Studying the operation of the

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT

and its use.
CONTENT:
 Objective
 Introduction
 Theory
 Wheatstone bridge circuit
 Wheatstone Bridge Light Detector
 Light Detection
 Wheatstone Bridge Principle
 Formula for Calculating Unknown Resistance
 Wheatstone bridge Limitation
 Wheatstone bridge Derivation
 Uses of wheattone bridge
 Precaution
 Source of error
 Bibiliography
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
 Light Spot DC Galvanometer
 Various Medium Resistors
 Multimeter
 Portable Wheatstone Bridge

INTRODUCTION:
Wheatstone bridge, also known as the resistance bridge, it helps in
calculating the unknown resistance by balancing two legs of the
bridge circuit. One leg includes the component of unknown
resistance.
The Wheatstone Bridge Circuit comprises two known resistors, one
unknown resistor and one variable resistor connected in the form of
a bridge. This bridge is very reliable as it gives accurate
measurements.
The Wheatstone bridge was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie
(sometimes spelled "Christy") in 1833 and improved and popularized
by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. One of the Wheatstone bridge's
initial uses was for soil analysis and comparison.

The Wheatstone Bridge diamond shaped circuit who’s concept was

developed by Charles Wheatstone can be used to accurately
measure unknown resistance values, or as a means of calibrating
measuring instruments, voltmeters, ammeters, etc, by the use of a
variable resistance and a simple mathematical formula.

THEORY :
Although today digital multimeters provide the simplest way to
measure a resistance. The Wheatstone Bridge can be used to
compare an unknown resistance to that of a known resistance to
determine its value allowing very low values of resistances down in
the milli-Ohms (mΩ) range to be measured.
The Wheatstone bridge (or resistance bridge) circuit can be used in a
number of applications and today, with modern operational
amplifiers we can use the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit to interface
various transducers and sensors to these amplifier circuits.
The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is nothing more than two simple
series-parallel arrangements of resistances connected between a
voltage supply terminal and ground producing zero voltage
difference between the two parallel branches when balanced. A
Wheatstone bridge circuit has two input terminals and two output
terminals consisting of four resistors configured in a familiar
diamond-like arrangement as shown. This is typical of how the
Wheatstone bridge is drawn.
The Wheatstone bridge is the setup that is used for measuring the
unknown resistance. Wheatstone bridge consists of four arms known
as resistors and the ratio of the two of these resistors is kept at a
fixed value. The remaining two arms are balanced, one of them is an
unknown resistor while the other resistance of the other arm can be
varied.

The unknown resistance is then computed through the balancing or

null condition. The circuit of the Wheatstone bridge gives a precise
measurement of the resistance. The numerous adaptations of the
Wheatstone bridge are utilised for the AC circuits. Some of the
instruments on the Wheatstone bridge principle are Carey Foster
Bridge, metre bridge, Wien bridge etc.
 When balanced, the Wheatstone bridge can be analysed simply
as two series strings in parallel. In our tutorial about Resistors in
Series, we saw that each resistor within the series chain produces
an IR drop, or voltage drop across itself as a consequence of the
current flowing through it as defined by Ohms Law. Consider the
series circuit below.

As the two resistors are in series, the same current ( i ) flows

through both of them. Therefore the current flowing through these
two resistors in series is given as: V/RT.

I = V ÷ R = 12V ÷ (10Ω + 20Ω) = 0.4A

The voltage at point C, which is also the voltage drop across the
lower resistor, R2 is calculated as:
VR2 = I × R2 = 0.4A × 20Ω = 8 volts
Then we can see that the source voltage VS is divided among
the two series resistors in direct proportion to their resistances
as VR1 = 4V and VR2 = 8V. This is the principle of voltage division,
producing what is commonly called a potential divider circuit or
voltage divider network.
Now if we add another series resistor circuit using the same resistor
values in parallel with the first we would have the following circuit.

As the second series circuit has the same resistive values of the first,
the voltage at point D, which is also the voltage drop across
resistor, R4 will be the same at 8 volts, with respect to zero (battery
negative), as the voltage is common and the two resistive networks
are the same.
But something else equally as important is that the voltage
difference between point C and point D will be zero volts as both
points are at the same value of 8 volts as: C = D = 8 volts, then the
voltage difference is: 0 volts
When this happens, both sides of the parallel bridge network are
said to be balanced because the voltage at point C is the same value
as the voltage at point D with their difference being zero.
Now let’s consider what would happen if we reversed the position of
the two resistors, R3 and R4 in the second parallel branch with
respect to R1 and R2.
With resistors, R3 and R4 reversed, the same current flows through
the series combination and the voltage at point D, which is also the
voltage drop across resistor, R4 will be:
VR4 = 0.4A × 10Ω = 4 volts
Now with VR4 having 4 volts dropped across it, the voltage difference
between points C and D will be 4 volts as: C = 8 volts and D = 4 volts.
Then the difference this time is: 8 – 4 = 4 volts
The result of swapping the two resistors is that both sides or “arms”
of the parallel network are different as they produce different
voltage drops. When this happens the parallel network is said to
be unbalanced as the voltage at point C is at a different value to the
voltage at point D.
Then we can see that the resistance ratio of these two parallel
arms, ACB and ADB, results in a voltage difference between 0
volts (balanced) and the maximum supply voltage (unbalanced), and
this is the basic principal of the Wheatstone Bridge Circuit.
So we can see that a Wheatstone bridge circuit can be used to
compare an unknown resistance RX with others of a known value, for
example, R1 and R2, have fixed values, and R3 could be variable. If we
connected a voltmeter, ammeter or classically a galvanometer
between points C and D, and then varied resistor, R3 until the meters
read zero, would result in the two arms being balanced and the value
of RX, (substituting R4) known as shown.
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT :

By replacing R4 above with a resistance of known or unknown value

in the sensing arm of the Wheatstone bridge corresponding to RX and
adjusting the opposing resistor, R3 to “balance” the bridge network,
will result in a zero voltage output. Then we can see that balance
occurs when:

The Wheatstone Bridge equation required to give the value of the

unknown resistance, RX at balance is given as:

Where resistors, R1 and R2 are known or preset values.

Wheatstone Bridge Light Detector :
Balanced bridge circuits find many useful electronics applications
such as being used to measure changes in light intensity, pressure or
strain. The types of resistive sensors that can be used within a
wheatstone bridge circuit include: photoresistive sensors (LDR’s),
positional sensors (potentiometers), piezoresistive sensors (strain
gauges) and temperature sensors (thermistor’s), etc.
There are many Wheatstone bridge applications for sensing a whole
range of mechanical and electrical quantities, but one very simple
Wheatstone bridge application is in the measurement of light by
using a photoresistive device. One of the resistors within the bridge
network is replaced by a light dependent resistor, or LDR.
An LDR, also known as a cadmium-sulphide (Cds) photocell, is a
passive resistive sensor which converts changes in visible light levels
into a change in resistance and hence a voltage. Light dependent
resistors can be used for monitoring and measuring the level of light
intensity, or whether a light source is ON or OFF.
A typical Cadmium Sulphide (CdS) cell such as the ORP12 light
dependent resistor typically has a resistance of about one Megaohm
(MΩ) in dark or dim light, about 900Ω at a light intensity of 100 Lux
(typical of a well lit room), down to about 30Ω in bright sunlight.
Then as the light intensity increases the resistance reduces. By
connecting a light dependant resistor to the Wheatstone bridge
circuit above, we can monitor and measure any changes in the light
levels as shown.
A Wheatstone bridge light detector is a specialized application of the
Wheatstone bridge circuit, used to detect and measure light
intensity. This setup typically involves a light-sensitive resistor, such
as a photoresistor (light-dependent resistor, LDR), integrated into
one arm of the Wheatstone bridge. The change in light intensity
causes a change in the resistance of the photoresistor .
Light Detection :

The LDR photocell is connected into

the Wheatstone bridge circuit as
shown to produce a light sensitive
switch that activates when the light
level being sensed goes above or below
the pre-set value determined by VR1. In
this example VR1 either a 22k or 47kΩ potentiometer.
The op-amp is connected as a voltage comparator with the reference
voltage VD applied to the non-inverting pin. In this example, as
both R3 and R4 are of the same 10kΩ value, the reference voltage set
at point D will therefore be equal to half of Vcc. That is Vcc/2.
The potentiometer, VR1 sets the trip point voltage VC, applied to the
inverting input and is set to the required nominal light level. The
relay turns “ON” when the voltage at point C is less than the voltage
at point D.
Adjusting VR1 sets the voltage at point C to balance the bridge circuit
at the required light level or intensity. The LDR can be any cadmium
sulphide device that has a high impedance at low light levels and a
low impedance at high light levels.
Note that the circuit can be used to act as a “light-activated”
switching circuit or a “dark-activated” switching circuit simply by
transposing the LDR and R3 positions within the design.
The Wheatstone Bridge has many uses in electronic circuits other
than comparing an unknown resistance with a known resistance.
When used with Operational Amplifiers, the Wheatstone bridge
circuit can be used to measure and amplify small changes in
resistance, RX due, for example, to changes in light intensity as we
have seen above.
But the bridge circuit is also suitable for measuring the resistance
change of other changing quantities, so by replacing the above
photo-resistive LDR light sensor for a thermistor, pressure sensor,
strain gauge, and other such transducers, as well as swapping the
positions of the LDR and VR1, we can use them in a variety of other
Wheatstone bridge applications.
Also more than one resistive sensor can be used within the four arms
(or branches) of the bridge formed by the resistors R1 to R4 to
produce “full-bridge”, “half-bridge” or “quarter-bridge circuit
arrangements providing thermal compensation or automatic
balancing of the Wheatstone bridge.

Wheatstone Bridge Principle :

The Wheatstone bridge works on the principle of null deflection, i.e.
the ratio of their resistances is equal, and no current flows through
the circuit. Under normal conditions, the bridge is in an unbalanced
condition where current flows through the galvanometer. The bridge
is said to be balanced when no current flows through the
galvanometer. This condition can be achieved by adjusting the
known resistance and variable resistance.

The Wheatstone Bridge principle is based on achieving a null

deflection, which means no current flows through a specific part of
the circuit called a galvanometer.expand_more This happens when
the ratio of two known resistances is equal to the ratio of an
unknown resistance and another variable resistance.

In simpler terms, the Wheatstone bridge allows you to measure an

unknown resistance by comparing it to known
resistances.expand_more By adjusting a variable resistance until the
current through the galvanometer is zero, you can determine the
value of the unknown resistance using a specific formula. This
method is particularly useful for measuring very low resistance
values.expand_more

Wheatstone Bridge works on the null deflection principle. The

principle is to adjust known resistances until no current flows
through galvanometer to achieve balanced condition. According to
this principle of null deflection or the ‘balanced bridge’ principle,
ratio of resistances in one leg is equal to ratio of resistance in other
leg.
Basically, the ratio of resistances in one leg of the bridge becomes
equal to the ratio in the other leg. This is the balanced condition. As
soon as this balance is achieved no current will flow via the
galvanometer and it will show null deflection or zero reading.
Formula for Calculating Unknown Resistance :

As shown in
the diagram, the formula for calculating the unknown resistance (i.e.
R4) is given by the equation:

Formula of Wheatstone Derivation

Let’s derive the balanced condition for a Wheatstone bridge where
the unknown resistance is denoted as R4.
 R1: Known resistance
 R2: Known resistance
 R3: Known resistance
 R4: Unknown resistance
 V: Source voltage
 G: Galvanometer
For the bridge to be balanced, the potential at point A must be equal
to the potential at point B, which means no current will flow through
the galvanometer.
Let us suppose that the cell has no resistance. Syppose this is a
balanced bridge and hence the current Ig = 0. Now, in this case,
Kirchhoff’s junction rule will be applied to junctions D and B. We
known that in this case, I1 = I3 and I2 = I4.
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the closed loop ADBA.
–I1 x R1 + 0 + I2 x R2 = 0 (here Ig = 0) [eq. 1]
From equation 1, we can say that:

[eq 2]
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the second closed loop CBDC.
I2 x R4 + 0 – I1 x R3= 0 [eq. 3]
From equation 3, we can say that:

[eq 4]
From equation 2 and 4, we get

Hence:

Wheatstone Bridge Limitations :

While the Wheatstone Bridge is a powerful and precise tool for
measuring resistance, it has several limitations that can affect its
performance and suitability for certain applications. Here are the
primary limitations:

1. Manual Adjustment
Need for Manual Calibration: The bridge requires manual adjustment
of the variable resistor R3 to achieve balance. This can be time
consuming and may introduce human error, especially in applications
requiring frequent measurements.

2. Sensitivity to Temperature

Temperature Coefficients: The accuracy of the bridge can be affected

by temperature changes, as the resistance of the components
(including the unknown resistor) may vary with temperature. This
requires careful control of the environment or compensation
techniques. If the galvanometer isn’t sensitive enough, it might not
detect small imbalances, leading to inaccuracies in measurements of
very high or very low resistances

3.Not Suitable for High-Frequency AC Measurements

AC Impedance Issues: The Wheatstone Bridge is primarily designed

for DC measurements. For AC measurements, the bridge needs to be
modified to account for impedance, which includes both resistance
and reactance. This complicates the design and can reduce accuracy.

4. Component Tolerances

Precision of Components: The accuracy of the bridge depends on the

precision of the known resistors R1and R2. Any tolerance in these
resistors affects the measurement accuracy. High-precision resistors
can be expensive and may still introduce slight errors.

5.Limited Range

Measurement Range: The Wheatstone Bridge is best suited for

measuring resistances within a certain range. Extremely high or low
resistances can be challenging to measure accurately due to
limitations in the sensitivity of the galvanometer and the variable
resistor.

6. Stray Capacitance and Inductance

Parasitic Elements: At higher frequencies or in sensitive

measurements, stray capacitance and inductance in the circuit can
affect the accuracy. This is particularly problematic in high-precision
or high-frequency applications.

7. Galvanometer Sensitivity

Detector Sensitivity: The accuracy of the bridge is also dependent on

the sensitivity of the galvanometer. In cases where the galvanometer
is not sensitive enough, small imbalances may not be detected
accurately, leading to measurement errors.

8. Power Supply Stability

Voltage Source Fluctuations: The stability of the power supply can

affect the accuracy. Any fluctuations in the voltage source can cause
errors in the balance condition, impacting the measurement of the
unknown resistance.

9. Complex Circuit for Multiple Measurements

Circuit Complexity: For applications requiring multiple resistance

measurements, the circuit can become complex and cumbersome to
manage, especially when frequent recalibrations are necessary.

10. Interference and Noise

External Interference: Electromagnetic interference and noise can

affect the accuracy of the measurements. Shielding and careful
 circuit design are required to minimize these effects, adding to the
complexity.

Wheatstone Bridge Derivation :

Absolutely, here's the derivation for the balancing condition of a
Wheatstone bridge:
Components:
 A Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistors connected in a

diamond shape.
 Two arms (usually diagonally opposite) have known resistances

(labeled R1 and R2).

 The other two arms contain an unknown resistance (Rx) and a

variable resistance (Rv).

 A voltage source (V) is connected across one diagonal (points A and

B).
 A galvanometer (G) is connected across the other diagonal (points C

and D).
Balancing Condition:
We want to find the value of the unknown resistance (Rx) when the
bridge is balanced. In a balanced state, no current flows through the
galvanometer (IG = 0).
Applying Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL):
We'll use KCL at two junctions (points B and D) to derive the
balancing condition.
1. Junction B: The current entering point B from source V (I1) splits into
two branches - one flowing through R1 (I1a) and another through Rx
(I1b). Applying KCL: I1 = I1a + I1b
2. Junction D: Similarly, the current reaching point D splits into two
branches - one flowing through R2 (I2a) and another through Rv
(I2b). Applying KCL: I2 = I2a + I2b
Applying Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL):
 Since the bridge is balanced (no current through the galvanometer),
the potential difference across points C and D is zero. We can apply
KVL to the loop formed by points A, B, C, and D.
Voltage drop across AB (VR1) + Voltage drop across BC (VRx) =
Voltage drop across AD (VR2) + Voltage drop across DC (VRv)
As V = constant voltage source: VR1 = VR2
Since I = V/R (Ohm's Law):
 VR1 = I1a * R1
 VRx = I1b * Rx
 VR2 = I2a * R2
 VRv = I2b * Rv
Substituting and rearranging:
I1a * R1 = I2a * R2
Combining KCL and KVL Equations:
(I1 - I1b) * R1 = (I2 - I2b) * R2
From KCL at B and D: I1b = I2a and I2b = I1a
Substituting:
I1 * R1 = I2 * R2
Balancing Condition:
Dividing both sides by I1 * I2 (assuming non-zero currents):
R1/R2 = Rx/Rv
Therefore, when R1/R2 = Rx/Rv, the bridge is balanced, and no
current flows through the galvanometer. This equation allows us to
solve for the unknown resistance (Rx) by adjusting the variable
resistance (Rv) until the galvanometer shows zero deflection.

Uses of wheatstone bridge :

The Wheatstone Bridge: Beyond Unveiling the Unknown Resistance

The Wheatstone bridge, a deceptively simple circuit, holds immense

power in the realm of electrical measurements. While its
fundamental purpose lies in determining the value of an unknown
 resistance, its applications extend far beyond this basic function. This
bridge design, named after Sir Charles Wheatstone, has become a
cornerstone for various scientific and industrial endeavors, acting as
a bridge between the physical world and electrical signals.
The Core Strength: Precise Resistance Measurement
The Wheatstone bridge shines in its ability to measure resistance
with exceptional accuracy, particularly for low values. This precision
makes it invaluable in:
 Component Characterization: Electronic components like resistors,
wires, and connectors rely on specific resistance values for proper
functioning. The Wheatstone bridge helps ensure these components
meet the design specifications by providing accurate measurements.
 Fault Detection: Slight changes in resistance can indicate potential
issues in circuits. The bridge's sensitivity allows early detection of
these changes, facilitating timely maintenance and preventing
malfunctions.
 Material Research: Understanding the electrical properties of
materials is crucial in developing new technologies. The Wheatstone
bridge plays a role in material research by precisely measuring
resistivity, a key material property.
Beyond Resistance: A Bridge to Other Electrical Quantities
The Wheatstone bridge isn't limited to resistance. With clever
modifications, it can be transformed into a versatile tool for
measuring other electrical quantities:
 Capacitance Measurement: By incorporating capacitors into the
bridge circuit, it can be used to determine the capacitance of
unknown components. This is essential in various electronic
applications like filters, timing circuits, and power supplies.
 Inductance Measurement: Similar to capacitance, the bridge can be
adapted to measure the inductance of coils. Inductors are crucial
components in motors, transformers, and communication systems.
 Impedance Measurement: Impedance, a broader term
encompassing resistance and reactance (capacitive and inductive
 properties), can also be measured using modified bridge
configurations. This is important for characterizing complex electrical
circuits and ensuring proper signal transmission.
Transduction: Transforming Physical Phenomena into Electrical
Signals
The Wheatstone bridge forms the heart of many transducers, devices
that convert physical quantities like pressure, temperature, and light
into electrical signals. Here's how it works:
 Strain Gauges: These sensors measure strain (deformation) by
utilizing thin metal foils whose resistance changes when stretched or
compressed. The bridge circuit detects these resistance changes,
providing a measure of the applied force or pressure.
 Thermistors: These temperature-dependent resistors exhibit a
change in resistance with temperature fluctuations. The bridge
circuit translates these resistance variations into voltage readings,
allowing for accurate temperature measurement.
 Photoresistors: These light-sensitive resistors change their resistance
based on the intensity of light falling upon them. The bridge circuit
helps convert this resistance change into a voltage signal, enabling
light measurement for applications like light sensors and automatic
lighting controls.
Beyond Basic Applications: A Bridge to Advanced Electronics
The Wheatstone bridge principle lays the foundation for various
advanced electronic circuits:
 Differential Amplifiers: These circuits amplify the difference
between two input voltages. The bridge configuration helps achieve
high common-mode rejection, meaning it can effectively cancel out
unwanted noise signals that are common to both inputs.
 High Impedance Amplifiers: These amplifiers operate with high input
impedance, minimizing loading effects on the source signal. Bridge
configurations can be used to achieve this high input impedance,
making them ideal for applications like sensor signal amplification.
 Instrumentation Amplifiers: These specialized amplifiers offer high
accuracy, low drift, and high common-mode rejection. The
Wheatstone bridge principle can be incorporated into their design to
achieve these desirable characteristics.
In conclusion, the Wheatstone bridge transcends its initial purpose of
measuring resistance. It acts as a bridge, connecting the physical
world of measurable phenomena to the electrical domain through
precise and versatile measurements. Its applications span various
scientific and industrial fields, making it a fundamental tool in
unraveling the mysteries of electrical behavior and harnessing its
power for diverse purposes.

Precautions :
When using a Wheatstone bridge, several precautions should be
taken to ensure accurate and reliable measurements. Here are key
precautions to consider:

1. Precision of Components:

Use high-precision resistors to minimize errors. The accuracy of the

Wheatstone bridge depends heavily on the tolerance and stability of
the resistors used in the bridge circuit.

2. Temperature Stability:

Ensure that the resistors and other components are stable over the
temperature range in which the bridge is used. Temperature
variations can cause resistance changes, leading to measurement
errors.

3. Connection Quality:
 Use proper and secure connections to avoid contact resistance,
which can affect the accuracy of the bridge. Poor connections can
introduce additional resistance, skewing the results.

4. Balanced Bridge Setup:

Initially balance the bridge with known resistances to ensure that

the system is correctly calibrated. This helps in detecting any
deviations or inaccuracies in the measured resistance.

5. Zero Adjustment:

Adjust the zero point of the bridge correctly before taking

measurements. Any initial imbalance should be corrected to avoid
systematic errors.

6. Stable Power Supply:

Use a stable and noise-free power supply to avoid fluctuations that

could affect the measurements. Voltage stability is crucial for the
accurate functioning of the bridge.

7. Shielding and Grounding:

Shield the bridge circuit from electromagnetic interference (EMI)

and ensure proper grounding. External electromagnetic fields can
introduce noise and affect the accuracy of the measurements.
8. Calibration:

Regularly calibrate the Wheatstone bridge against known standards

to ensure its accuracy over time. Calibration helps in maintaining the
reliability of the measurement system.

9. Environmental Conditions:

Perform measurements in a controlled environment where

temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors are kept
stable. Fluctuations in these conditions can affect the resistance and,
consequently, the accuracy of the bridge.

10. Measurement of Low Resistances:

When measuring very low resistances, use Kelvin (four-wire)

connections to minimize the impact of lead and contact resistances.
This helps in obtaining more accurate readings.

11. Avoiding Parasitic Effects:

Minimize parasitic inductance and capacitance by keeping the

bridge components physically close together and using short
connecting wires. This reduces the impact of these parasitic effects
on the measurements.
By adhering to these precautions, the accuracy and reliability of the
measurements obtained using a Wheatstone bridge can be
significantly enhanced.

Source of error :
Several potential sources of error can affect the accuracy of
measurements taken with a Wheatstone bridge. Here are the main
sources:

1. Resistor Tolerances:

Resistors used in the bridge may have manufacturing tolerances

that cause their actual resistance to differ from the nominal value.
This discrepancy can lead to measurement errors.

2. Temperature Effects:

Changes in temperature can affect the resistance of the bridge

components, leading to inaccuracies. The temperature coefficient of
resistance can cause resistors to change their value with
temperature variations.

3. Contact Resistance:

Poor or inconsistent connections can introduce additional

resistance at the contact points. This can lead to inaccurate
measurements, especially in circuits where precise resistance values
are critical.

4. Lead Resistance:

The resistance of the connecting wires can add to the measured

resistance, causing errors. This is particularly significant when
measuring low resistances.

5. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI):

External electromagnetic fields can induce noise in the circuit,

affecting the accuracy of the bridge measurements. Proper shielding
and grounding are necessary to minimize EMI.

6. Power Supply Variations:

Fluctuations in the power supply voltage can affect the balance of

the bridge. A stable and noise-free power supply is essential for
accurate measurements.

7. Parasitic Inductance and Capacitance:

The physical layout of the bridge circuit can introduce parasitic

inductance and capacitance, which can affect the measurements,
especially at higher frequencies.

8. Imbalanced Bridge Initialization:

 If the bridge is not properly balanced initially, it can lead to
systematic errors in subsequent measurements. Proper calibration
and zero adjustment are necessary to ensure accuracy.

9. Aging and Drift of Components:

Over time, resistors and other components may drift from their
initial values due to aging. Regular calibration is needed to
compensate for this drift.

10. Human Error:

- Mistakes in setting up the bridge, reading measurements, or

interpreting results can introduce errors. Careful and methodical
procedures should be followed to minimize human error.

By being aware of these potential sources of error and taking

appropriate measures to mitigate them, the accuracy and reliability
of Wheatstone bridge measurements can be significantly improved.
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