Fluid Mechanics Section 01

SETK2233
The course will introduce the fundamental
principles underlying fluid behaviour,
hydraulics, hydrodynamics, internal and
external flows and its analysis of engineering
applications for the design of simple
hydraulic components especially pump. The
course covers the physics of fluid,
classification of flow, fluid statics, fluid
dynamics, the application of Bernoulli’s,
continuity, and momentum equations, friction
flow in pipes includes the use of Moody
Dr. Samsudin, S. A.
chart, flow metering, pump, dimensional School of Chemical & Energy Engineering
analysis and similarity. Faculty of Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Johor Bahru, Johor
 Who am I?
Dr. Sani Amril Samsudin

•Visiting Researcher, University of Birmingham (2015-2017)

•PhD Metallurgy & Materials, University of Birmingham (2010)
•M.Eng Polymer , UTM (2002)
•B.Eng (Chemical-Polymer), UTM (2000)
•AMICheme, AMPRIM

Expertise: Polymer characterization, Blends,

Thermal analysis, Crystallization kinetics,
Cyclic polymers, Thermoplastic elastomers etc..

Department: Chemical Engineering, SCEE, UTM.

Office: N 01, Room 254
Contact #: 07-5535481, 013-7878600
Email: [email protected]

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 CHAPTER 1

Basic Properties of Fluids

Chapter overview
This chapter present the basic concepts commonly used in the analysis of fluid flow. This
chapter is started with a discussion of the phases of matter, then some of important
terminologies in fluid mechanics are defined. In the end of this chapter, numerous ways of
classification of fluid flow are discussed.

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 What is Fluids?
• A fluid is a substance in the gaseous or liquid form
• Distinction between solid and fluid?
– Solid: can resist an applied shear by deforming. Stress is proportional to strain
– Fluid: deforms continuously under applied shear. Stress is proportional to strain rate

Fluid mechanics: The science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest (fluid statics)
or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with solids or other fluids at
the boundaries.

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• Stress is defined as the force per unit
area. ( )
• Strain is deformation due to stress.
Strain is measured by the angle .
• Normal component: normal stress
– In a fluid at rest (static), the normal
stress is called pressure, P.
• Tangential component:
shear stress

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 B B' C C' F

q
F
A D
Application and effect of shear force
on a book.
Force F
Shear Stress   
Area A
1
tan BB '
Shear Strain  
AB


Bulk Modulus G 


Also called shear modulus for solid substance

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 Molecular structure

Solid Liquid Gas

Molecules are at relatively Groups of molecules move Individual molecules move
fixed position about each other about at random
Large intermolecular Intermolecular forces are Negligible cohesive
cohesive force to maintain smaller than for solids to intermolecular forces.
its shape. have more freedom of At normal temperature and
movement. pressure, the spacing is on
At normal temperature and the order of 10-7mm. The
pressure, the spacing is on number of molecules per
the order of 10-6mm. The cubic millimeter is on the
number of molecules per order of 1018
cubic millimeter is on the
7
order of 1021 .
 Fluid? Solid ?

Some materials, such as slurries, tar, putty, toothpaste, and so

on, are not easily classified since they will behave as solid if the
applied shearing stress is small, but if the stress exceeds some
critical value, the substance will flow. The study of such materials
is called rheology.

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• A liquid takes the shape of the
container it is in and forms a
‘free surface’ in the presence
of gravity.
• A gas expands until it
encounters the walls of the
container and fills the entire
available space. Gases cannot
form a free surface.

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 Gas vs. Vapour
Gas and vapor are often used On a microscopic scale, pressure
is determined by the interaction
as synonymous words. of individual gas molecules.
However, we can measure the
Gas: The vapor phase of a pressure on a macroscopic scale
with a pressure gauge.
substance is customarily called
a gas when it is above the
critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the
current phase is not far from a
state of condensation.

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General flow classifications
Fluid

Liquid Gas
(Incompressible) (Compressible)
Water, oil Air

Hydromechanics Aeromechanics

Hydrostatics Aerostatics

Aeromechanics
Hydrodynamics
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Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid dynamics is used extensively

in the design of artificial hearts.
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Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

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 Systems of Units
It is generally necessary to have a quantitative
measure of any given quantity.

E.g., if we measure the width of this room and say

that it is 10 units wide, the statement has no
meaning until the unit of length is defined.

If we indicate that the units of length is a meter,

and define the meter as some standard length, a
unit system for length has been established.

A unit must be established for each of the

remaining quantities.
 Importance of Dimensions and Units

• Any physical quantity can be characterized by

dimensions.

• The magnitudes assigned to dimensions are called units.

• Primary dimensions include: mass m, length L, time

T, and temperature .

• Secondary dimensions (derived) can be expressed in

terms of primary dimensions and include: velocity, v,
energy E, and volume V. • Unity conversion ratios are
helpful in converting units.
• Dimensional homogeneity is a valuable tool in checking
for errors. Make sure every term in an equation has the
same units.

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 Systems of Units
There are three basic systems of units Primary SI BG EE CG

1. International System (SI system) dimension S

2. British Gravitational System (BG Mass kg - lbm g

system) Force - lbf lbf -

Length m ft ft cm
3. English Engineering (EE system)
Time s s s s
• A fourth system of centimeter-gram-
second (CGS) may also used. Temperature K R R C
Magnitude of gc 1 1 32.174 1

* gc = the constant of proportionality

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Some SI and English Units

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

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 British Gravitational (BG) System
 Length: ft

 Time: second (s)

 Force: lb

 Temperature: oF or oR : oR =
oF+459.67

 Mass: slug : 1 lb ＝ 1 slug × 1 ft/s2

 Gravity: g ＝ 32.174 ft/s2

 Weight: W (lb)= m (slug)× g (ft/s2)

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 International System (SI)
 Length: m

 Time: second (s)

 Mass: kg

 Temperature : K  K＝oC+273.15

 Force: Newton: 1 N＝1 kgm/s2

 Work: Joule ( J ) ; J ＝1 Nm

 Power: Watt (W) ;W＝J/s = Nm/s

 Gravity: g = 9.807 m/s2

 Weight: W (N) = m (kg) × g (m/s2)

1 kg-mass weights 9.81N
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English Engineering (EE) System

Mass: lbm
Force: lbf
Length: ft
Time: second (s)
Temperature: oR (absolute temperature)

F ＝ ma/gc ； gc : the constant of proportionality

1 lbf ＝(lbm × 32.174 ft/s2 )/gc

gc ＝(lbm × 32.174 ft /s2 )/lbf

In E.E., the relationship between weight and mass :

W＝mg/gc Therefore, 1 slug＝32.174 lbm (when g=gc)

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 Properties of Fluids
• Any characteristic of a system is called a property.
– Familiar: pressure (P), temperature (T), volume (V), and mass (m).
– Less familiar: viscosity (v), thermal conductivity (κ), modulus of elasticity (E),
thermal expansion coefficient (α), vapor pressure (Pv), surface tension (σ).

• Intensive properties are independent of the mass of the system. Examples: T, P, and
ρ.

• Extensive properties are those whose value depends on the size of the system.
Examples: Total mass, total volume, and total momentum.

• Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Examples include
specific volume, v = V/m and specific total energy, e=E/m.

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 Pressure Density, 
• Pressure (P) is the force (F) exerted
on or by the fluid on a unit of surface
area (A).

F N 
P or Pascal
A  m 2 

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 Specific volume, ν Specific Weight, γ
 volume per unit mass :-
 The specific weight of a fluid, designated by
the Greek symbol  (gamma), is defined as
Volume, V 1  m 3 
    its weight per unit volume.
Mass, M   kg 

 Under conditions of standard gravity (g=

9.807m/ s2 = 32.174 ft / s2), water at 60ºF
has a specific weight of 62.4 lb/ft3 and 9.80
kN/m3. The density of water is 1.94slug/ft3
or 1000kg/m3.

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 Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of a fluid, designated as (SG), is

defined as the ratio of the density of the fluid to the
density of water at some specified temperature.

f
SG 
 H O @ 4 C
2

 H2O , 4oC＝ 1.94slug/ft3 or 1000kg/m3.

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 Ideal Gas Law
Gases are highly compressible in comparison to liquids, with changes
in gas density directly related to changes in pressure and temperature
through the equation , Pv = nRT or P = ρRT.
*R = 8.314 m2kgs-2K-1mol-1

The ideal gas equation of state P = ρRT is a model that relates density
to pressure and temperature for many gases under normal conditions.

The pressure in the ideal gas law must be expressed as an absolute

pressure which is measured relative to absolute zero pressure.

The standard sea-level atmospheric pressure is 14.6996 psi (abs) or

101.33kPa (abs).
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 Viscosity
• Viscosity is a • The properties of density and specific
property that weight are measures of the “heaviness” of
represents the a fluid.
internal resistance
of a fluid to • It is clear, however, that these properties
motion. are not sufficient to uniquely characterize
how fluids behave since two fluids can
• The force a have approximately the same value of
flowing fluid density but behave quite differently
exerts on a body in when flowing.
the flow direction
is called the drag • There is apparently some additional
force, and the property that is needed to describe the
magnitude of this “FLUIDITY” of the fluid.
force depends, in
part, on viscosity.

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 Fluidity of Fluid
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluid

• Fluids for which the shearing stress (τ) is linearly related to the rate of
shearing strain (ϕ) are designated as Newtonian fluids after I. Newton
(1642-1727).

• Most common fluids such as water, air, and gasoline are Newtonian fluid
under normal conditions.

• Fluids for which the shearing stress is not linearly related to the rate of
shearing strain are designated as non-Newtonian fluids.

Remember;
Force F
Shear Stress   
Area A
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   rate of shear strain
v
  Constant x Newtonian fluid
y

v/y is a velocity change respected to y and can be express in term of differential

form dv/dy (due to not linear relationship) between v and y.

Constant in the equation is called dynamic viscosity , m of fluid. So that,

dv

dy

The above equation called Newton Law of Viscosity and m is also called as an
absolute viscosity.
Unit m : kg/ms or M/LT
More popular is poise (10 poise = 1 kg/ms)
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 Group of Non-Newtonian Fluid
i) Plastic ii) Pseudo-Plastic
Apparent viscosity (The slope of the
Required certain minimum value of
shear force before any motion or flow shearing stress versus rate of shearing
take place. So, shear stress increase strain graph) decreases with increasing
when increase in rate of shear strain by rate of shear such as latex paint
n
 dv  iii) Dilatant
  A  B  
 dy  Apparent viscosity increases with
where A, B and n is constant. When n increasing rate of shear such as water-
= 1, substance is called Bingham corn starch mixture and water-sand
Plastic such as toothpaste and mixture (quicksand).
mayonnaise.

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30
 Viscosity vs. Temperature

• For liquids, the viscosity decreases

with an increase in temperature.

• For gases, an increase in

temperature causes an increase in
viscosity.

 WHY?

“Molecular structure”

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 Viscosity vs. Temperature

• In liquid, molecules are closely spaced with strong cohesive

forces between molecules, and the resistance to relative
motion between adjacent layers is related to these
intermolecular force.

• As the temperature increases, these cohesive force are

reduced with a corresponding reduction in resistance to
motion. Since viscosity is an index of this resistance, it follows
that viscosity is reduced by an increase in temperature.

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 Viscosity vs. Temperature

In gases, the molecules are widely spaced and intermolecular

force negligible.

The resistance to relative motion mainly arises due to the

exchange of momentum of gas molecules between adjacent
layers.

As the temperature increases, the random molecular

activity increases with a corresponding increase in
viscosity.

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 Kinematic Viscosity
Defining kinematic viscosity, ν = μ/
Absolute viscosity

The dimensions of kinematic viscosity are L2/T.

The units of kinematic viscosity in BG system are ft2/s and SI

system are m2/s.

In the CGS (centimeter-gram-second) system, the kinematic

viscosity has the units of cm2 /s, is called a stoke, abbreviated
St.
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 Vapor Pressure and Boiling

• If liquids are simply placed in a container open

to the atmosphere, some liquid molecules will
overcome the intermolecular cohesive forces
and escape into the atmosphere.

• If the container is closed with small air space

left above the surface, and this space evacuated
to form a vacuum, a pressure will develop in the
space as a result of the vapor that is formed by
the escaping molecules.

• When an equilibrium condition is reached, the

vapor is said to be saturated (Psat) and the
pressure that the vapor exerts on the liquid
surface is termed the VAPOR PRESSURE, Pv. 35
 Vapor Pressure and Boiling

Vapor pressure, Pv is closely associated with molecular activity, the

value of vapor pressure for a particular liquid depends on
temperature, T.

Boiling, which is the formation of vapor bubbles within a fluid mass,

is initiated when the absolute pressure in the fluid reaches the
vapor pressure.

The formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles in a flowing

fluid, called cavitation is an important fluid flow phenomenon.

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Example of cavitation phenomenon in piston pump.

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Cavitation Phenomena

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 Surface Tension ()

• At the interface between a liquid and a gas, or

between two immiscible liquids, forces develop in
the liquid surface which cause the surface to behave
as if it were a “skin” or “membrane” stretched over
the fluid mass.

• Although such a skin is not actually present, this

conceptual analogy allows us to explain several
commonly observed phenomena.

• Coefficient of surface tension : The magnitude of this

force per unit length (F/L)

• expressed in the unit N/m

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Liquid droplets behave like small spherical
balloons filled with liquid, and the surface of the
liquid acts like a stretched elastic membrane
under tension.

The pulling force that causes this is due to the

attractive forces between molecules called
surface tension σs.

Attractive force on surface molecule is not

symmetric (asymmetric).

Repulsive forces from interior molecules causes

the liquid to minimize its surface area and attain a
spherical shape.

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 Capillary Effect

• Capillary effect is the rise or fall of a liquid in a

small-diameter tube.

• The curved free surface in the tube is call the

meniscus.

• Water meniscus curves up because water is a

wetting fluid.

• Mercury meniscus curves down because

mercury is a non-wetting fluid.

• Force balance can describe magnitude of a) Wetting fluid (b) non-wetting fluid
capillary rise.

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 Capillary Effect

If adhesion of molecules to the solid surface is weak

compared to the cohesion between molecules, the
liquid is not wet the surface and the level of in the tube will
be depressed. The strength of the capillary
effect is quantified by the
The rise of fall of h value is subjected to the contact (or wetting) angle.
following;
- Surface tension value s o Balance of equilibrium

- Capillary radius R R 2 h  2R cos q

- Specific weight of liquid g (kgm-2s-2)
2 cos q
- Angle of contact q between the fluid h
and tube R
where;

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q of water and mercury with clean glass is 0 and 130o respectively.

Example 1 Example 2
Determine a rise of water in glass tube What is a clean glass tube diameter required to
of 1.6 mm diameter above basin (20oC). rise water level at 20oC less than 1.0 mm due to
capillary effect.
2  Kos q 2 kos q
h q 0 h , than
R R
2 2 x 0.073 N / m 2 kos q
h  R
 R 9790 N / m x 0.8 x 10  2 m h
 18.6 mm
Water at 20oC,  = 0.073 N/m,  = 9.789 kN/m3. Since q
= 0o then; when h = 1.0 mm
2 (0.073 N / m) (1)
R  0.0149 m
(9.789 x 10 ) (1.0 x 10 )
3 3

Therefore; D = 2R = 2(0.0149) = 0.0298 m = 29.8 mm

 FLUID FLOWS
Internal versus External Flow

External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid

over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the
fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces.

• Water flow in a pipe is internal flow, and airflow

over a ball is external flow.
• The flow of liquids in a duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct is only partially filled
with the liquid and there is a free surface. External flow over a tennis ball, and the turbulent wake
region behind.

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Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth layers of fluid. The flow of high-
viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities is typically
laminar.

Turbulent flow: The highly disordered fluid motion that

typically occurs at high velocities and is characterized by
velocity fluctuations. The flow of low-viscosity fluids such
as air at high velocities is typically turbulent.

Transitional flow: A flow that alternates between being

laminar and turbulent.

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Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

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 Compressibility of Fluids

Liquids are usually considered to be

incompressible, whereas gases are generally
considered compressible.

Compressible of the fluid?

A property, bulk modulus Ev, is used to
characterize compressibility of fluid.
dp dp
Ev   
dV / V d / 
The bulk modulus has dimensions of pressure FL-2.

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When gases are compressed or expanded, the relationship
between pressure and density depends on the nature of the
process.

p
For isothermal process  cons tan t

>> Ev=p Isothermal = no change in temperature.
Isentropic = no change in entrophy.

For isentropic process pk  cons tan t


>> Ev=kp

Where k is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure, cp, to the specific
heat at constant volume, cv.
cp – cv = R = gas constant

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• Another important consequence of the compressibility of fluids is that disturbances
introduced at some point in the fluid propagate at a finite velocity.

• The velocity at which small disturbances propagate in a fluid is called the speed of sound
(c).

• The speed of sound is related to change in pressure and density of the fluid medium
through

dp Ev
For isentropic process c  d



For ideal gas kP

c


where;
c  kRT

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 Compressible versus Incompressible Flow

Incompressible flow: If the density of flowing fluid

remains nearly constant throughout (e.g., liquid
flow).

Compressible flow: If the density of fluid changes

during flow (e.g., high-speed gas flow)

When analyzing rockets, spacecraft, and other

systems that involve high-speed gas flows, the
flow speed is often expressed by Mach number.
Ma < 0.3 : Incompressible
Ma < 1 : Subsonic
Ma = 1 : Sonic
Ma > 1 : Supersonic
Ma >> 1 : Hypersonic

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Example

A jet aircraft flies at a speed of 550 mph at an altitude of 35,000 ft, where
temperature is -66oF. Determine the ratio of the speed of aircraft, V, to that of
the speed of sound, c, at the specified altitude. Assume K = 1.40

C K RT
 (1.40)1716(66  460)
 973 ft / s

(550 mile / hr ) (5280 ft / min)

V 
3600 s / hr
 807 ft / s

V 807
Ma   0.829
c 973

The ratio is called the Mach Number; Ma.

The result shows that aircraft flies at transonic
speed.

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