EJ1289938
EJ1289938
EJ1289938
2021, 6(1), 04
ISSN: 2468-4368
Citation: Yang, D., Baek, Y., Ching, Y.-H., Swanson, S., Chittoori, B., & Wang, S. (2021). Infusing
Computational Thinking in an Integrated STEM Curriculum: User Reactions and Lessons Learned. European
Journal of STEM Education, 6(1), 04. https://doi.org/10.20897/ejsteme/9560
ABSTRACT
This study describes the design and implementation of an integrated STEM + computational thinking (CT)
curriculum, which was guided by project-based learning, for integrating CT in after-school programs. The
study examined teachers and students’ reactions to the curriculum and the challenges in implementing such
a curriculum. Results show that most students and teachers reacted positively toward the curriculum. Main
challenges to implementing such a curriculum were also identified. Lessons learned from the curriculum
implementation are discussed. The study contributes to the integration of CT and development of CT in
students. It also contributes to teacher professional development regarding CT integration.
Keywords: computational thinking (CT), integration of CT, integrated STEM, curriculum design, project-
based learning (PBL), after-school programs
INTRODUCTION
Copyright © 2021 by Author/s and Licensed by Lectito BV, Netherlands. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons
Attribution License which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Yang et al. / User reactions and lessons learned
LITERATURE REVIEW
CT is relatively new for many K-12 researchers and educators. However, the fundamental skills emphasized in
CT are vital for STEM learning because of their relationship with the STEM disciplinary processes of modeling,
reasoning, and problem solving (Sengupta et al., 2013). The STEM subjects also provide a natural context for CT
learning (Grover & Pea, 2018). The Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) recognized CT as a key scientific
practice (NGSS Lead States, 2013), which has prompted various attempts to integrate CT into K-12 classrooms
based on limited research (Stanton et al., 2017). Moreover, the National Science Board (2010) has also supported
teaching CT in K-12 education. In addition, the review of CT integration in several European countries and the
United States has shown that including “CT aspects in the curriculum is relevant in all countries” (Mannila et al.,
2014, p. 9).
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the lack of changes accompanying the advances of the society (Stocklmayer et al., 2010). For example, the reform
within a formal curriculum such as the implementation of a student-centered learning approach like the project-
based learning for real world problem solving has always been challenging and faced with resistance (Marx et al.,
1997). One reason for such challenge and resistance lies in the teachers’ lack of time and expertise to explore
innovative practice to implement the needed changes within a formal curriculum (Stocklmayer et al., 2010). The
challenge in providing students with relevant problem solving and learning activities often results in an outdated
curriculum that fails in equipping a workforce with desired skills.
Informal programs and curricula are highly adaptable and are an ideal context for bridging both formal and
informal programs for STEM learning (Braund & Resiss, 2007; Fallik et al., 2013) while offering a semi-structured
environment for hands-on, immersive, and authentic learning to occur. For an informal program and curriculum,
its loose structure without pre-designed learning objectives nor the mandate for meeting the standard testing allows
both teachers and students to explore a topic in a more relaxed way (Linn & Hsi, 2000). Thus informal programs
and curricula provide an ideal learning context for experimenting interventions and innovative practice (Braund &
Resiss, 2006). Researchers and practitioners are increasingly focusing on bridging informal and formal programs
as both have advantages and disadvantages (Braund & Resiss, 2006; Fallik et al., 2013). Eshach (2007) suggested
that bridging formal and informal curricula can be achieved by recognizing the advantages and disadvantages of
both curricula and implementing the desired learning experience accordingly.
In after-school venues, students have the time to engage in complex projects that are better suited to nurturing
CT than during the narrow windows of opportunity in formal settings. An after-school program is well suited to
integrate CT in STEM learning, allowing students and teachers to work as partners so that everyone is learning
collaboratively (Linn & Hsi, 2000). Community centers are particularly well-suited to informal learning as they
offer a setting in which learning activities are typically expected over a sustained period of time. After-school
settings also give teachers the freedom to experiment and not worry about class time being taken away.
Additionally, there are too few K-12 students who are exposed to CT in non-school programs (PCAST, 2010).
Thus, an informal, after-school setting could be the most appropriate, as well as needed for implementing a
complex curriculum integrated with CT.
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METHODS
The STEM+CT projects also included final learning outcomes, student activities, assessment, and required
resources (Table 1). Both projects were designed for small groups of four to six students based on the sharing of
project materials such as Lego Mindstorms kits, as well as the project tasks and available time. Both projects
covered multiple STEM subjects and provided learning objectives based on the guiding question and its sub-
questions. The overall driving questions were: How can we detect life on Mars using a robot? and How can we
build a bridge for the Mountain (pseudonym) River that is strong enough to resist earthquake forces?
Learning Activities
The Life on Mars project was designed to engage students to practice and apply CT and integrate science, math,
engineering, computer science, and technology through robotics and programming. Scientific knowledge and
concepts (e.g., forms of life, the planet Mars) and robotics and programming concepts were introduced in the first
four weeks. Students assembled robots using Lego Mindstorms kits and programmed the robots with Mindstorms
EV3 software. The purpose of programming the robot was to find “water” (a green dot) on a surface that simulated
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Mars, since water is most likely where life would be found. Figure 1 shows a robot that was assembled and
programmed by students.
The CT integration in this project was beyond the stand-alone addition of programming or coding. It supported
students’ learning of STEM concepts related to the Martian environment in order to solve the problem of how to
use a robot to detect life on Mars. At the start of the fifth week, students assembled and programed robots, which
were showcased in week eight in a race to detect life (the green dot in Figure 1). The team that found “life” in the
shortest amount of time, won.
The Bridge Design project was designed to have students apply CT and integrate STEM through engineering
design and bridge building. At the core of the engineering design process were: defining and identifying a problem;
developing possible solutions; designing and testing prototypes; and making revisions (Chabalengula & Mumba,
2017). In this project, scientific knowledge and engineering concepts (e.g., earthquakes, bridges) were introduced
in the first four weeks. Engineering design concepts (e.g., developing possible solutions and building prototypes)
were introduced in later weeks while students were designing and building bridges. Starting in the fifth week,
students built an earthquake-resistant bridge with K’Nex kits and prepared for a final competition. Each of the
K’Nex pieces had an associated price tag, which the students used to keep track of bridge costs for the final
competition. In the eighth week, students competed for the best bridge design judged by design specifications
(width of at least 2 feet, height of at least 1.5 feet, having two towers, and meeting the pre-determined earthquake
testing criteria) plus the cost.
Embedded with CT
To facilitate the integration of CT, the research team highlighted some CT components for student hands-on
inquiry and problem-solving based on an extended review of literature (e.g., Brennan & Resnick, 2012; Grover &
Pea, 2013, 2018). Subsequently, 11 CT components displayed in Table 2 were embedded in both projects based
on our curriculum’s learning objectives and activities (see Table 1).
The STEM+CT curriculum focused on students’ ability (e.g., practices) to solve problems using CT (Grover &
Pea, 2018). The vocabulary and terminology (Table 2) focuses on student computational literacy and the use of
appropriate CT terminology while communicating their thoughts and actions during scientific inquiry. CT
vocabulary and terminology usage can overlap with math and science in a STEM+C learning environment. The
majority of the CT components focuses on student ability to form and communicate problems (Grover & Pea,
2018) as well as solve problems (Wing, 2006). Specifically, abstraction, algorithms, conditional logic, data structures,
analysis and representation, decomposition, and heuristics focus on the thought process and logic in problem
solving. CT components of data collection, data structures, analysis and representation, pattern recognition, and
simulation and modeling focus on students communicating and dissecting problems while creating and generating
different questions, as well as resolving those questions. Communication focuses on both oral and written
descriptions of student inquiries, usually supported by visuals, graphics, or simulations. Since the PBL approach
emphasizes the importance of providing reflection and students voices, communication is one of the CT
components highlighted and embedded throughout the curriculum design. Table 2 also includes some curricular
examples of each embedded CT components.
The following screen capture is an example of how CT components were embedded in student inquiry
activities.
As shown in Figure 2, students collected data about Mars’ environment via watching videos and reading
websites (e.g., What Is Mars? by NASA) that were selected by the researchers. Students were also guided by
questions during data collection and took notes about their findings. In one part of the curriculum, students worked
independently and in groups of two to three in collecting data on Mars’ environment. Students’ data collection in
this project involved gathering and obtaining data, and more importantly organizing them in the form of drawings
or student-produced graphics. This organization was to identify the key characteristics and patterns of the data to
answer a research question such as what the environment of Mars looks like. Finally, students presented their
findings, along with the data they collected, to their peers (CT communication). The presentations were also
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Table 2. CT Embedded in the STEM+CT Curriculum
CT Component Description Example of Embedded CT
CT vocabulary Variables, data, modeling, testing and debugging, iterative, Test, analyze, debug, retest, solution
etc. (Brennan & Resnick, 2012; Lye & Koh, 2014)
Abstraction Reducing complexity and generalizing from specific Identifying each of the characteristics of strong bridges
instances to make sense of things (An & Lee, 2014; Lee et
al., 2011)
Algorithm Applying specific set of tools or sequence of steps Programming the Lego Mindstorms EV3’s software
(processes) to solve problems (Yadav, Zhou, Mayfield, blocks, testing and repeating until a task is competed
Hambrusch, & Korb, 2011)
Communication Written and oral descriptions supported by graphs, Presenting research finding via Google slides or other
visualizations, etc. (Astrachan & Briggs, 2012) visuals
Conditional logic Using strategy such as an “if-then-else” construct to Programming a robot using the if- then command/block
clarify problems and solutions (Wing, 2006)
Data collection Gathering data to define or solve a problem (Grover & Gathering and analyzing the simulated Mars area to
Pea, 2013) determine what path the robot should take
Data structures, Exploring data to find patterns, causes, trends, or results Using distance and speed to determine the time a robot
analysis and to facilitate the knowledge construction and problem should move in a specific direction
representation solving (Grover & Pea, 2013; CSTA, 2009)
Decomposition Simplifying problems or specifying steps to solve Determining which Lego Mindstorms EV3’s software
problems (Catlin & Woollard, 2014) blocks are needed for a robot to turn left or right, then
programming the blocks, testing and repeating until the
task is competed
Heuristics Applying experience-based strategy that facilitates Using the trial and error strategy while programming and
problem solving (Yadav et al., 2011) testing
Pattern recognition Recognizing repeated patterns such as iteration or Identifying the same characteristics of strong bridges
recursion (Grover & Pea 2013, 2018) from the data collected from different sources
Simulation and Manipulating data or concepts through controlled Using an online program to simulate the strength of a
modeling programs or exercises or creating such programs for data bridge while varying the values of the input variables
manipulations (CSTA, 2009)
followed by a discussion to reach a consensus on the common key characteristics of the Mars’ environment.
Students applied the CT components of data collection, data structure, abstraction and communication to answer
the research questions in the STEM+CT curriculum. In these activities, CT components of data collection, data
structures, analysis and representation as well as CT communication were embedded through the curriculum
design.
Another example of embedded CT in the curriculum is student practice of CT in problem solving. For example,
students had to translate the measurements of distance or degrees into input values while programming a robot to
go forward or to turn left or right. At the same time, the students had to interpret a physical action of a robot into
programming languages such as using the if- then command, which helped students develop CT skills and logical
thinking. The integrated STEM+CT curriculum provides student a learning context which was quite different than
what they usually practiced in the classrooms. The integration of CT and the design of the curriculum, such as the
built-in guiding questions and relevant resources for answering them, also supported student learning of science
and problem solving. Descriptions of CT and more examples of embedded CT components in the curriculum can
be found in Table 2. The examples of student practice of CT are centered on problem solving and engineering
design activities.
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or reduced lunches) elementary school. The community centers’ staff escorted the students to the classrooms of
their Title I schools where the project team and teachers would meet around 3:40 pm on the project days
(Mondays/Wednesdays or Tuesdays/Thursdays).
The focus group interviews were transcribed and prepared for analysis in Nvivo by one graduate research
assistant. Teachers’ reflections were imported into Excel for data analysis by another graduate research assistant.
The two graduate research assistants then conducted a thematic analysis to examine the teacher reflections and
student focus group interviews for themes by “identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns within data” (Braun &
Clarke, 2006, p. 79) independently. The data analysis was then reviewed and roughly 30% of the reflections and
interviews were analyzed by a faculty researcher. An inter-rater reliability of 96% based on the shared coding for
the reflections, and a similar inter-rater reliability of 88% for the interviews were found, which were higher than
the minimum acceptable threshold of 75% (Graham et al., 2012).
RESULTS
Student Practice of CT
Before presenting the research findings, we would like to share two examples of student work and student
reasoning to further illustrate student practice of CT components, which aims to serve as a backdrop for
understanding the teachers and students reactions to the curriculum as well as lessons learned from the curriculum
design and implementation. The first example is a screenshot of a student’s codes for programming the robot to
follow a path leading to the “life” on a simulated Mars. In this example, students had to use or practice various CT
components such as conditional logic (the if-then command) and heuristics (trial and error and debugging) to
accomplish the task.
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The second example provides a small vignette of student reasoning that took place during the discourse of
problem solving. A student was testing his robot and seemed frustrated that it was not working after trying the
same approach several times. A facilitator stepped in to find out what was going on and had the following
conversation.
Facilitator: Okay, so read the problem. So, you’re making the robot move straight at a speed of 60. That was… it’s doing right
there?
Student: I’m gonna put a speed of 100.
Facilitator: Now, what’s the problem? Is it 60 or 100?
Student: 100.
Facilitator: No.
Student: I want it to be 100 because ...I’ll know myself.
Even though this student was not following the written instructions to make the robot move at a speed of 60,
he persisted in trying his own value and engaged in thinking on his own. The student had to reason abstractly and
quantitatively while interpreting the physical action of a robot and translating the measurements of speed into
programming. The trial-and-error approach gave him the space to test his own reasoning. More student work and
artifacts demonstrating CT practice can be found in our recent report on elementary school students’ CT practice
in a bridge design challenge (Yang et al., 2019).
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more STEM activities and facilitate them in her classroom. In the Bridge Design project, all three teachers reflected
that they would incorporate similar hands-on activities in their own classrooms. One teacher wrote, “This experience
enhanced my skills in STEM and CT. I will bring this teaching experience to my third grade classroom. I learned a lot and [my
learning] will transfer to many areas.”
Insufficient Time
Throughout the implementation, the teachers kept reflecting that the time was insufficient to finish all the
planned activities. The teachers often had to cancel the recommended 10 minute break in the middle of each
session to make up time for the planned activities. For example, one teacher wrote, “I believe the amount of tasks
outlined in the lesson plans are still too ambitious and our group rushed through again to try and achieve all 3 challenges. The students
were not given a break at all, …let alone the recommended ten minutes of break.” Similarly, another wrote: “I think our biggest
challenge with the project thus far has been time. I think the amount of material we’re trying to squeeze into 90 minutes is really
difficult.” The lack of time was also corroborated by observations from the researchers present at each session.
After a few sessions, both the teachers and research team realized the issue of insufficient time. The teachers
started to work on reducing some activities while keeping the learning objectives intact with the research team’s
help.
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use the resources available .... Although I didn’t feel like I had much knowledge about the programming to help them, I was at least
able to guide them to the correct resources so they could attempt to figure it out on their own.”
The complex curriculum was also challenging for teachers facilitating the Bridge Design project. One teacher
wrote, “My biggest challenge was in figuring out how the K’Nex pieces work, but luckily, I had many students who could take that
on easily.” Similarly, another teacher reflected, “I feel that the lesson plans are a bit complex (too many activities, too many
readings) to accomplish during the allotted time, students and teachers feel rushed.”
I gave them [the students] a choice of presentation materials to generate more interest, I tried questioning
them as they worked and presented to see if they could clarify concepts…we did talk about being a
critical reader and I showed them how to use the illustrations and headings on the websites to quickly
find the information that they needed. Some of them were quite overwhelmed with the amount of
information they needed to read through.
DISCUSSION
The hands-on activities in both projects focused on learning and applying CT, and learning STEM content as
well as solving problems. For example, students learned about earthquakes, the engineering aspect of bridge design,
and then designed earthquake resistant bridges based on the STEM knowledge acquired in the Bridge Design
project. Similarly, students applied measurement skills (e.g., of angles, rotations, distance, and time) to program
their robots in the Life on Mars project. One student summarized this succinctly when asked what he learned from
his participation, “… I learned that, I didn’t know that you had to incorporate math and, uh, science and engineering. I thought it
would be just building the bridge.”
The curriculum inquiry was also supported by technology and tools. As technology-supported learning can
enable students to engage in scientific practices, when students use the tools, technology, and computational
techniques that real scientists use, students engage in career exploration and preparation. The design and
development of a STEM+CT curriculum paves the way for future research on what CT looks like within and
across disciplines, which is critical for CT integration in K-12 classrooms.
Finally, the implementation involved multiple stakeholders from higher education, the school district and
schools, and community centers, which helped “build a broad base of leadership and ownership” to amass all
necessary and resources (Stanton et al., 2017, p. 5); the involvement of multiple stakeholders also leads to long-
term sustainability of CT integration across K-12 education.
Overall, the teachers in both projects had positive reactions to the curriculum and viewed their experience
facilitating the curriculum as highly beneficial despite of some challenges presented herein regarding the design
and implementation of such a complex curriculum. The students interviewed also reacted positively to the
curriculum and expressed their desire to participate in a similar project in the future. Data analysis regarding the
effectiveness of the curriculum in terms of students’ learning of CT and STEM knowledge is ongoing.
CONCLUSIONS
Lessons Learned
As the curriculum design team (research team) was present at both implementation sites, they saw first-hand
the challenges in implementing the curriculum. To overcome the time issue and ensure a relatively relaxing
environment for both teachers and students, the researchers focused on the essential readings and materials for
providing necessary knowledge while revising the curriculum following the first around of implementation. The
overall structure of the curriculum (such as learning objectives and time frame) remained the same. During the
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revisions, some learning activities were fine-tuned and efforts to reduce reading materials and increase more hands-
on activities were sought.
The research team also specifically allocated time for team building and icebreaking as well as time to introduce
the overall guiding question for each project at the beginning of the revised curriculum. This helped ensure that
the students and teachers would have the time to get to know each other and have an overall picture of the project
before working with each other, regardless of the facilitator. The introduction of the project and the overall guiding
question is very important to provide the background to students so that they would be motivated to do the
necessary reading and research, rather than only wanting to do the activities.
For students’ low interest in reading and research, in addition to the up-front introduction of the overall guiding
question, the researchers also provided more videos and replaced some text materials with videos or graphics in
both projects. While working with the teachers during the implementation, the researchers became more
conscientious about making the curriculum materials “kid friendly” (e.g., more visuals) and more aligned to
students’ reading levels.
To help the teachers better lead such a complex curriculum/lesson plans, the research team made it clear that
teachers were not expected to be subject experts; instead they could and should assume the various roles of
learners, facilitators, or learners. Teachers were also encouraged to use materials outside of the curriculum to help
students solve the guiding question. The research team also added specific questions for research and inquiry
activities in different sessions so the learning objectives could be more focused on CT.
The research team also learned that it was really beneficial to be present during the implementation to provide
timely assistance for the teachers and students. However, access to the research team and content experts would
not be scalable. To help transfer and maintain the presence of content experts during the curriculum
implementation in other settings, the researchers have added facilitation prompts/questions in hands-on activities
provided by the experts during the curriculum revisions. The additional facilitation questions/prompts were
intended to help teachers better facilitate hands-on activities while students were exploring and solving various
problems.
For K-12 students to develop CT literacy, they had to learn to use CT and recognize the applications of CT
across disciplinary domains, which the PSP chart could serve as a tool helping achieve this purpose.
This paper contributes to the design and development of CT-rich STEM programs for K-12 students and the
effort to develop CT in students in terms of “positioning CT in the curriculum” (Voogt, et al., 2015, p. 722).
Specifically, it provides a curricular example for integrating CT in cross-disciplinary practices. The integrated
approach could also help make CT integration in K-12 classrooms and STEM curriculum more sustainable by
learning and covering several content areas and standards simultaneously. The paper also contributes to teacher
training and PD for CT integration involving various stakeholders.
However, there are some limitations associated primarily with the context of the study. First, the findings and
lessons learned resulted from an informal context in a community centers’ after-school program and may not apply
to formal classroom settings. Second, the lessons learned involved various stakeholders (teachers, students,
researchers, and community partners) which all impacted the findings, and thus they may not be able to inform
other programs that involve different stakeholders. That being said, the researchers speculate that similar challenges
could persist in formal settings and time would always be an issue, as well as the teachers’ challenges in facilitating
such a complex curriculum. Third, different or additional coding categories might emerge in the data analysis if the
diversity in study contexts were increased. Therefore, additional research regarding the design and implementation
of a STEM+CT curriculum in different contexts of study and participants is needed. Future research on what CT
and computational practices may look like in different areas of STEM professional practice for K-12 students is
recommended. Studies on how technology and tools can support the application of CT and development of CT
in students, as well as research on evolving approaches to assessing CT are highly recommended.
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