a test for all students in a
school. They take a random sample of 50 students and calculate the mean score. The
standard error is used to calculate a confidence interval for the population mean score.

4. Confidence intervals: A confidence interval is a range of values that is likely to contain

the true population parameter with a certain level of confidence. Example: A researcher
estimates the mean income of all workers in a company to be $50,000 with a 95%
confidence interval of $48,000 to $52,000.

5. Hypothesis testing: Inferential statistics can be used to test hypotheses about

population parameters. Example: A researcher wants to test whether the mean score on
a test is different for students who study for 3 hours versus 2 hours. They take a random
 sample of students from each group and use inferential statistics to test whether the
difference in means is statistically significant.

6. p-values: A p-value is the probability of obtaining a sample statistic as extreme as the

one observed, assuming the null hypothesis is true. Example: A researcher tests whether
the mean score on a test is different for students who study for 3 hours versus 2 hours.
They observe a statistically significant difference and calculate a p-value of 0.05. This
means that there is a 5% chance of observing a difference as extreme as the one
observed, assuming the null hypothesis is true.

7. Type I and Type II errors: Inferential statistics involves the risk of making type I and type
II errors. Example: A researcher tests whether a new drug is effective in treating a
disease. A type I error would occur if they conclude that the drug is effective when it is
not. A type II error would occur if they conclude that the drug is not effective when it is.

8. Power: The power of a statistical test is the probability of correctly rejecting the null
hypothesis when it is false. Example: A researcher tests whether a new drug is effective
in treating a disease. The power of the test is the probability of correctly concluding that
the drug is effective when it is.

9. Parametric and nonparametric tests: Parametric tests assume a specific distribution for
the population, such as a normal distribution. Nonparametric tests do not assume a
specific distribution. Example: A researcher wants to compare the median income of
two groups. They use a nonparametric test because they do not want to assume a
specific distribution for the population.

10. Correlation and regression: Inferential statistics can be used to study the relationship
between two variables. Example: A researcher wants to study the relationship between
hours of study and test scores. They use correlation and regression analysis to model
the relationship.

11. Analysis of variance (ANOVA): ANOVA is a statistical technique used to compare the
means of more than two groups. Example: A researcher wants to compare the mean
 income of workers in three different departments. They use ANOVA to test whether the
differences in means are statistically significant.

(b) Illustrating your answers with relevant examples, identify and explain four [4]
research designs usually used by positivists researchers.

1. Experimental Research Design

 This design involves manipulating one or more independent variables to observe

their effect on a dependent variable.

 Participants are randomly assigned to different groups, such as a control group

and an experimental group.

 The researcher controls all other variables to ensure that any changes in the
dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

 This design is often used in scientific research, such as testing the effectiveness
of a new drug.

 Example: A researcher wants to test the effectiveness of a new medication for

treating depression. They randomly assign participants to either a control group
that receives a placebo or an experimental group that receives the medication.
They then measure the participants' depression symptoms before and after the
treatment to see if there is a significant difference between the two groups.

2. Correlational Research Design

 This design involves examining the relationship between two or more variables
without manipulating them.

 The researcher measures the variables and looks for patterns of association.
  This design is often used to explore potential causal relationships, but it cannot
establish causality on its own.

 This design is often used in social science research, such as studying the
relationship between income and education level.

 Example: A researcher wants to examine the relationship between exercise and

mental health. They survey a large sample of people and ask them about their
exercise habits and mental health symptoms. They then use statistical analysis to
see if there is a significant correlation between the two variables.

3. Survey Research Design

 This design involves collecting data from a large sample of people using a
standardized questionnaire.

 The questionnaire can be administered in person, by phone, or online.

 This design is often used to gather information about people's attitudes, beliefs,
and behaviors.

 This design is often used in market research, such as studying consumer

preferences.

 Example: A company wants to gather feedback on a new product they are

developing. They design a survey and distribute it to a large sample of potential
customers. They then analyze the responses to see what people like and don't
like about the product.

4. Case Study Research Design

 This design involves an in-depth examination of a single case or a small number

of cases.
  The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews,
observations, and documents.

 This design is often used to explore complex phenomena that cannot be easily
studied using other research designs.

 This design is often used in educational research, such as studying the

implementation of a new teaching method in a single classroom.

 Example: A researcher wants to study the impact of a new literacy program on a

group of struggling readers. They select a single classroom and collect data on
the students' reading skills before and after the program. They also conduct
interviews with the teacher and observe the classroom to gain a deeper
understanding of the program's implementation and effectiveness.

(c) By the aid of local examples, explain four [4] probability sampling techniques used in
quantitative studies.

1. Simple Random Sampling

 In simple random sampling, every member of the population has an equal

chance of being selected.

 This method is often used in surveys and opinion polls.

 Example: A researcher wants to study the opinions of residents in a small town

about a proposed development project. They randomly select 100 residents
from a list of all residents in the town and survey them.

2. Stratified Sampling

 In stratified sampling, the population is divided into subgroups or strata based

on certain characteristics, and a random sample is taken from each stratum.
  This method is often used when the population is heterogeneous and the
researcher wants to ensure that all subgroups are represented in the sample.

 Example: A researcher wants to study the attitudes of students towards a new

curriculum at a local university. They divide the student population into strata
based on their year of study and randomly select 50 students from each stratum.

3. Systematic Sampling

 In systematic sampling, the population is arranged in a systematic order, and

every nth member is selected for the sample.

 This method is often used when the population is large and it is not feasible to
list all members.

 Example: A researcher wants to study the quality of water in a local river. They
take a sample every 100 meters along the length of the river.

4. Cluster Sampling

 In cluster sampling, the population is divided into clusters or groups, and a

random sample of clusters is selected.

 This method is often used when the population is geographically dispersed and it
is not feasible to list all members.

 Example: A researcher wants to study the prevalence of a certain disease in a

rural area. They divide the area into clusters based on villages and randomly
select 10 villages for the sample.

Each of these sampling techniques has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of
technique depends on the research question, the nature of the population, and the resources
available to the researcher.
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