CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS.

ARCHES

Arches are structural members used in a building to bridge across the opening of doors, windows,
or cupboards etc. to support the weight of the superimposed masonry by arch action.

The arch may be defined as a mechanical arrangements of wedge shaped blocks of stone or bricks
which mutually support each other and entire arch is supported at ends by piers or abutments. The
wedge shaped units are so arranged together along a curve line that they balance their own weight
by mutual pressure and exert a vertical pressure only which can be sustained by support.

Stability consideration of arches depends on friction between surfaces of voussoirs (a wedge-

shaped or tapered stone used to construct an arch.) and cohesion of mortar.

• Stability of arches is endangered by :

(i) Crushing of arch material

(ii) Sliding of voussoirs

(iii) Rotation / overturning about an edge

(iv) Differential settlement of supports

To maintain the stability or equilibrium of arches, points to be noted

(I) Crushing of arch ;-
To prevent crushing of arch material which occurs when thrust at some point of arch creates the
safe crushing strength of material, points considered are:-
(a) Size of voussoirs should be adequate to resist anticipated thrust.
(b) For small spans , thickness at arch ring is kept uniform from crown to springing

(c) For large spans (> 7 cm) , thickness of arch ring may be increased at springing by about 20%
to thickness at crown.
(d) Only first class blocks should be used and for large spans arches may be strengthened by steel
reinforced so that safe crushing strength is not exceeded.

(II) Sliding of voussoirs :- To prevent sliding of one over after-:

(a) All bed joints should be perpendicular to the line of the least resistance, normally they are
made normal to the curve of arch, where they are nearly perpendicular to the line of least
resistance.
(b) Depth of the voussoirs should be adequate to resist the tendency of joints to open and slide
upon one after other.

(III) Rotation about wedge -:To prevent this

(a) Line of resistance/thrust at any section should be within middle third of arch height.
(b) Thickness of arch and its curve are so designed that time of thrust atleast fall within the
section and crosses each joint away from edge.

(IV) To safeguard against differential settlement :-

(a) Abutments should be sufficiently strong to resist the thrust of arch due to self-weight and
superimposed loads.
For abutments of ample size – segment arch is strongest
For smaller size of supports- semi-circular / pointed arch is used
Semi-circular arch is strongest and exerts no thrust on abutments and piers.
(b) Whatever may be the shape of arch, it should be symmetrical to avoid differential settlement
of support.

Types of arches
(1)Classification according to no. of centres

-: Outline of intrados / soffit may be formed by a single arc / combination of arcs of various radii
and centres and so named as one centre, two centred, 3 centred arcs
* One centred arch- They have only one centre .The types are semi-circle, segmental arch(less
than a semi-circle), horse shoe arch (more than a semi-circle),
Stilted arch (semi-circular with 2 verticals portions at springing’s), bulls eye arch (complete
circular arch)
* Two centred arch- They are
(a)Blunt arch- Both centres are within the arch itself.
(b)Gothic/Equilateral/pointed arch-Radii of arches are equal to span and centres are on springing
points.
(c)Acute/laneet arch-both the centres lie on the springing line but outside the springing points.
* Three centred arch-
(a)Elliptical arch-It is the form of semi ellipse, Two centres are used for making up the ends and
the third is used to draw the central position.
(b)3 centred drop arch-procedure here is reversed. Ends of the arch formed by arc, central portion
is drawn by the other 2 centres.
*Four centred arch-Two arch are on the springing line and two are
Below the springing line.
*five centred arch-It looks like semi-elliptical arch. Its procedure is as following
(i) first draw the springing line and divide into 5 parts.
(ii)With centres as A and B draw arches of radius equal to span intersecting at point C 5. Join C5
with 2 and 3.and produce indefinitely.
(iii)With centres as C1 and C2 and radius 3 divisions(i/e 1-4) draw arches intersecting
2. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SHAPE FORMED BY SOFFIT/INTRADOS-:
(I)FLAT ARCH (straight/ square / camber arch)-:
The extrados is horizontal and intrados is given a slight rise/camber of about 10 to 15mm/metre
width of span so as to allow for slight settlement of it. The angle of skewback with horizontal is
usually 60 degree. The depth of the arch is generally kept 3 or 4 courses of brick.
They are limited to span upto 1.5m unless strengthened by steel reinforcement.
(II)French / Dutch arch-: Similar in design with flat arch but differs in method of construction.
This is not so sound in construction and so used for small inside opening or narrow spans only.
(III)Semi-circular arch-: The shape of the arch soffit is a semi-circle. The centre of the arch lies
on the springing line.
(IV)Segmental arch-:The centre lies below the springing line. The bed joint of voussoirs radiate
from the centre of arch. Depth may be 20cm, 30cm or multiple of half brick. Commonly used for
arch.

(VI)Relieving arch-:Generallyconstructed over a wooden lintel or over a flat arch. It relieves the
load of lintel or flat arch. The ends should be kept inside the solid wall. These days lintels restrict
the use of relieving arch.
(VII)Pointed arch / Gatchic –It is formed intersection of curves at crown.Ther are 5 forms of
these types of rches.i/e drop , equilateral , tudor, larcet and venetin.
(VIII)Venetin arch-: This one form of pointed arch which has a deper depth at crown other than
arch springing line. It has 4 centres on springing line

3. CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO MATERIALS AND WORKMANSHIP

INVOLVED IN CONSTRUCTION

1. Stone Arch.

Rubble Arch-
*They are made of roughly dressed stones arranged and fitted into a definite arch shape by
cement.
*All the stones used may not be of same size and so joints are thicker.
*They are relatively weak and so used for interior types of works.
*Their use is limited to span of 1 m.
*Up to a thickness of 40 cm stones are laid in one ring for full depth .
*for greater thickness than 40 cm two rings alternative courses of harder and stretcher.
Ashler Arch-
*Here strong are properly cut and dressed to true wedge shape (i. e voussoirs)

*Up to a depth of 60 cm, voussiors are made of full thickness of arch and are set in time (cement
mortar)
*To known the no. and size of voussoirs and the key stove of arch, a full size arch is first set out
on platform level and then sizes of stones are marked on platform after leaving a gap for joints.
Templates are made for voussoirs and key stone of required shape, finally stones are out and
dressed to wedge shapes of templates and arch is laid.
*They have good appearance and used for superior work.

2. brick Arch.

Rough Brick Arch-

*Made with ordinary bricks, which are net wedges shaped and so joints are wider at extrados than
the intrados.
*Generally they are constructed with half brick rings.
*They are cheap, poor in strength and appearance (suitable for consealed work)

Rough Cut Brick Arch-

*Ordinary bricks are roughly cut with a brick laying are to form wedge shaped voussoirs. So
joints are not appealing to eyes.
*They are considered not appealing to eyes and so unsuitable for exposed work
*Used where facing brick work is finished with plaster coat.

5. CAVITY WALL
A cavity wall or hollow wall is the one which consists of two separate walls called leader or skins
with a cavity or gap in between them.
The two leaves of a cavity wall may be of equal thickness if it is a non load bearing.
The internal leaf may be thicker than the external leaf to meet the structural requirements.
Cavity walls are often constructed forgiving better thermal insulation to the building.
It also prevents the dampness to enter and act as sound insulation.
The inner and outer skins should not be less than 10cm each(half brick).

ADVANTAGES :-
 There is no direct contact between the inner and outer leaves of the wall (except at wall
ties). Hence moister (dampness) can not travel inside the building.
 The cavity between the two leaves is full of air which is bad conductor of heat. hence
transmission of heat from external face to the inside the room is very much reduced.
 Cavity wall have about 25% greater insulating value than the solid walls.
 Cavity walls also offer good insulation against sound.
 The nuisanceof efflorescence is also very much reduced.
 They are cheap and economical .
 Loads and foundation are reducedbecause offission solid.

GENERAL FEATURES OF CAVITY WALLS:-

In case of brick cavity wall ,each is half brick thick . Such wall is capable of taking load of two
storyed of the domestic type , if heavier loads are to be supported ,the thickness of inner leaf can
be increased

The cavity wall should neither be less then 40mm more for more than 100mm in width .
The inner and outer skins are adequately tied together by means of the special walls ties placed in
suitable arrangement , at the rate of at least ties to a square meter of wall area .
The ties are staggered .ties must be placed at 300mm vertical intervals at all angles and doors and
windows jambs to increase stability .
Since the cavity separates the two leaves of the wall, to prevent moisture to enter , it is essential
to provide a vertical damp proof course at window and door reveals .
The damp proof course should be flexible.

PURPOSE FOR PROVIDING A CAVITY WALL:-

1.PREVENTATION OF DAMPNESS:-When cavity wall construction is adopted there is

considerable decrease in the prevention of dampness from outside to inside of the building.
2.HEAT INSULATION:-The air in the cavity acts as a non-conductor of heat and hence the
uniform temperature is maintained inside the building.
3.SOUND INSULATION:- The considerable portion of external noise is not allowed to enter
inside the building by adopting cavity wall construction.
4.LOAD ON FOUNDATION:-Due to less solid thickness of wall the loads on foundation are
considerably reduced.
5. EFFLORESCENCE:-The construction of cavity wall results in the reduction of nuisance of
efflorescence to a great extent.
6.ECONOMICAL:-In addition to above mentioned advantages, it is found that the construction
cost of a cavity wall is 20% less than the construction cost of a corresponding solid wall .

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF CAVITY WALL:-

A cavity wall is constructed of two leaves that is inner and outer with a hollow space in between
them. The width of cavity varies from 50mm to 100mm and it stands vertically. The outer is
generally of ½ brick thickness and the inner wall may be of ½ of 1 brick thickness.
The two portions of the wall are connected by means of metal ties or specially prepared bonded
bricks. The metal ties are generally of wrought iron or mild steel and they are coated with tar or
galvanized so as to have protection against rust.
Where corrosion is heavy, the metal ties of copper or bronze may be adopted. The metal ties are
placed at a horizontal distance of 900 mm and a vertical distance of 450 mm. The arrangement of
ties is kept staggered .
The outer wall is generally constructed in stretcher bond , but it may be constructed in the flemish
bond or english garden-wall bond or flemish garden-wall bond by using bats for headers.
As far as possible, there should be no intimate contact between two leaves of the cavity wall.

Construction at base:-
The cavity may be started from the top of foundation concrete& the hollow space, up to a level of
about 100mm to 300mm below the damp-proofing course at plinth level, may be filled with plain
cement concrete of proportion 1:2:4.
But, as the cavity below damp-proof course does not serve any purpose ,the brickwork up to a
level of 100mm to 300mm below the damp-proofing course at plinth level may be constructed
solidly.
The increased thickness of wall will also be helpful in supporting the load to be carried by the
wall.

Construction at opening:-
In the plan, the cavity is discontinued at the opening such as doors, windows, etc. The jambs of
openings for doors and windows are constructed solid either in brickwork or with layers of slates
or tiles.
If metal windows are provided, specially prepared metal frames can be used for this purpose.
An inclined flexible D.P.C is provided to act as a bridge over the cavity. the D.P.C should be
extend lengthwise beyond the frame for a distance of about 150mm on either side.
Construction at top:-
It is necessary to take adequate steps at top to prevent the entry of dampness to the inside portion
of the wall.
The cavity may be constructed up to the coping of the parapet wall or alternatively it may be
closed at the bottom of the parapet wall by a damp proofing course.

In case of a pitched roof, the tops of two portions are connected by solid brickwork to support the
roof truss and damp-proofing course is inserted immediately below this solid portion.
Ventilation:-
It is necessary to provide enough ventilation to the hollow space of the cavity wall. This is
achieved by providing openings at top at bottom of the wall so that a free current of air is
established. The openings are to be fitted with gratings so that entry of rats and other varmintsto
the hollow space is prevented. Sometimes, the air bricks are used for this purpose.
Shape and slope of ties:-
The metal ties which are used to connect the outer and inner portions should be so shaped and
placed that water from outer portion does not pass along inner portions. They should thus be
sloped away from the inner portion.

Dropping of mortar, bats etc.:-

During construction of a cavity wall, it should be seen that mortar , bats, etc., do not fall in the
hollow space. The presence of such material in the hollow space seriously affects the working of
a cavity wall. For this purpose, a wooden strip of width slightly less than that of the hollow space,
is supported on ties and it is raised as the work proceeds. Also, some bricks at the bottom are left
out and bats, etc. Falling in the cavity are removed from these holes. When the work is
completed, this bottom portion is sealed by filling it with bricks. It also be seen that the vermins
or mosquitoes do not find access in the cavity.
Design:-
The outside portion of a cavity wall should be treated only as a protecting skin and not as a
member of a load bearing wall. The inside portion should have sufficient thickness to carry safely
the load coming on it.