Module 1 : IoT Introduction (6 Hours)

Introduction to loT - loT definition - Characteristics - Things in loT - loT complete architectural
stack – IoT, Functional components-loT enabling technologies - loT challenges -Industrial IoT
Vs Consumer IoT, loT levels, Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communications, Cyber-Physical-
Systems (CPS), Web-of-Things (WoT), Interoperability in IoT-User Vs device interoperability

1.1 Introduction to IoT

Internet of Things (IoT) comprises things that have unique identities and are connected to the
internet.
 Existing devises , such as networked computers or 4G enabled mobile phones already have some
form of unique identities and are also connected to the internet, the focus on IoT in the
configuration, control and networking via the internet of devices or things , that are traditionally
not associated with the Internet. These include devices such as thermostats, utility meters, a blue
tooth- connected headset, irrigation pumps and sensor or control circuits for an electric car’s
engine 
 Experts forecast that by the year 2020 there will be a total of 50 billion devices/ things connected
to the internet. 
 The scope of IoT is not limited to just connected things(Devices, appliance, machines) to the
Internet. 
 Applications on IoT networks extract and create information from lower level data by filtering,
processing , categorizing, condensing and contextualizing the data. 
 The information obtained is then organized and structured to infer knowledge about the system
and or its user, its environment and its operations and progress towards its objectives, allowing a
smarter performance
1.2 IoT Definition
A dynamic global network infrastructure with self – configuring based on standard
and interoperable communication protocols where physical and virtual “things” have identified,
physical attributes, and virtual personalities and use intelligent interfaces, often communicate data
associated with users and their environment
1.3 Characteristics
 Dynamic and self-Adapting: IoT devices and systems may have the capability to dynamically
adapt with the changing contexts and take actions based on their operating condition.Ex:
Surveillance cameras can adapt their modes based on whether it is day or night. 
 Self – Configuring: IoT devices may have self-Configuring capability allowing a large
number of devices to work together to provide certain functionality . 
 Interoperable communication protocols: IoT Devices may support a number of interoperable
communication protocols and can communicate with other devices and also with the
infrastructure. 
 Unique Identity: Each IoT devices has a unique identity and a unique identifier.(IP address,
URI).IoT systems may have intelligent interfaces which adapt based on the context, allow
communication with users and the environment contexts. 
 Integrated into information network: IoT devices are usually integrated into the information
network that allows them to communicate and exchange data with other devices and systems.
1.4 Things in loT
The “Things” in IoT usually refers to IoT devices which have unique identities and can
perform remote sensing, Actuating and monitoring capabilities. IoT devices can exchange data with
other connected devices and applications (directly or indirectly), or collect data from other devices
and process the data locally or send the data to Centralized servers or cloud based applications back
ends for processing the data or from some task locally and other task within the IoT infrastructure,
based on temporal and space constraints (ie : Memory, processing calibrators, communication
latencies and speed and deadlines).
An IoT device may consist of several interfaces connections to other devices, both wired and
wireless. These include I)IoT interfaces for sensors II) interfaces for internet connectivity III)
memory and storage interfaces IV) audio video interfaces.
An IoT Device can collect various types of data from the the onboard or attached sensors, such
as temperature, humidity, light intensity. IoT devices can also be varied types, for instance, wearable
sensors, smart watches, LED light automobiles and industrial machines. Almost all would advise
generate data in Some form or the other which when processed by Data Analytics systems leads to
Useful information to guide further actions locally or remotely.
1.5 IoT Complete Architectural Stack
Like other wired and wireless technologies, IoT (Internet of Things) also has protocol layers
from layer 1 to 7. We have seen OSI (Open System Interconnection) model which defines 7 layer
networking framework. OSI defines functions of each of these layers and their interfaces.
Let us understand functional description of 7 layers of IoT protocol stack as shown in the figure
below.
IoT stack consists of following seven layers viz. Sensor layer, processing/control layer, hardware
interface layer, RF layer, session/message layer, user experience layer and application layer.
IoT Stack Layer 1
Physical or sensor layer: Similar to OSI physical layer, this IoT layer 1 interfaces with physical
components. The physical components are mainly sensors such as humidity sensor, temperature
sensor, pressure sensor, heart rate sensor, pH sensor, odour sensor etc. The sensors are used for
sensing of various parameters as per application of use. There are plenty of sensors available for same
functionality and hence appropriate selection of sensor is done based on cost and quality. It is this
layer-1 which provides sensed data to IoT stack for further processing.
IoT Stack Layer 2
Processing and control layer : The data provided by layer-1 using sensors are processed at this layer.
Micro controller/Processor and operating system play vital role at this layer. Various development kits
can be used for this purpose such as Arduino, Node-MCU (based on ESP32 or ESP8266) , ARM, PIC
etc. Typical operating systems used are Android, Linux, IOS etc.
IoT Stack Layer 3
Hardware Interface layer : This layer include components or interfaces used for communication
such as RS232, RS485, SPI, I2C, CAN, SCI etc. These interfaces are used for serial or parallel
communication at various baud rates in synchronous/asynchronous modes. The above mentioned
interface protocols ensure flawless communication.
IoT Stack Layer 4
RF layer : This radio frequency layer houses RF technologies based on short range or long range and
data rate desired by the application of use. The common indoor RF/wireless technologies include
Wifi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, Zwave, NFC, RFID etc. The common outdoor RF cellular technologies
include GSM/GPRS, CDMA, LTE-M, NB-IoT, 5G etc. RF layer does communication of data using
radio frequency based EM waves. There is another technology which uses light waves for data
communication. This light based data communication is referred as LiFi.
IoT Stack Layer 5
Session/Message Layer : This layer deals with various messaging protocols such as MQTT, CoAP,
HTTP, FTP (or Secured FTP), SSH etc. It defines how messages are broadcast-ed to the cloud.
MQTT: Message Queue Telemetry Transport, it is a lightweight message protocol based on
public -subscribe model MQTT uses a client server Architecture by the clients such as an IoT device
connect to the server also called the MQTT broker and publishers message to topic on the server. The
broker forward the message to the clients subscribed to topic MQTT is well suited for constrained and
environments.
CoAP: Constrained application protocol is an application layer protocol for machine to
machine application M2M meant for constrained environment with constrained devices and
constrained networks. Like HTTP CoAP is a web transfer protocol and uses a request- response
model, however it runs on the top of the UDP instead of TC CoAP uses a client –server architecture
where client communicate with server using connection less data-grams.It is designed to easily
interface with HTTP like HTTP,CoAP supports method such as GET, PUT, DELETE .
IoT Stack Layer 6
User experience layer : This layer deals with providing best experience to the end users of IoT
products. To fulfill this, this layer takes care of rich UI designs with lots of features. Various
languages and tools are developed for the design of GUI interface software. These include objected
oriented and procedure oriented technologies as well database languages (DBMS, SQL) in addition to
analytic tools.
IoT Stack Layer 7
Application layer : This layer utilizes rest of the six layers in order to develop desired application.
e.g., Smart Home
1.6 Functional Components of IoT

Things or Devices
The key physical items being tracked are Things or Devices. Smart sensors are connected to
things/devices which further continues to collect data from the device and send it to the next layer,
which is the portal or also called as the gateway Small smart sensors for a variety of applications are
now possible because of new advancements in microelectronics.
Some commonly used sensors are:
Temperature sensors and thermostats
Pressure sensors
Humidity / Moisture level
Light intensity detectors
Moisture sensors
Proximity detection
RFID tags
User Interface
User interface also termed as UI is nothing but a user-facing program that allows the user to monitor
and manipulate data.
The user interface (UI) is the visible, tangible portion of the IoT device that people can interact with.
Developers must provide a well-designed user interface that requires the least amount of effort from
users and promotes additional interactions.
Cloud: Cloud storage is used to store the data which has been collected from different devices or
things. Cloud computing is simply a set of connected servers that operate continuously(24*7) over the
Internet.
IoT devices, applications, and users generate massive amounts of data, which must be managed
efficiently. Data collection, processing, management, and archiving are among the responsibilities of
IoT clouds. The data can be accessed remotely by industries and services, allowing them to take
critical decisions at any time.
In the simplest terms, an IoT cloud is a network of servers optimized to handle data at high speeds for
a large number of different devices, manage traffic, and analyze data with great accuracy. An IoT
cloud would not be complete without a distributed management database system.
Analytics
After receiving the data in the cloud, that data is processed. Data is analyzed here with the help of
various algorithms like machine learning and all.
Analytics is the conversion of analog information via connected sensors and devices into actionable
insights that can be processed, interpreted, and analyzed in depth. Analysis of raw data or information
for further processing is a prerequisite for the monitoring and enhancement of the Internet of things
(IoT).
Among the most significant benefits of a well-designed IoT system is real-time smart analysis, which
enables designers to spot anomalies in gathering information and respond quickly to avoid an
undesirable situation. If information is collected correctly and at the right moment, network operators
can plan for the next steps.
Network Interconnection
Over the past few years, the IoT has seen massive growth in devices controlled by the internet and
connected to it. Although IoT devices have a wide variety of uses, there are some common things
among them also along with the differences between them.
IoT is enabled by a variety of technologies. The network used to communicate with other devices in
an IoT deployment is critical to the field, a position that numerous wireless or wired technologies can
fill.
System Security
Security is a crucial component of IoT implementation, but this security point of view is too often
overlooked during the design process. Day after day weaknesses within IoT are being attacked with
evil intent – however, the majority of them that can be easily and inexpensively addressed.
A secure network begins with the elimination of weaknesses within IoT devices as well as the
provision of tools to withstand, recognize, and recoup from harmful attacks.
Central Control Hardware
The two or more data flow among multiple channels and interfaces is managed by a Control Panel.
The additional duty of a control panel is to convert various wireless interfaces and ensure that linked
sensors and devices are accessible.
1.7. Enabling Technologies
IoT(internet of things) enabling technologies are
Wireless Sensor Network
Cloud Computing
Big Data Analytics
Communications Protocols
Embedded System
1. Wireless Sensor Network(WSN) :
A WSN comprises distributed devices with sensors which are used to monitor the environmental and
physical conditions. A wireless sensor network consists of end nodes, routers and coordinators. End
nodes have several sensors attached to them where the data is passed to a coordinator with the help of
routers. The coordinator also acts as the gateway that connects WSN to the internet.
Example –
Weather monitoring system
Indoor air quality monitoring system
Soil moisture monitoring system
Surveillance system
Health monitoring system
2. Cloud Computing :
It provides us the means by which we can access applications as utilities over the internet. Cloud
means something which is present in remote locations.
With Cloud computing, users can access any resources from anywhere like databases, webservers,
storage, any device, and any software over the internet.
Characteristics –
Broad network access
On demand self-services
Rapid scalability
Measured service
Pay-per-use
Provides different services, such as –
 IaaS (Infrastructure as a service)
Infrastructure as a service provides online services such as physical machines, virtual machines,
 servers, networking, storage and data center space on a pay per use basis. Major IaaS providers
are Google Compute Engine, Amazon Web Services and Microsoft Azure etc.
Ex : Web Hosting, Virtual Machine etc.
 PaaS (Platform as a service)
Provides a cloud-based environment with a very thing required to support the complete life cycle
of building and delivering West web based (cloud) applications – without the cost and complexity
of buying and managing underlying hardware, software provisioning and hosting. Computing
platforms such as hardware, operating systems and libraries etc. Basically, it provides a platform
to develop applications.
Ex : App Cloud, Google app engine
 SaaS (Software as a service)
It is a way of delivering applications over the internet as a service. Instead of installing and
maintaining software, you simply access it via the internet, freeing yourself from complex
software and hardware management.
SaaS Applications are sometimes called web-based software on demand software or hosted
software.
SaaS applications run on a SaaS provider’s service and they manage security availability and
performance.
Ex : Google Docs, Gmail, office etc.
3. Big Data Analytics :
It refers to the method of studying massive volumes of data or big data. Collection of data whose
volume, velocity or variety is simply too massive and tough to store, control, process and examine the
data using traditional databases.
Big data is gathered from a variety of sources including social network videos, digital images, sensors
and sales transaction records.
Several steps involved in analyzing big data –
Data cleaning
Munging
Processing
Visualization
Examples –
Bank transactions
Data generated by IoT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
E-commerce and in Big-Basket
Health and fitness data generated by IoT system such as a fitness bands
4. Communications Protocols :
They are the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity and linking to applications.
Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data over the network. Multiple protocols often
describe different aspects of a single communication. A group of protocols designed to work together
is known as a protocol suite; when implemented in software they are a protocol stack.
They are used in
Data encoding
Addressing schemes
5. Embedded Systems :
It is a combination of hardware and software used to perform special tasks.
It includes microcontroller and microprocessor memory, networking units (Ethernet Wi-Fi adapters),
input output units (display keyword etc. ) and storage devices (flash memory).
It collects the data and sends it to the internet.
Embedded systems used in
Examples –
Digital camera
DVD player, music player
Industrial robots
Wireless Routers etc.
1.8 IoT Challenges
The Internet of Things (IoT) has fast grown to be a large part of how human beings live, communicate
and do business. All across the world, web-enabled devices are turning our global rights into a greater
switched-on area to live in.
There are various types of challenges in front of IoT.
Security challenges in IoT :
Lack of encryption – Although encryption is a great way to prevent hackers from accessing data, it is
also one of the leading IoT security challenges.
These drives like the storage and processing capabilities that would be found on a traditional
computer.
The result is an increase in attacks where hackers can easily manipulate the algorithms that were
designed for protection.
Insufficient testing and updating –With the increase in the number of IoT(internet of things)
devices, IoT manufacturers are more eager to produce and deliver their device as fast as they can
without giving security too much of although.
Most of these devices and IoT products do not get enough testing and updates and are prone to
hackers and other security issues.
Brute forcing and the risk of default passwords – Weak credentials and login details leave nearly
all IoT devices vulnerable to password hacking and brute force.
Any company that uses factory default credentials on their devices is placing both their business and
its assets and the customer and their valuable information at risk of being susceptible to a brute force
attack.
IoT Malware and ransomware – Increases with increase in devices. Ransomware uses encryption to
effectively lock out users from various devices and platforms and still use a user’s valuable data and
info.
Example –
A hacker can hijack a computer camera and take pictures. By using malware access points, the
hackers can demand ransom to unlock the device and return the data.
IoT botnet aiming at cryptocurrency – IoT botnet workers can manipulate data privacy, which
could be massive risks for an open Crypto market. The exact value and creation of cryptocurrencies
code face danger from mal-intentioned hackers.
The blockchain companies are trying to boost security. Blockchain technology itself is not particularly
vulnerable, but the app development process is.
Design challenge in IoT :
Battery life is a limitation – Issues in packaging and integration of small-sized chip with low weight
and less power consumption. If you’ve been following the mobile space, you’ve likely see how every
yr it looks like there’s no restriction in terms of display screen size. Take the upward thrust of
‘phablets’, for instance, which can be telephones nearly as huge as tablets. Although helpful, the
bigger monitors aren’t always only for convenience, rather, instead, display screen sizes are growing
to accommodate larger batteries. Computers have getting slimmer, but battery energy stays the same.
Increased cost and time to market – Embedded systems are lightly constrained by cost. The need
originates to drive better approaches when designing the IoT devices in order to handle the cost
modelling or cost optimally with digital electronic components.
Designers also need to solve the design time problem and bring the embedded device at the right time
to the market.
Security of the system – Systems have to be designed and implemented to be robust and reliable and
have to be secure with crypto-graphic algorithms and security procedures. It involves different
approaches to secure all the components of embedded systems from prototype to deployment.
Deployment challenges in IoT :
Connectivity – It is the foremost concern while connecting devices, applications and cloud platforms.
Connected devices that provide useful front and information are extremely valuable. But poor
connectivity becomes a challenge where IoT sensors are required to monitor process data and supply
information.
Cross platform capability – IoT applications must be developed, keeping in mind the technological
changes of the future. Its development requires a balance of hardware and software functions. It is a
challenge for IoT application developers to ensure that the device and IoT platform drivers the best
performance despite heavy device rates and fixings.
Data collection and processing – In IoT development, data plays an important role. What is more
critical here is the processing or usefulness of stored data. Along with security and privacy,
development teams need to ensure that they plan well for the way data is collected, stored or
processed within an environment.
Lack of skill set –
All of the development challenges above can only be handled if there is a proper skilled resource
working on the IoT application development. The right talent will always get you past the major
challenges and will be an important IoT application development asset.

1.9. Industry IOT vs Consumer IOT

Consumer IoT
As a starting point, a consumer is someone who buys goods or services for personal use. Now, if we
talk about “Consumer IoT," we're just adding the smart side.
Basically, Consumer IoT solutions are focused on individual users or families through the use of
wearables, smart home applications, and personal monitoring devices. A suitable example are voice
smart assistants such as Amazon’s Echo, Google’s Home, and Apple’s HomePod; in other words,
products that make our lives easier by performing tasks or services for us. Another common example
are smart thermostats, which help reduce utility costs by turning the HVAC system on just when it’s
needed, and off when the indoor climate is in the perfect conditions for us, even if you're away from
home. These devices could last many years, but they tend to be replaced with the newest versions
launched with the advent of new tech generations. We can even go so far to say that this is their form
of routine maintenance or routine upgrades as time passes.
The common connectivity used in this kind of solutions are Bluetooth, WiFi, and ZigBee. These
technologies offer short-range communication, suitable for applications deployed in limited spaces
such as houses, or small offices.
Industrial IoT
Unlike Consumer IoT, Industrial IoT targets existing automated industrial systems looking for
dramatic improvements in productivity and efficiency. The most common sectors that come to mind
could be large scale factories or manufacturing plants, but these are also known for monitoring
utilities and expensive assets. Basically, we can say that we’re entering a whole new era of IoT.
The existing automated industrial systems inside factories tend to be older because the systems may
have been installed more than a decade ago, therefore, integrating the information from these systems
to support IoT could get more complicated than commercial IoT, due to the tasks that integrators have
to do carry out, manage, and adapt to the existing infrastructure.
In order to allow for a suitable and scalable solution, industrial solutions should include gateways.
Basically, these gateways can be a device or a software program that allows for the connection
between the Cloud and sensors or controllers. One of the principal uses of gateways are to translate
the protocols used in the manufacturing plant to the supported one to handle data with the Cloud.
Aside from this, gateways are efficient avenues for data logging and processing solutions, allowing
integrators to offer more user customization, as well as running user applications in order to adapt
them for specific industrial processes.

1.10. IoT Levels

Developing an IoT Level Template system consists of the following components:
Device: These may be sensors or actuators capable of identifying, remote sensing, or monitoring.
Resources: These are software components on IoT devices for accessing and processing. storing
software components or controlling actuators connected to the device. Resources also include
software components that enable network access.
Controller Service: It is a service that runs on the device and interacts with web services. The
controller service sends data from the device to the web service and receives commands from the
application via web services for controlling the device.
Database: Stores data generated from the device
Web Service: It provides a link between IoT devices, applications, databases, and analysis
components.
Analysis Component: It performs an analysis of the data generated by the IoT device and generates
results in a form which are easy for the user to understand.
Application: It provides a system for the user to view the system status and view product data. It also
allows users to control and monitor various aspects of the IoT system.

IoT Levels
IoT level 1 : IoT systems have a single device that performs sensing or actuation, stores, analyses it
and hosts the application, IoT system-level-l is the best example for modeling low complexity and
low-cost solution where the analysis requirement is comprehensive and data involved is not big.
Example: We can understand with the help of an eg. let's look at the IoT device that monitors the
lights in a house. The lights are controlled through switches. The database has maintained the status of
each light and also REST services deployed locally allow retrieving and updating the state of each
light and trigger the switches accordingly. For controlling the lights and applications, the application
has an interface. The device is connected to the internet and hence the application can be accessed
remotely as well.

Fig. IoT Level-1

IoT level 2
A node performs sensing/actuation and local analysis. Data is stored in the cloud. this level is
facilitated where the data involved is big and primary analysis is not comprehensive

Example: Cloud-based application is used for monitoring and controlling the IoT system A single
node monitors the soil moisture in the field Which is sent to the database on the cloud using REST
APIS. The controller service continuously monitors moisture levels

IoT level 3
At this level, the application is cloud-based. A single node monitors the environment and stores data
in the cloud. This is suitable where data is comprehensive and analysis 1 computationally intensive.
Example: A node is monitoring a package using devices like an accelerometer and gyroscope. These
devices track vibration levels. controller service sends sensor data to the cloud in the rear time using
Web-Socket APL. Data is stored in the cloud and visualized using a cloud-based application. The
analysis component triggers an alert if vibration levels cross a threshold.
IoT level 4
At this level, Multiple nodes collect information and store it in the cloud. Local and rent server nodes
are used to grant and receive information collected in the cloud from various devices. Observer nodes
can process information and use it for applications but not perform control functions, This level is the
best solution where data involvement is big, requirement analysis is comprehensive and multiple
nodes are required,
Example: Analysis is done on the cloud and the entire IoT system has monitored the cloud using an
application. Noise monitoring of an area requires various nodes to function independently of each
other. Each has its own controller service. Data is stored in a cloud database.

IoT level 5
In this level Nodes present locally are of two types end odes and coordinator nodes End nodes collect
data and perform sensing or actuation or both. Coordinator nodes collect data from end nodes and
send it to the cloud. Data is stored and analyzed in the cloud. This level is best for WSN, where the
data involved is big and the requirement analysis is comprehensive.
Example: A monitoring system has various components: end nodes collect various data from the
environment and send it to the coordinator node. The coordinator node acts as a gateway and allows
the data to be transferred to cloud storage using REST API. The controller service on the coordinator
node sends data to the cloud.
IoT Level-6
At this level, the application is also cloud-based and data is stored in the cloud-like of levels. Multiple
independent end nodes perform sensing and actuation and send d to the cloud. The analytics
components analyze the data and store the results in the cloud database. The results are visualized
with a cloud-based application. The centralized controller is aware of the status of all the end nodes
and sends control commands to the nodes.
Example: Weather monitoring consists of sensors that monitor different aspects of the system. The
end nodes send data to cloud storage. Analysis of components, applications, and storage areas in the
cloud. The centralized controller controls all nodes and provides inputs
1.11. Machine-to-Machine (M2M) Communications
Machine to machine (M2M) refers to networking of Machines for the purpose of remote monitoring
and control and data exchange. The end-to-end architecture for M2M systems comprising of M2M
area networks, Communications Network and application domain. An M2M area network comprises
of machines which have embedded hardware module for sensing actuation and communication.
Various Communication protocols can be used for M2M local area network such as Zigbee ,
Bluetooth , Modbus M –bus, wireless, power LINE Communication ,6LoWPAN. These
Communications protocols provide connectivity between M2M nodes within and M2M area network.

The Communications Network provides connectivity to remote m2m area network. communication
network can use wired or wireless network. The M2M area network use either proprietary or non IP
based protocol, the communication network uses IP-based networks. Since non IP based protocols are
used within M2M area networks, the M2M nodes within one network cannot communicate with
nodes in an external networks. To enable the communication between remote M2M area networksm
M2M gateway are used.
The communication between the M2M nodes and the M2M Gateway is based on the
communication protocol. M2M Gateway protocol translation to enable IP connectivity for M2M .
M2M Gateway act as a proxy performing translation from / to native protocol to M2M area network.
M2M data is gathered into point solution such as enterprise applications, service management
application for remote monitoring applications. M2M has various application domain such as smart
metering, Home Automation , industrial Automation, smart grid
1.12. Cyber Physical System(CPS)
A Cyber Physical System (CPS) is a platform consisting of a mechanical system managed by
computer algorithms and tightly connected with the Internet and its networked users.

The platform's physical-mechanical components, represented by smart sensors and actuators, and
software components, represented by computer and networking devices, are inextricably linked. In
other words, CPS refers to a collection of physical devices ('hardware') that are controlled by
computer-based algorithms, most of which are software.

According to that definition, personal computers are CPS devices, and any physical device controlled
by an algorithm might be considered a computer. In this situation, CPS would represent all digital
computers in the world, not just 'standard' PCs, but everything that comes with an electronic system
that employs digital algorithms – or can be an extension of such systems.

Physical (or 'hardware') and software components are inextricably connected in Cyber-Physical
Systems, with the potential to function in a variety of spatial and temporal modes. They can exhibit a
variety of behaviors that alter dynamically with the setting.

Cyber- Physical Systems (CPSs) are based on the seamless integration of computer algorithms and
physical components. These systems connect digital and analog devices, interfaces, sensors, networks,
actuators, and computers to the natural environment as well as to man-made objects and buildings.

Just as the Internet changed the way people interacted with information, cyber-physical systems are
changing how people engage with the real environment. Simultaneously, the size and intrinsic variety
of these systems provide enormous technical hurdles.
To formalize their design, manage and regulate them in a scalable, efficient, and secure manner, and
assure their use, new technical techniques are required.

1.13. Web-of-Things (WoT)

Why Do We Need the Web of Things (WoT)?
There’s no doubt that the internet of things (IoT) has made things easier for us, but it also brings in
complexities as the number of devices around us increases. One of the significant hurdles in the
widespread adoption of IoT has been the difficulty communicating and managing all these devices.
To communicate with your ten IoT devices, you need ten mobile applications. This won’t be
convenient as you will have to switch between one app to another. Unfortunately, that is happening
with most IoT devices.
The problem is that there’s not a single “lingua franca” spoken by every object – there are hundreds!
The worst part is that most of these IoT protocols and standards aren’t compatible with each other,
and for this reason, the IoT hasn’t been able to actualize its full potential.
Connecting devices to the internet and giving them IP addresses is only the first step towards the
internet of things as it facilitates data exchange. However, it doesn’t guarantee that devices understand
what it means.
That’s why we need something like HTTP, a universal way to transfer data in text, images, sound, and
other media elements so that devices communicate with each other. The Web of Things – or WoT – is
what fills this vacuum by using and adapting Web protocols to connect anything in the physical world
and give it a presence on the World Wide Web!
Definition of Web of Things (WoT)
Web of Things (WoT) refers to a set of standards formed by the world wide web consortium (W3C) to
facilitate the interoperability, fragmentation, and usability of the Internet of Things (IoT). In other
words, it is a subset of the internet of things (IoT) and is built around software standards such as
REST, HTTP, and URIs to allow devices to interact with one another.
WoT vs. IoT

When we look from a distance, the purpose served by both IoT and WoT is very similar. Their motive
is to connect smart devices to the internet. There are some minor differences on paper, but they play a
significant role when you know the critical meaning behind them. When trying to elaborate their
differences, the purpose each serves is the same, but the implementation is where the difference
becomes apparent.
When you compare the internet of things with cooking, it is the utensil of a dish. It does not get
affected by what is being put into it or the result. It is just serving its purpose as a medium for the
ingredients to be mixed. It connects all the ingredients but does not confirm whether the outcome will
be delicious or sour.
Whereas, when we talk about the web of things, all the other necessary things build the entire recipe -
ingredients, spices, herbs, or stove. Everything combines to become the web of things.
IoT is the resolved networking layer between all the devices. That means every individual device
needs a medium to communicate with one another. IoT development services serve the purpose of
providing every device with a medium to transport information from point A to point B.
However, it has nothing to do with how the data transfers, what the information is, or the purpose of
reaching the desired destination. This is a huge limitation that becomes quite noticeable.
Without such standards, it doesn’t make sense to call it the “internet” of things. WoT bridges this gap
as it works as an application layer. WoT fixes the rules of the road. The pure existence of WoT is to set
systematic paths for the information to transfer between points and ensure compatibility with source
and destination.
WoT is not a competition or a substitute for IoT but rather a subset of it. The purpose of WoT is to
enhance the features of IoT. It fulfills the purpose by curating the standard definitions and models on
how the devices will be represented on the internet.
The Web of Things (WoT) Architecture:

The WoT is composed of many different progressing architectural standards. Many organizations
proposed the standards prompted by W3C. This complete standardization by the world wide web
consortium is the foundation of various building blocks. These are:
Layer 1 - Accessibility / Access
Layer 2 - Findability / Find
Layer 3 - Sharing / Share
Layer 4 - Composition / Compose
Let’s dive into these to gain a better understanding.
Layer 1- Accessibility:
This layer converts anything into a web thing. This will enable us to interact with the converted web
thing with HTTP requests. To put it more simply, a web thing is a REST API that permits us to
communicate with anything in the actual world.
 HTML
 REST API
 URL / URI
 Gateway
 HTTP
Layer 2 - Find-ability:
It is one thing to make the data more accessible, but it is wholly different than the applications can
understand what the data is or the purpose. For this purpose, the second layer comes into action.
It ensures that other HTTP users can use your device, and it is easily discover-able and workable by
different WoT applications. It is done by resting the semantic web standards to explain the things and
their purpose of existing.
 REST Crawler
 Linked Data
 Link Header
 Search Engines
 JSON
Layer 3 - Sharing:
Just like you secure your piggy bank away from your sibling’s reach, this layer does the same work
for WoT. This layer’s job is to find a safe way to transfer the data across services securely. Different
protocols are used at this level, such as TLS, OAuth, etc.
 Social Networks
 OAuth
 RDFa
 Encryption
 Authentication

Layer 4 - Composition:
The fourth step is to find a way and tools to build an application for the web of things. At the
Composition layer, web tools span from web toolkits (JavaScript SDKs) that provide a higher-level
abstraction to dashboards with programmable widgets, and lastly, physical mashup tools like Node-
RED.
 Systems Integration
 Node-RED
 Automated UI generation
 Web Application
 IFTTT
An Example of Web of Things (WoT) Application:
Let’s say you are trying to build a smart home, and you buy many IoT-enabled appliances such as
Smart TV, refrigerator, door, CCTV cameras, etc. To manage these things from your smartphone, you
will need to have different applications for different devices. Plus, you will need to ensure that these
devices communicate to put them in use.
Let’s understand this with a practical example. In case of a burglary, you want your CCTV camera to
give a signal to your security alarm system and warn you. This can be made possible by WoT as it
establishes communication protocols and standards to create a ‘web’ of things.

1.14. Interoperability in IoT

Interoperability is the ability of two or more devices, systems, platforms or networks to work in
conjunction. Interoperability enables communication between heterogeneous devices or system in
order to achieve a common goal. However, the current devices and systems are fragmented with
respect to the communication technologies, protocols, and data formats. This diversity makes it
difficult for devices and systems in the IoT network to communicate and share their data with one
another. The utility of IoT network is limited by the lack of interoperability.
Why Interoperability is Important in Context of IoT ?
 To fulfill the IoT objectives
 Physical objects can interact with any other physical objects and can share their information
 Any devices can communicate with other devices anytime from anywhere Machine to Machine
communication (M2M) , Device to Device Communication (D2D), Device to Machine
Communication (D2M)
 Seamless device integration with IoT network
 Why Interoperability is required ?
Heterogeneity
 Different wireless communication protocols such as ZigBee(IEEE 802.15.4), Bluetooth (IEEE
802.15.1), GPRS, 6LowPAN, and Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11)
 Different wired communication protocols like Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) and Higher Layer LAN
Protocols (IEEE 802.1)
 Different programming language used in computing systems and website such as JavaScript,
JAVA, C, C++,Visual Basic, PHP, and Python
 Different hardware platforms such as Crossbow, NI, etc.
Different Types of Interoperability ?
 User Interoperability: Interoperability problem between a user and a device
 Device Interoperability: Interoperability problem between two different devices
Example of Device and User Interoperability
 Using IoT, both A and B provide a real-time security service
 A is placed at Delhi, India, while B is placed at Tokyo, Japan
 A,B, U use Hindi, Japanese, and English language , respectively
 User U wants real-time service of CCTV camera from the device A and B
User Interoperability

The following problems need to be solved

 Device identification and categorization for discovery
 Syntactic interoperability for device interaction
 Semantic interoperability for device interaction
syntactic Interoperability for Device Interaction
 The interoperability between devices and device user in term of message formats
 The message format from a device to a user is understandable for the user's computer
 On the other hand, the message format from the user to the device is executable by the device

1.15. User Vs device interoperability