What is an Active Component?

An electric circuit element which can supply electric power to the circuit or power gain in the circuit, is known as an
active element or active component.Some common examples of active circuit elements are energy sources (voltage
sources or current sources), generators or alternators, semiconductor devices such as transistors, photodiodes,
etc.The active elements are the circuit component which are entirely responsible for the flow of electric current in
the circuit.

What is a Passive Component?

The circuit element which can only absorb electrical energy and dissipates it in the form of heat or stores in either
magnetic field or electric field is known as passive circuit component or simply passive component.Therefore, a
passive component cannot provide electric power or power amplification in an electric circuit. Some common
examples of passive circuit components are resistor, inductor, capacitor and transformer, etc.

Difference between Active and Passive Components

Types of resistors and color coding ?

The main purpose of resistor is to reduce the current flow and to lower the voltage in any particular portion of the
circuit. It is made of copper wires which are coiled around a ceramic rod and the outer part of the resistor is coated
with an insulating paint.

What is the SI Unit of Resistor?

The SI unit of resistor is Ohm.

There are two basic types of resistors as follows:

Linear resistor

Non-linear resistor

Linear resistors

The resistors whose values change with change in applied temperature and voltage are known as linear resistors.
There are two types of linear resistors:

Fixed resistors: These resistors have a specific value and these values cannot be changed. Following are the
different types of fixed resistors:
Carbon composition resistors

Wire wound resistors

Thin film resistors

Thick film resistors

Variable resistors: These resistors do not have a specific value and the values can be changed with the help of dial,
knob, and screw. These resistors find applications in radio receivers for controlling volume and tone. Following are
the different types of variable resistors:

Potentiometers

Rheostats

Trimmers

Non-linear resistors

The resistor values change according to the temperature and voltage applied and is not dependent on Ohm’s law.
Following are the different types of non-linear resistors:

Thermisters

Varisters

Photo resistors

What is Colour Coding of Resistors?

Resistors may not display the value outside but their resistance can be calculated through their colour pattern PTH
(plated-through-hole) resistors use a colour-coding system (which really adds some flair to circuits), and SMD
(surface-mount-device)resistors have their own value-marking system.

Following is a table with colour code of resistors:

What Is a Capacitor?

A capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device that can store energy in the form of an electric charge. It consists of
two electrical conductors that are separated by a distance. The space between the conductors may be filled by
vacuum or with an insulating material known as a dielectric. The ability of the capacitor to store charges is known as
capacitance.
Capacitors store energy by holding apart pairs of opposite charges. The simplest design for a capacitor is a parallel
plate, which consists of two metal plates with a gap between them. But, different types of capacitors are
manufactured in many forms, styles, lengths, girths, and materials

Inductors applications of resistor

Inductors, resistors, and capacitors are fundamental components in electronic circuits, each serving specific
purposes. Let's explore the applications of inductors and resistors:

**Applications of Inductors:**

1. **Energy Storage:**

- Inductors store energy in the form of a magnetic field when current flows through them. This stored energy is
released when the current changes, playing a crucial role in applications like transformers.

2. **Filtering:**

- Inductors are used in conjunction with capacitors to create low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, or band-stop filters
in electronic circuits. These filters are essential in signal processing and communication systems.

3. **Transformers:**

- Inductors are a fundamental component in transformers, which are used to step up or step down voltages in
power distribution systems. Transformers transfer electrical energy between circuits through mutual induction.

4. **Inductive Load in AC Circuits:**

- Inductive loads, such as motors and solenoids, contain inductors. Inductors in these loads cause a phase shift
between current and voltage in AC circuits, affecting the power factor.

5. **Magnetic Sensors:**

- Inductors are employed in magnetic sensors and inductive proximity sensors, detecting changes in magnetic
fields. These sensors find applications in automation, robotics, and position sensing.

**Applications of Resistors:**

1. **Voltage Division:**
 - Resistors are commonly used to create voltage dividers in electronic circuits, allowing precise control of voltage
levels.

2. **Current Limiting:**

- Resistors are often used to limit the current flowing through a circuit, protecting components from damage due to
excessive current.

3. **Voltage Dropping:**

- Resistors can be employed to drop voltage in a circuit, for example, in LED circuits to limit the current and
prevent damage to the LED.

4. **Biasing in Transistors:**

- Resistors are crucial in transistor biasing circuits, setting the operating point of the transistor to ensure proper
amplification and linear operation.

5. **Temperature Sensors:**

- Thermistors, which are temperature-sensitive resistors, are used as temperature sensors in various applications
like climate control systems and medical devices.

6. **Timing Circuits:**

- Resistors, in combination with capacitors, are used in timing circuits, such as in 555 timer IC-based circuits, to
generate precise time delays.

7. **Pull-Up and Pull-Down Resistors:**

- Resistors are employed as pull-up and pull-down resistors in digital circuits to ensure stable logic levels when a
switch or a sensor is not actively pulling the line high or low.

Capacitor and inductor :-

aa Capacitors and inductors are two fundamental passive electronic components with distinct electrical properties.
They store and release energy in different ways, and their behavior is characterized by capacitance and inductance,
respectively.

### Capacitor:

1. **Basic Structure:**
 - A capacitor consists of two conductive plates separated by an insulating material called a dielectric.

2. **Charge and Discharge:**

- When a voltage is applied across the plates, it creates an electric field, causing charges of opposite polarity to
accumulate on each plate.

- Capacitors store electrical energy in the electric field between the plates.

- The stored energy can be released when needed, resulting in the discharge of the capacitor.

3. **Unit:**

- Capacitance, measured in farads (F), indicates the ability of a capacitor to store charge at a given voltage.

4. **Applications:**

- Energy storage in electronic circuits.

- Filtering and smoothing of voltage signals.

- Timing elements in oscillators.

- Coupling and decoupling signals in amplifiers.

Inductor:

1. Basic Structure:

- An inductor is typically a coil of wire wound around a magnetic core (often made of iron or ferrite).

2. Magnetic Field and Inductance:

- When current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is created around it.

- The inductor stores energy in this magnetic field.

- The energy is released when the current through the inductor changes.

3. Unit:

- Inductance, measured in henrys (H), quantifies the ability of an inductor to store energy in its magnetic field.

4. Applications:
 - Energy storage in magnetic fields.

- Filtering of signals (especially in power supply circuits).

- Inductive coupling between circuits.

- Transformers for voltage transformation.

Key Differences:

1. Energy Storage:

- Capacitors store energy in an electric field.

- Inductors store energy in a magnetic field.

2. Response to Changes:

- Capacitors respond to changes in voltage.

- Inductors respond to changes in current.

3. Impedance:

- The impedance of a capacitor decreases with increasing frequency.

- The impedance of an inductor increases with increasing frequency.

4. Phase Relationship:

- In an AC circuit, the voltage across a capacitor leads the current, while the voltage across an inductor lags the
current by 90 degrees.

5. Time Constants:

- Capacitors are associated with time constants in charging and discharging.

- Inductors are associated with time constants in energy storage and release.

What is a Relay?

A Relay is a simple electromechanical switch. While we use normal switches to close or open a circuit manually, a
Relay is also a switch that connects or disconnects two circuits. But instead of a manual operation, a relay uses an
electrical signal to control an electromagnet, which in turn connects or disconnects another circuit.

What Is Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)?

LDR (Light Dependent Resistor) as the name states is a special type of resistor that works on the photoconductivity
principle means that resistance changes according to the intensity of light. Its resistance decreases with an
increase in the intensity of light.It is often used as a light sensor, light meter, Automatic street light, and in areas
where we need to have light sensitivity. LDR is also known as a Light Sensor. LDR are usually available in 5mm,
8mm, 12mm, and 25mm dimensions.

How are LDRs Made?

The Light-dependent resistors made with photosensitive semiconductor materials like Cadmium Sulphides (CdS),
lead sulfide, lead selenide, indium antimonide, or cadmium selenide and they are placed in a Zig-Zag.

Basic Integrated Circuits :-

integrated circuit (IC), an assembly of electronic components, fabricated as a single unit, in which miniaturized
active devices (e.g., transistors and diodes) and passive devices (e.g., capacitors and resistors) and their
interconnections are built up on a thin substrate of semiconductor material (typically silicon).

IC7805:- Voltage sources in a circuit may have fluctuations resulting in not providing fixed voltage outputs. A voltage
regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. 7805 Voltage Regulator, a member of the 78xx series
of fixed linear voltage regulators used to maintain such fluctuations, is a popular voltage regulator integrated circuit
(IC).

The xx in 78xx indicates the output voltage it provides. 7805 IC provides +5 volts regulated power supply with
provisions to add a heat sink.

7805 Voltage Regulator IC Specifications

1. Minimum Input voltage is 7V

2. Maximum Input Voltage is 35V
3. Current rating Ic = 1A
4. Maximum Output Voltage VMax=5.2V
5. Minimum Output Voltage VMin=4.8V

IC 7805 Voltage Regulator Applications

7805 IC is used in a wide range of circuits. The major ones are:

1. Fixed-Output Regulator
2. Positive voltage Regulator in Negative voltage Configuration
3. Adjustable Output Regulator
4. Current Regulator
5. Adjustable DC Voltage Regulator
6. Regulated Dual-Supply
7. Output Polarity-Reversal-Protection Circuit
8. Reverse bias projection Circuit

Pin diagram of IC 7805:-

IC 7809:-

LM7809 is a fixed-voltage integrated-circuit voltage regulator designed for a wide range of applications. The L7809
voltage regulator provides 9V Positive voltage as output and can provide local on-card regulation, eliminating the
distribution problems associated with single-point regulation. Although designed primarily as a fixed voltage
regulator, but it can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage.

L7809 Regulator Features

1. 9V Positive Voltage Regulator

2. Minimum Input Voltage is 11V
3. Maximum Input Voltage is 35V
4. Output Current: 1.5 A
5. PSRR / Ripple Rejection: 55 dB
6. Output Type: Fixed
7. Internal Thermal Overload and Short circuit current limiting protection is available.
8. Junction Temperature maximum of 125 degree Celsius
9. Available in TO-220, TO-3 and KTE package

Brief Description of 7809 Voltage Regulator IC

Voltage regulators are very common in electronic circuits. They provide a constant output voltage for a varied input
voltage. The name 7809 signifies two meanings, “78” means that it is a positive voltage regulator and “09” means
that it provides 09V as output.The output current of this IC can go up to 1.5A. But the IC suffers from heavy heat loss
hence a Heat sink is recommended for projects that consume more current.

7809 Applications

• Constant +9V output regulator to power microcontrollers and sensors in most of the projects
• Adjustable Output Regulator
• Current Limiter for certain applications
• Regulated Dual Supply
• Output Polarity-Reversal-Protection Circuit

Pin diagram of IC7809:-

IC7812:-

Voltage regulators are very common in electronic circuits. They provide a constant output voltage for a varied input
voltage. In our case, the 7812 IC is an iconic regulator IC that finds its application in most of the projects. The name
7812 signifies two meaning, “78” means that it is a positive voltage regulator and “12” means that it provides 12V as
output. So our 7812 will provide a +12V output voltage.The output current of this IC can go up to 1.5A. But, the IC
suffers from heavy heat loss hence a Heatsink is recommended for projects that consume more current. For
example, if the input voltage is 19V and you are consuming 1A, then (19-12) * 1 = 7W. This 7 Watts will be dissipated
as heat.

Features IC7812:-

1. 12V Positive Voltage Regulator

2. Minimum Input Voltage is 14.5V
3. Maximum Input Voltage is 35V
4. Operating current(IQ) is 8mA
5. Internal Thermal Overload and Short circuit current limiting protections available.
6. Junction Temperature maximum 125 degree Celsius
7. Available in TO-220 and KTE package

Applications IC7812:-

• Here are some of the applications of the 7812 IC.

• Remote control cars
• Toys
• Phone chargers
• Power distribution circuits
• Current Limiter for certain applications
• Regulated Dual Supply

Pin diagram of IC7812:-

IC 555 timer:-

The 555 timer IC is an integral part of electronics projects. Be it a simple project involving a single 8-bit
microcontroller and some peripherals or a complex one involving system on chips (SoCs), a 555 timer is involved.
These provide time delays, as an oscillator and as a flip-flop element among other applications.

555 Timer Specification

• 555 timer is used in almost every electronic circuit today. A 555 timer works as a flip-flop or as a multi-
vibrator, it has a particular set of configurations. Some of the major features of the 555 timers would be,
• It operates from a wide range of power ranging from +5 Volts to +18 Volts supply voltage.
• Sinking or sourcing 200 mA of load current.
• The external components should be selected properly so that the timing intervals can be made into several
minutes along with the frequencies exceeding several hundred kilohertz.
• The output pin of a 555 timer can drive a transistor-transistor logic (TTL) due to its high current output.
• It has a temperature stability of 50 parts per million (ppm) per degree Celsius change in temperature which is
equivalent to 0.005 %/ °C.
• The duty cycle of the timer is adjustable.
• Also, the maximum power dissipation per package is 600 mW, and its trigger pulse and reset inputs have
logic compatibility.

Applications of 555 Timer:-

• 555 timer is most important integrated circuit (chip) used widely in digital electronics. Some common uses
and application of 555 timer IC are as follow:
• PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) & PPM (Pulse Position Modulation)
• Duty Cycle Oscillator
• Lamp Dimmer
• To provide Accurate time delays
• As a flip-flop element
• Digital logic probes
• Analog frequency meters
• Quad Timer applications
 • Pulse, Waveform, and square wave generation
• Stepped tone & tone burst generator & linear ramp generation
• Tachometers & temperature measurement
• It can be used as monostable multivibrator and astable multivibrator
• DC to DC Converters
• DC Voltage Regulators
• Voltage to Frequency Converter
• Frequency Divider
• Schmitt trigger
• Cable tester
• Pulse detector
• Wiper speed control
• Timer Switch
• Time delay generation, precision timing and sequential timing

PIN diagram 555 :-

Measuring Instruments CRO :-

It seems like you are referring to a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) when mentioning "Measuring Instruments
CRO." A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope is a type of electronic test instrument used to visualize electrical signals and
waveforms. It is commonly used in electronics, telecommunications, and other fields for various measurement and
troubleshooting purposes. Here's a brief overview of the key features and functions of a CRO:

1. **Display:** The CRO uses a cathode ray tube (CRT) to display electrical waveforms in real-time. The vertical axis
represents voltage, and the horizontal axis represents time.

2. **Channels:** CROs typically have multiple input channels, allowing users to observe and compare different
signals simultaneously.

3. **Probes:** Probes are used to connect the CRO to the circuit under test. They help in measuring and displaying
the electrical signals accurately.
4. **Controls:** CROs come with various controls to adjust parameters such as vertical and horizontal sensitivity,
triggering, and timebase settings. These controls allow users to customize the display to analyze different aspects of
the signal.

5. **Triggering:** Triggering is a crucial feature that allows the CRO to stabilize the displayed waveform by
synchronizing it with a specific point in the signal. This helps in capturing and analyzing repetitive waveforms.

6. **Measurements:** CROs often include built-in measurement features to quantify characteristics of the
waveform, such as amplitude, frequency, and phase.

7. **Storage and Connectivity:** Some modern CROs come equipped with storage capabilities to capture and save
waveforms for later analysis. They may also offer connectivity options to transfer data to a computer or external
storage.

Measurements by using CRO

We can do the following measurements by using CRO.

Measurement of Amplitude

Measurement of Time Period

Measurement of Frequency

Block diagram of CRO:-

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) consists a set of blocks. Those are vertical amplifier, delay line, trigger circuit,
time base generator, horizontal amplifier, Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) & power supply. The block diagram of CRO is
shown in below figure.
Multi meter:-

A multimeter (also known as a volt-ohm-milliammeter, volt-ohmmeter or VOM) is a measuring instrument that can
measure multiple electrical properties. A typical multimeter can measure voltage, resistance, and current, in which
case can be used as a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter.