COMPUTER APPLICATION PLUS TWO QUICK NOTES

Chapter One
Review of C++ Programming
Character Set:-Fundamental unit of C++ language. Classified into letters(a-z,A-Z),digits(0-9),special characters(# , ; : > { +
etc.),white spaces(space bar , tab, new line) and some ASCII characters ranges from 0 to 255.
Tokens:-Basic building blocks of C++ programs. Classified into keywords, identifiers, literals, punctuators and
operators.
Keywords:-Reserved words that convey specific meaning to the language compiler.
Identifiers:-User defined words to identify memory locations(variables), statements(labels),functions(function names)
data types etc.
Literals:-Constants that do not change their value during the program run. Classified into integer constants(digits
preceded by +(plus) or -(minus) sign. ), floating point constants(expressed in fractional form and exponential form) ,
character constants(single character enclosed within single quotes) and string constants(group of characters enclosed
within double quotes).
Operators:-Symbols that trigger a specific operation. Based on the number of operands , they are classified into
unary(that requires only one operand), binary(that requires two operands), and ternary(which requires three
operands). Based on the type of operation, they are classified into arithmetic operators (+,-,*,/,%), relational operators
(<,<=,>,>=,==,!=), logical operators(&&(AND),|| (OR),! (NOT)), get from operator(>>), put to operator(<<), assignment
operator(=), increment operator(++), decrement operator(- -), arithmetic assignment operators(+=,-+,*=,/=,%=) and
conditional operator(?:).
Punctuators:-Special characters like comma(;), semi colon(;), hash(#), braces({}) etc.
Data types:-These are means to identify the type of data and associated operations. Classified into fundamental data
types ( int , char, float, double, void(represents empty set of data , hence size is zero. )) , derived data types (array,
function)and user defined data types(structure, class, union, enumeration).
Type Modifiers:-The keyword signed, unsigned, short and long are type modifiers .
Expressions:-Expressions are constituted by operators and required operands to perform an operation. Based on the
operators used, they are classified into arithmetic expression, relational expression(uses numeric or character data as
operands and returns True or False value as outputs) and logical expression(uses relational expressions as operands
and returns True or False value as outputs). Arithmetic expression is divided into integer expression(uses integer data
as operands and returns an integer value) and real expression(uses floating point data as operands and returns a
floating point value).
Type Conversion:-It is the process of converting the current data type of a value into another type. It may be
implicitly(type promotion) or explicitly(type casting) converted. In implicit type conversion ,the compiler converts a
lower type into higher type. In explicit type conversion, user is responsible for the conversion. A type cast operator() is
used for this purpose.
Various statements in a C++ Program
1) Declaration Statement:-
Variables should be declared prior to their use in the program and data types are required for this.
Eg: int n,sum;
2) Input Statement:-
C++ provides the operator >>, called extraction operator or get from operator for input statement.
Eg:- cin>>a>>b>>c;
3) Output Statement:-
To perform output operation, C++ gives the <<, called insertion operator or put to operator.
Eg: cout<<”Hello”;
cout<<a+b+c;
4) Assignment Statement:-
A specific data is stored in memory locations assignment operator(=).The statement that contains “ = ” is known as
assignment statement.
Eg:- area=3.14*radius*radius;
5) Control Statements:-
a) Selection Statements:-
1) if(test_expression)
{statements;}
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 2) if(test_expression)
{statement1;
}
else
{statement2;
}
3) if(test_expression1)
{statement1;}
else if(test_expression2)
{statement2;}
else
{statement3;}
4) switch(expression)
{case value 1:statement1;
break;
case value2:statement2;
break;
default: statement3;
}
5) conditional operator(?:)
It is a ternary operator of C++ and it requires three operands and It can substitute if- else statement.
expression1?expression2:expression3;
b) Looping Statements:-
1. for(initialization_expression;test_expression;updation_expression)
{statements;
}
2) initialization_expression;
while(test_expression)
{statements;
updation_expression;
}
3) initialization_expression;
do
{statement;
updation_expression;
}while(test_expression);
4) Nesting of Looping Statements:-
Placing a loop inside the body of another loop is called nesting of a loop.
Eg:for(i=1;i<=2;++i)
{for(j=1;j<=3;++j)
{cout<<”\n”<<i<<” “<<j;}}
c) Jump Statements:-
The statements that facilitate the transfer of program control from one place to another place are called jump
statements. C++ provides four jump statements that perform unconditional control transfer in a program. They
are return, goto, break and continue statements.
1) return statement:
The return statement is used to transfer control back to the calling program or to come out of a function.
2) goto statement:
The goto statement can transfer the program control to anywhere in the function. The target destination of a
goto statement is marked by a label , which is an identifier.
3) break statement:-
When a break statement is encountered in a loop, it takes the program control outside the immediate
enclosing loop.
4) continue statement:-
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 The statement continue is another jump statement used for skipping over a part of the code within the loop
body and forcing the next iteration.

Chapter Two
Arrays
An array is a collection of elements of the same type placed in contiguous memory locations. Each element in an array
can be accessed using its position in the list, called index number or subscript.
Declaring Arrays:
data_type array_name[size];
eg:- int num[10];
Memory Allocation for Arrays:-
The amount of storage required to hold an array is directly related to its type and size. The memory space allocated for
an array can be can be computed using the following formula :
total_bytes=sizeof(array_type)*size _of_array
Array Initialisation:-
Array elements can be initialized in their declaration statements.
Eg:-int score[5]={98,87,92,79,85};
Accessing elements of arrays:-
Accessing each element of an array at least once to perform any operation is known as traversal operation.
String handling using arrays:-
Eg:- char my_name[10];
for(int i=0;i<6;i++)
cin>>my_name[i];
for(int i=0;i<6;i++)
cout<<my_name[i];
NOTE:-A null character ‘\0’ is stored at the end of each string. This character is used as the string terminator and added
at the end automatically. So we can say that memory required to store a string will be equal to the number of
characters in the string plus one byte for null character.
Input/Output Operations on strings [The supporting header file is #include<cstdio>]
Input function for string operation: gets(character_array_name);
Output function for string operation: puts(string_data);
Chapter Three
Functions
In programming, the entire problem will be divided into small sub problems that can be solved by
writing separate programs. This kind of approach is known as modular programming. The process of breaking
large programs into smaller sub programs is called modularization.
Merits of modular programming:-
1) Reduces the size of the program.
2) Less chance of error occurrence.
3) Reduces programming complexity
4) Improves reusability
Demerits of modular programming:-
1) Proper breaking down of the problem is a challenging task.
2) Each sub problem must be independent of others.
Functions in C++:-
A function is a named unit of statements in a program to perform a specific task .Functions can be categorized into
two:
1) Predefined Functions or Built-in Functions
2) User defined functions
1. Predefined Functions:-
1) Console Functions for character I/O:-[The supporting header file is #include<cstdio>]
a) getchar(): returns the character that is input through the keyboard.
b) putchar():-displays the character given as the argument on the monitor.
c) gets(character_array_name): Input function for string operation.
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 d) puts(string_data): Output function for string operation.
2) Stream Functions for I/O Operations:-[The supporting header file is #include<iostream>]
a) cin.get(): It can accept a single character or multiple characters(String) through the keyboard.
b) cin.getline() : It accepts a string through the keyboard.
c) cout.put(): It is used to display a character constant or the content of a character variable given as argument.
d) cout.write():This function displays the string contained in the argument.
3) String Functions[The supporting header file is #include<cstring>]
a) strlen():This function is used to find the length of a string .Syntax: int strlen(string);
b) strcpy(): This function is used to copy one string into another. Syntax: strcpy(string1,string2);
c) strcat():This function is used to append one string into another string. The length of the resultant string is the
total length of the two strings.Syntax:strcat(string1,string2);
d) strcmp(): This function is used to compare two strings. In this comparison, the alphabetical order of characters
in the strings are considered . Syntax:strcmp(string1,string2);
The function returns any of the following values in three different situations:
1) Returns 0 if string1 and string2 are same.
2) Returns a –ve value if string1 is alphabetically lower than string2.
3) Returns a +ve value if string1 is alphabetically higher than string2.
e) strcmpi():This function is used to compare two strings ignoring the cases. In this comparison, the alphabetical
order of characters in the strings are considered . Syntax:strcmpi(string1,string2);
The function returns any of the following values in three different situations:
i. Returns 0 if string1 and string2 are same.
ii. Returns a –ve value if string1 is alphabetically lower than string2.
iii. Returns a +ve value if string1 is alphabetically higher than string2.
4) Mathematical Functions:- [The supporting header file is #include<cmath>]
i. abs(): used to find the absolute value of a number. syntax: int abs(int);
ii. sqrt): used to find the square root of a number. syntax: double sqrt(double);
iii. pow(): used to find the power of a number. double pow(double,double);
5) Character Functions:[The supporting header file is #include<cctype>]
i. isupper(): This function carries out a test “ Is the character an upper case ?” . It is used to check
whether a character is in upper case or not. It returns a 1 if the character is in uppercase and 0
otherwise. syntax: int isupper(char c);
ii. islower(): This function carries out a test “ Is the character a lower case ?” . It is used to check whether
a character is in lower case or not. It returns a 1 if the character is in lowercase and 0 otherwise.
syntax: int islower(char c);
iii. isalpha(): This function carries out a test “ Is the character an alphabet ?” . It is used to check whether
a character is an alphabet or not. It returns a 1 if the character is an alphabet and 0 otherwise. syntax:
int isalpha(char c);
iv. isdigit(): This function carries out a test “ Is the character a digit?” . It is used to check whether the
character is a digit or not. It returns a 1 if the character is a digit and 0 otherwise. syntax: int
isdigit(char c);
v. isalnum(): This function carries out a test “ Is the character an alphabet or a number?” . It is used to
check whether a character is alphanumeric or not. It returns a 1 if the character is alphanumeric and
0 otherwise. syntax: int isalnum(char c);
vi. toupper(): This function is used to convert a lower case character to an upper case.
Syntax: char toupper(char c);
vii. tolower(): This function is used to convert an upper case character to a lower case.
Syntax: char tolower(char c);
2. User defined functions:-
A. Function definition:-
The syntax of a function definition is given below:-
data_type function_name(argument_list)
{statements in the body;}

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 The data_type is any valid data type of C++. The function_name is a user defined word. The argument_list is
a list of parameters , i.e is a list of variables preceded by data types and separated by commas. The body
comprises of C++ statements required to perform the task assigned to the function.
B. Prototype of functions:-
A function prototype is the declaration of a function by which compiler is provided with the information about
the function such as the name of the function, its return type, the number and type of arguments, and its
accessibility. The following is the format:
data_type function_name(argument_list);
C. Arguments of functions:-
Arguments or parameters are the values from the calling function to the called function. The variables used in
the function definition as arguments are known as formal arguments. The constants, variables or expressions
used in the function call are known as actual(original ) arguments.
D. Methods of calling function:-
Based on the method of passing arguments, the function calling methods can be classified as Call by Value
method and Call by reference method.
a. Call by Value (Pass by Value ) method:-
In this method , the values of the actual parameters are copied into the formal parameters . So any
changes made inside the formal parameters are not reflected back to the actual parameters.
b. Call by Reference (Pass by Reference ) method:-
In this method , the values of the actual parameters are shared into the formal parameters . So any
changes made inside the formal parameters are reflected back to the actual parameters. Here a reference
variable is used as the formal argument. A reference variable is an alias name of another variable. An
ampersand(&) symbol is placed in between the data type and the variable in the function header.
E. Scope and life of variables and functions:-
The concept of availability or accessibility of variables and functions is termed as their scope and life
time.
1. Local variable:- A variable which is declared inside a function is known as a local variable.
2. Global variable:- A variable which is declared outside all other functions is known as a global variable.
3. Local function:- A function which is declared inside the function body of another function is known as a local
function.
4. Global function:- A function which is declared outside the function body of any another function is known as a
global function.
Chapter Four
Web Technology
Communication the Web
a. Client to Web Server Communication
b. Web Server to Web Server Communication
Web Server :-1. A server computer that hosts web sites. 2. A web server software that is installed in a server computer .
Web Server Packages
Apache Server, MicroSoft Internet Information Server (IIS), Google Web Server(GWS),nginx
Software Ports:-FTP(20 & 21),SSH(22),SMTP(25),DNS(53),HTTP(80),POP3(110),HTTPS(443)
NASA:-National Aeronautics and Space Administration
ICANN:-Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
SlNo Static Web Page Dynamic Web Page
1 The content and layout is fixed The content and layout may change during run time.
2 Never use databases Database is used
3 Directly run on the browser. Runs on the server side application programs
4 They are easy to develop. Development requires programming skills.
Scripts:-Scripts are program codes written inside html pages. A script is written inside the <SCRIPT> and </SCRIPT>
tags .

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SlNo Client Side Scripting Server Side Scripting
1 Script is copied to the client browser It remains in the Web Server
2 Executed in the client browser Executed in the Web Server
3 Mainly used for validation of data Used to connect to databases and return data from the
web server
4 Users can block client side scripting. Server scripting cannot be blocked by a user.
5 Features of the webserver affects the coding Features does not affects the coding.
Scripting Languages:
A . JavaScript: Developed by Brendan Eich. Ajax(Asynchronous JavaScript and Extensible Markup Language )
technology is used in JavaScript.
B. VBScript: Developed by Microsoft Corporation.
C. PHP:-Stands for “PHP-Hyper text Preprocessor”, developed by Rasmus Lerdorf.
D.ASP:-Stands for Active Server pages.
E. JSP:-Stands for Java Server Pages
F.CSS:-Stands for Cascading Style Sheets.
Basic Structure of an HTML Document
<html><head><title></title></head><body></body></html>
Container Tags:-requires pair tags – i.e opening tag and closing tag. Eg. <html></html>,<head></head>
Empty Tags:-Used opening tags only. Eg. <br>,<hr>,<img>
Attribute:-Parameters included within the opening tag. Eg <body bgcolor = ” red ”>
Important Tags and Attributes
1.<html> Tag:- a). dir-specifies the direction of the text to be displayed on the web page. Two values ltr(left to right)
and rtl(right to left).
b).lang:-specifies the language used within the document. Different lang values are en- english, fr- french,de-german,
it-italian,el-greek,es-spanish,ar-arabic,ja-japanese,hi-hindi and ru-russian.
2.<head>:-declares the head section.
3.<title>:-mentions the document title.
4.<body> Tag: specifies the document body section.
1. background:-sets a background image. The important attributes are
2. bgcolor:-specifies the background colour.
3.text:-specifies the foreground colour.
4. link:-colour of the hyperlink that are not visited by the viewer. Default colour is blue.
5.alink:-specifies the colour of the active hyperlink. Default colour is green.
6.vlink:-specifies the colour of the hyperlink which is already visited by the viewer. Default colour is purple.
7.leftmargin:-leftside margin.
8. topmargin:-topside margin.
5.Heading Tags:-<h1></h1>,<h2></h2>,<h3></h3>,<h4></h4>,<h5></h5>,<h6></h6>. Attribute align – values are -
left,right and center.
6. <P> Tag:-paragraph tag. Attribute align- values are – left,right,center or justify.
7.<br>:-inserting line breaks.
8. <hr>:-produces horizontal line. Attributes size,width,color,noshade
9.<center>:- brings the content to the center .
10.<b>:- making the text bold.
11. <i>:-Italicizing the text .
12. <u>:- Underlining the text.
13. <s> and <strike> :- Striking through the text.
14.<big>:- Making the text big sized.
15.<small>:-Making the text small sized.
16.<strong>:-Making the text bold text.
17.<em>:- Emphasizing the text
18.<sub>:-creating subscripts.
19. <sup>:-creating super scripts.
20.<q>:-used for short quotations
21. <blockquote>:-used for long quotations
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22. <pre>:- Displaying preformatted text.
23. <address>:- Displaying the address
24. <marquee>:-Displaying the text in a scrolling marquee.
Attributes of <marquee>:-
height,width,direction(up,down,left,right),behaviour(scroll,slide,alternate),scrolldelay,scrollamount,loop,bgcolor,
hspace(horizontal space),vspace(vertical space).
25.<div>:-defining a section. Attributes are align,id(identifier),style.
26.<font>:-specifying the font characteristics. Attributes are color,face(type of the font),size(values ranges from 1 to
7,default value is 3)
27. <img> Tag:- To insert images in HTML pages. Attributes are
src(source),width,height,vspace,hspace,align(bottom,middle,top),border(border line around the image)
HTML ENTITIES FOR RESERVED CHARACTERS:-1) &nbsp; -non breaking space,2) &quot; - Double quotation mark
3) &apos; - Single quotation mark 4) &amp; - Ampersand 5) &lt; - Less than 6) &gt; - Greater than 7) &copy; - Copy
right Symbol 8) &trade; – Trade mark symbol 9) &reg; – Registered Symbol
Comments in HTML:- HTML comments are placed within <!-- --> tag.
Chapter Five
Web Designing using HTML
Lists in HTML
1).Ordered list(<ol><li></li></ol>):- Attributes – start and type(Arabic Numerals,Upper Case Alphabets,Lower Case
Alphabets,Roman Numeral Upper,Roman Numeral Lower).
2).Unordered list(<ul><li></li></ul>):-Attributes - type(disc,circle,square)
3).Definition List(<dl><dt></dt><dd></dd></dl>)[dl-definition list,dt- definition term,dd- definition description]
Creating Links
1).Internal Linking:-Link within the same document.<A>(anchor tag) is used. Name attribute is used for the target
specification and href – (means hyper reference)(# symbol is essential) attribute is used for linking purpose.
2).External Linking:-Link from one web page to another web page. .<A>(anchor tag) and href attribute is used.
URL:-Uniform Resource Locator
1).Relative URL :- <a href=”http://www.scertkerala.gov.in”> - represents the complete path.
2).Absolute URL:- <a href=”image.html”> - represents the specified file name only.
Creating email linking:-We can create an email hyperlink to a web page using the hyper link protocol “mailto:” .
eg:-<a href=”mailto: [email protected]”>scert </a>
<embed> tag is used for Inserting Music and Video:-Attributes are src,height,width,align.
<bgsound> tag is used for inserting audio files only. Attributes are src,loop.
<table>tag and its attributes:-
border(thickness of the border line),bordercolor,align,bgcolor,background,cellspacing(amount of space between the
cells),cellpadding(amount of space between the cell border and content),width,height,frame(void-no border,above-
top border,below-bottom border,hsides-top and bottom borders,vsides-right and left borders,lhs-left side border,rhs-
right side border,box & border-border on all sides),rules(values - none,cols,rows,groups,all)
NOTE: When both bgcolor and background are specified , the background will override the bgcolor.
Attributes of <tr> Tags:-
align(values- left,right,center),valign-vertical alignment( values - top,middle,bottom,baseline(aligns the baseline of the
text across the cells in the row))
Attributes of <th> and <td> Tags:-align,valign,bgcolor,rowspan(number of rows to be spanned by the
cell),colspan(number of columns to be spanned by the cell)
<caption> Tag:-we can provide a heading to a table.
<frameset> Tag:- Used for dividing the browser window. Attributes are cols,rows,border,bordercolor
<frame> Tag:- Attributes are src,scrolling(displays whether a scrollbar or not-values are
yes,no,auto),noresize(prevents the resizing behaviour),marginwidth,marginheight,name(gives a name to a frame).
Forms in Web pages:-
<form> Tag:- Used for creating a form with various form controls. Attributes are action(specifies the URL),method(get
method and post method),target(specifies the target window).
Form Controls:-
1) <input> Tag. Attributes are a) type :- Values are text,password,checkbox,radio,reset,submit,button
b) name:- used to give a name to the control.
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c) value:-used to provide an initial value.
d) size:- sets the width of the input texts.
e) maxlength:-specifies the maximum size.
2) <textarea> Tag:- Used for creating a multiline entry text box. Attributes are name,rows,cols.
3) <select> Tag:- Used to create a drop down list box . Attributes are name,size,multiple.
4) <fieldset> Tag:- Used for grouping related data in a form.
Chapter Six
Client Side Scripting Using JavaScript
<script> Tag:- This tag is used to include scripting code in an HTML page.
<script Language=”JavaScript”>
</script>
Functions in JavaScript:-
function function_name()
{
body of the function;
}
Data types in JavaScript:-Number(All positive and negative numbers),String(Characters enclosed within double
quotes),Boolean(true and false values)
variables:-In JavaScript , variables can be declared by using the keyword var.
var x,y;
x=25;
y=”Kerala”;
Operators in JavaScript:-
1) Arithmetic Operators(+,-,*,/,%,++,--)
2) Assignment Operators(= ,+ =,- =,*=,/=,%=)
3) Relational Operators(<,<=,>,>=,==,!=)
4) Logical Operators(&&(AND),|| (OR),NOT(!))
5) String Addition Operator(+)
Control Structures in JavaScript:-
6) if(test_expression)
{statements;
}
7) if(test_expression)
statement1;

else {statement2;
}
8) switch(expression)
{case value 1:statement1;
break;
case value2:statement2;
break;
default: statement3;
}
9) for(initialization;test_expression;updation)
{statements;
}
10) while(test_expression)
{statements;
}
Built in Functions :-

1) alert():-Used to display a message on the screen.

2) isNaN():- Used to check whether a value is number or not.
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 3) toUpperCase():-Converts a lowercase character to an upper case.
4) toLowerCase():-Converts an uppercase character to a lower case.
5) charAt():- returns the character at a particular position. The counting starts at zero.
6) length property:-This property returns the length of the string.
For accessing values in a Textbox, JavaScript uses the following format:-
document.form_name.textbox_name.value
The various JavaScript Events are:
1) onClick:- It occurs when the user clicks over an object.
2) onMouseEnter:-It occurs when the mouse pointer is moved onto an object.
3) onMouseLeave:-It occurs when the mouse pointer is moved out of an object.
4) onKeyDown:-It occurs when the user is pressing a key on the keyboard.
5) onKeyUp:-It occurs when the user releases a pressed key.
External JavaScript file:- We can place the scripts into an external file and then link to that file from within the HTML
document. This file is saved with the extension ‘.js’ . The file can be linked to HTML file using the<script> tag. The type
attribute specifies that the linked file is a JavaScript file and the src attribute specifies the location and file name of
external JavaScript file.
Chapter Seven
Web Hosting
Web Hosting:- The service of providing storage space in a web server.
1)Shared Hosting:-Multiple websites are shared on a single web server. Cheaper and easy to use. But heavy traffic
slows the webserver.
2)Dedicated Hosting:-Uses a single , powerful web server for hosting. Advantage are very speed and performance is
stable. But it is highly expensive.
If the client is allowed to place their own purchased web server in the service providers facility, then it is called co-
location .
3) Virtual Private Server:-It is a physical server that is virtually partitioned into several servers using the virtualization
technology. Some popular server virtualization software’s are VMware,Virtualbox,FreeVPS,User mode Linux,
Microsoft Hyper-V.
FTP Client Software’s :-It transfers files from one computer to another on the internet. The popular FTP Client
Software’s are FileZilla,CuteFTP,SmartFTP.
Free Hosting:-provides web hosting services free of charge.
Content Management System:- Refers to a web based software system which is capable of creating, administering and
publishing web sites.
Responsive Web design:-It is the custom of building a website suitable to work on every devise and every screen size.
The term Responsive Web design was coined by Ethan Marcotte.
ICANN:-Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
WHOIS:- It is a domain name availability checker platform.
Chapter Eight
Database Management System(DBMS)
Database: An organized collection of inter related data items stored together with minimum redundancy.
DBMS(Database Management System):-A system which has some set of rules and relationships which allows for the
definition, creation, retrieval, updation, maintenance and protection of the databases.
Advantages:-
1) Database reduces data redundancy.
2) Database can control data inconsistency.
3) Efficient data access.
4) Data integrity can be maintained.
5) Data security can be ensured.
6) Database facilitates the sharing of data.
7) Enforces the necessary standards.
8) Offers a facility to do the backup and recovery.
Components of DBMS environment:-
1) Hardware:- The actual computer system used for the storage and retrieval of the database.
2) Software:- consists of the actual DBMS, Application Programs and Utilities.
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 3) Data:-The operational data and the meta- data(data about data).
a) Fields:- The smallest unit of stored data.
b) Record:-A collection of related fields.
c) File:-A collection of all occurrences of the same type of data.
4) Users:-
a) Database Administrator(DBA):-Person who is responsible for the control of the centralized and shared
database.
b) Application Programmer:-Computer professionals who interact with the DBMS through application
programs.
c) Sophisticated users:- person who interact with the DBMS through their own queries.
d) Naive Users:-who interact with the DBMS through application programs that were written previously.
5) Procedures:-refers to the instructions and rules that govern the design and use of the database.
Data Abstraction:- The developers hide the complexity of the database from users through several levels of
abstraction. They are
1) Physical Level:- The lowest level of database abstraction. This level describes that how the data are actually
stored on the storage devices.
2) Logical Level:-The next higher level of database abstraction. This level describes that what data are actually
stored in the database.
3) View Level:-The highest level of database abstraction. This level is concerned with the way in which data are
viewed by individual users.
Schema: Overall design of the database.
Instances:-Collection of information stored in the database at a particular moment.
Data Independence:- The ability to modify the schema followed at one level without affecting the schema followed at
the next higher level.
a) Physical Data Independence:- The ability to modify the schema followed at physical level without affecting the
schema followed logical level.
b) Logical Data Independence:- The ability to modify the schema followed at logical level without affecting the
schema followed view level.
RDBMS:-Relational Database Management System.- invented by Edgar Frank Codd.
Terminologies in RDBMS:-
a) Entity:-a person or a thing in the real world that is distinguishable from others.
b) Relation(Table):- collection of data elements organized in terms of rows and columns.
c) Tuple:- The row(records) of a relation.
d) Attribute:-The columns of a relation.
e) Degree:- The number of attributes in a relation.
f) Cardinality:- The number of rows or tuples in a relation.
g) Domain:- a pool of values from which actual values appearing in a given column are drawn.
h) Keys:-An attribute or a collection of attributes in a relation that uniquely distinguishes each tuple from other
tuples in a given relation.
1) Candidate key:- The minimal set of attributes that uniquely identifies a row in a relation.
2) Primary key:- one of the candidate keys chosen to be the unique identifier for a table by the database
designer.
3) Alternate keys:- A candidate key that is not the primary key .
4) Foreign keys:- A candidate key which is the primary key of another table.
Relational Algebra:-
1) SELECT(σ) Operation: Unary operator . Selects rows from a relation that satisfies a given predicate(condition).
2) PROJECT(π):- Unary operator. Selects certain attributes from the table and forms a new relation.
3) UNION(U):- Binary operator. Combines two relations.
4) INTERSECTION(∩) : Binary operator. It returns the common elements only.
5) SET DIFFERENCE(-):- Binary operator. It returns a relation containing the tuples appearing in the first relation
but not in the second.
6) CARTESIAN PRODUCT(×):- returns a relation consisting of all possible combinations of tuples from two
relations.

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 Chapter Nine
Structured Query Language(SQL)
The original version of SQL was developed in the 1970’s by Donald D Chamberlin and Raymond F Boyce at IBM’s
San Jose Research Laboratory(now Almanden Research Centre). It was originally called Sequel(Structured English
Query Language) and later its name was changed to SQL.
Components of SQL:-
a) Data Definition Language(DDL):-CREATE TABLE,ALTER TABLE,DROP TABLE.
b) Data Manipulation Language(DML):-SELECT,INSERT INTO,UPDATE,DELETE FROM.
c) Data Control Language(DCL):-GRANT,REVOKE.
Creating database:- CREATE DATABASE <database_name>;
Opening database:-USE <database_name>;
DATA TYPES IN SQL:-
1) TINY INT ,SMALL INT,MEDIUM INT,INT,BIG INT
2) FLOAT(M,D),DOUBLE(M,D),DECIMAL(M,D)
[M means maximum size and D means the number of digits to the right of the decimal point]
3) CHAR(SIZE),VARCHAR(SIZE):- includes letters, digits and special symbols. CHAR is a fixed length character data
type. It consumes the declared size. VARCHAR represents variable length strings. It consumes only the actual
size of the string, not the declared size.
4) DATE:-Used to store dates. The YYYY-MM-DD is the standard format. eg: 2024-12-31.
5) TIME:-displays the current time in the format HH:MM:SS.
SQL COMMANDS

a. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE (DDL COMMANDS)

1. CREATE TABLE COMMAND:-
CREATE TABLE <table_name>(<column1> < data_type1> (size)*<constraint>+,……….);
Constraints:- rules enforced on data that are entered into the column of a table.
a) Column constraints:-are applied only to individual columns.
1) NOT NULL:- Specifies that a column can never have null values.
2) AUTO_INCREMENT:-Performs an automatic increment feature.
3) UNIQUE:-It ensures that no two rows have the same value .
4) PRIMARY KEY:-This constraint declares a column as the primary key of the table.
5) DEFAULT:-a default value can be set for a column.
b) Table Constraints:-It can be used not only on individual columns, but also on a group of columns. Eg:UNIQUE.
2. ALTER TABLE ADD COMMAND:-
ALTER TABLE <table_name> ADD <column_name> <data_type>[<size>] [<constraint>] [FIRST] / AFTER
<column_name>];
3. ALTER TABLE MODIFY COMMAND:-
ALTER TABLE <table_name> MODIFY <column_name> <data_type> [<size]> [<constraint>];
4. ALTER TABLE DROP COMMAND:-
ALTER TABLE <table_name> DROP <column_name>;
5. ALTER TABLE RENAME COMMAND:-
ALTER TABLE <table_name> RENAME TO <new_table_name>;
6. DROP TABLE COMMAND
DROP TABLE <table_name>;
b. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE COMMANDS(DML):-
1. INSERT INTO COMMAND:-
INSERT INTO <table_name> (<column1>,<column2>,….) VALUES(<value1><value2>,….);
2. SELECT FROM COMMAND:-
SELECT <column1>,<column2>,…. FROM <table_name> WHERE <condition>;
The DISTINCT keyword is used for avoiding the duplicate values.

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 MySQL provides a variety of operators or clauses attached with SELECT command.
SLNO OPERATOR MEANING/RESULT
1 = Equal to relational operator
2 < > or != Not Equal to relational operator
3 < Less than relational operator
4 <= Less than or equal to relational operator
5 > Greater than relational operator
6 >= Greater than or equal to relational operator
7 NOT True when condition is False
8 AND True if both the conditions are True
9 OR True if either of the condition is True
10 BETWEEN…AND Used to specify a range including lower and upper values
11 IN It provides a list of values
12 IS retrieves NULL values with this operator
13 LIKE It is a pattern matching operator. % (percentage )and _(under
score ) are used with this keyword
14 ORDER BY It is used for sorting ascending (ASC) or descending(DESC) order
15 GROUP BY used to form groups
16 HAVING specifies conditions and it is used along with GROUP BY clause
Aggregate Functions:-
1) SUM():-Calculates the sum of a specified column.
2) AVG():-Calculates the average value in a specified column.
3) MAX():-Calculates the maximum value.
4) MIN():-Finds the minimum value.
5) COUNT():-Counts the number of non null values.
3. UPDATE COMMAND
UPDATE <table_name> SET <column_name>=<value> WHERE <condition>;
4. DELETE FROM COMMAND
DELETE FROM <table_name> WHERE <condition>;
Nested Query:- One query contains another query is called nested query. Then the inner most query is called sub query
and the outer most query is called outer query.
VIEWS:- A view is a virtual table that does not really exist in the database, but is derived from one or more tables.
CREATE VIEW <viewname> AS SELECT <column1>,<column2>,… FROM <table_name> WHERE <condition>;
A view can be removed by
DROP VIEW <viewname>;
Chapter Ten
Enterprise Resource Planning(ERP)
ERP combines all the business requirements of an enterprise or company together into a single ,
integrated software that runs off a single database so that the various departments of an enterprise can share
information and communicate each other more easily.
Functional units of ERP:-
A. Financial Module:- It can collect financial data from various functional departments and generate valuable
financial reports.
B. Manufacturing module:- It contains necessary business rules to manage the entire production process.
C. Production Planning module :- It is used for optimizing the utilization of available resources and helps the
organization to plan their production.
D. HR Module:- Human Resource module of ERP focuses on the management of human resources and human
capital.
E. Inventory Control Module:- This module covers processes of maintaining the appropriate level of stock in
the ware house.
F. Purchasing Module:- It is used for making the required raw materials available in the right time and at the
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 G. Marketing Module:- It is used for monitoring and tracking customer orders, increasing customer
satisfaction, and for eliminating credit risks.
H. Sales and distribution module:- It includes inquiries , order placement, order scheduling , dispatching and
invoicing.
I. Quality Management Module:-This module is used for managing the quality of the product.
Business Process Re- engineering(BPR):- It is the analysis and redesign of work flow within an enterprise. A business
process consists of three elements.
 Inputs
 Processing
 Outputs
Implementation of ERP:-
1. Pre Evaluation screening:- This step limits the number of packages to be evaluated.
2. Package Selection:- selects an appropriate package.
3. Project Planning: - This phase decides when to begin the project, how to do it and when to complete it.
4. Gap Analysis:-Gap analysis means the steps to find the remaining needs of the enterprise.
5. Business Process Re- engineering:- rethinking and redesign of the business process to achieve
improvements in process..
6. Installation and Configuration:-installs a new ERP package.
7. Implementation team training:- The company trains their employers to implement and run the new ERP
package.
8. Testing:- The software is tested to ensure that it performs properly.
9. Going live:- in this step, the system becomes live to perform the enterprise operations.
10. End user training:-this step provides the training for end users.
11. Post implementation:-In this phase, errors may be corrected and necessary steps may be taken to improve
the processing efficiency.
ERP Solution Providers/Packages:-
 Oracle
 SAP(Systems Applications and Products)
 Odoo
 Microsoft Dynamics
 Tally ERP
Benefits and risks of ERP:-
Benefits:-
1. Improved resource utilization
2. Better Customer Satisfaction
3. Provides accurate information
4. Decision making capability
5. Increased flexibility
6. Information Integrity
Risks of ERP implementation:-
1. High cost
2. Time consuming
3. Requirement of additional trained staff
4. Operational and maintenance issues
ERP and Related Technologies:-
 Product Life Cycle Management(PLM):- It is the process of managing the entire life cycle of a product.
 Customer Relationship Management(CRM):-It is a comprehensive approach for creating, maintaining and
expanding customer relationships.
 Management Information Systems(MIS):- It is an integrated system of man and machine for providing the
information to support the operations, the management and the decision making function in an organization.
 Supply Chain Management(SCM):-It consists of all the activities associated with moving goods from the
supplier to the customer.

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  Decision Support System(DCS):- Decision Support Systems are interactive, computer based systems that aid
users in judgment and choice activities.
Chapter Eleven
Trends and Issues in ICT
ICT means Information and Communication Technology.
Mobile Computing:-
Generations in Mobile Communication:-
1. First Generation networks(1G):- developed around 1980. 1G mobile phones were based on the analog system
and provided basic voice facility only.
2. Second Generation networks(2G):- It follows digital system for communication. The popular standards
introduced by 2G systems are Global System for Mobiles(GSM) ,Code Division Multiple
Access(CDMA),General Packet Radio Services(GPRS) and Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution(EDGE).
3. Third Generation networks(3G): It is also referred to as wireless broadband and it uses the WCDMA(Wideband
Code Division Multiple Access) technology.
4. Fourth Generation networks(4G):- It is also called LTE(Long Term Evolution) and it uses the Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiple Access(OFDMA) technology.
5. Fifth Generation networks(5G):- It will be the future generation of mobile networks.
Mobile Communication Services:-
a. Short Message Services(SMS):- SMS messages are exchanged using the protocol called Signaling System No.
7(SS7).
b. Multimedia Message Services(MMS):-MMS supports contents such as text, graphics, music, video clips and
more.
c. Global Positioning System(GSM):- It is a satellite based navigation system that is used to locate a geographical
position anywhere on earth , using its longitude and latitude.
d. Smart cards:-It is a plastic card embedded a computer chip that stores and transacts data.
Android Operating Systems:- Android operating systems was developed by Andy Rubin in 2003.The various versions
are Cupcake(1.5), Donut(1.6), Éclair(2.0), Froyo(2.2), Gingerbread(2.3), Honeycomb(3.0), Ice cream Sandwich(4.0),
Jelly Bean(4.1 to 4.3.1), KitKat(4.4 to 4.4.4), Lollipop(5.0 to 5.1.1) ,Marshmallow(6.0 to 6.0.1), Nougat(7.0 to 7.1),
Oreo(8.0 to 8.1) and Pie(9.0).
ICT in Business:-
1. Social networks and Big data analytics:-Big data analytics is the process of examining large data sets
containing a variety of data types to uncover hidden patterns, market trends , customer preferences and other
useful business information.
2. Business Logistics:-It is the management of flow of goods/resources in a business between the point of origin
and the point of consumption in order to meet the requirements of customers or corporations. Radio
Frequency Identification(RFID) technology is used for business logistics.
Information Security:-
1. Intellectual Property Right(IPR)
a) Patent:- exclusive right granted for an invention.
b) Trade Mark:- distinctive sign that identifies certain goods or services produced or provided by an individual
or a company.
c) Industrial Designs:-refers to the ornamental or aesthetic aspects of an article.
d) CopyRight:-legal right given to the creators for an original work, for a limited period of time.
Infringement:- Unauthorized use of intellectual property rights such as patents, copyrights, and trademarks .
Cyber space:- a virtual environment created by computer systems connected to the internet.
Cyber Crimes:- It is a criminal activity in which computers or computer networks are used as a tool, target or a place of
criminal activity.
A. Cyber crimes against individual:-
1. Identity Theft
2. Harassment
3. Impersonation and Cheating
4. Violation of Privacy
5. Dissemination of obscene material

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 B. Cyber Crime against Property
1. credit card fraud
2. intellectual property theft
3. internet time theft
C. Cyber Crime against Government
1. Cyber Terrorism
2. Website Defacement
3. Attack against e-governance websites
Cyber Laws:- refers to the legal regulatory aspects of the internet.
Information Technology Act 2000(Amended in 2008):- In May 2000, the Indian Parliament passed Information Technology
Bill and it is known IT Act 2000.
Cyber Forensics:- It is the process of using scientific knowledge for identifying, collecting, preserving, analyzing and
presenting evidence to the courts .
Infomania:- It is the state of getting exhausted with excess information.

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