The Natural History Journal of Chulalongkorn University 8(2): 143-156, October 2008

©2008 by Chulalongkorn University

Diversity and Seasonal Succession of the Phytoplankton Community

in Doi Tao Lake, Chiang Mai Province, Northern Thailand

TAWEESAK KHUANTRAIRONG AND SIRIPEN TRAICHAIYAPORN*

Algae and Water Quality Research Unit, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University,
Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand.

ABSTRACT.– The diversity and seasonal succession of phytoplankton were

studied in Doi Tao lake, Chiang Mai, Thailand during September 2003
through to August 2004. The phytoplankton communities consisted of 162
species in 98 genera of 6 divisions. The number of species and density of
phytoplankton showed high seasonal variation with high species number and
density of phytoplankton in winter and summer, but low in the rainy season.
Cyanophytes had the highest density during the winter and summer with
three dominant species viz.: Cylindrospermopsis philippinesis, Lyngbya
limnetica and Oscillatoria sp. Chrysophytes contributed the highest
phytoplankton density in the rainy season with a dominant species,
Aulacosiera granulata. Phytoplankton communities had the highest and
lowest Shannon-Weaver diversity indices in the winter and summer,
respectively. The highest Evenness index occurred in both the winter and
rainy seasons, whereas the minimum was in winter. Sequential seasonal
phytoplankton succession in Doi Tao lake was divisions Cyanophyta followed
by Chrysophyta.

KEY WORDS: Doi Tao lake; phytoplankton diversity; seasonal succession

Shubert, 1984). Phytoplankton abundance

INTRODUCTION
and diversity are widely used as biological
indicators of still-water quality in lakes and
Phytoplankton are defined as free-
reservoirs. The density and species
floating unicellular, filamentous and colonial
composition of phytoplankton in tropical
organisms that grow photo-autotrophically
lakes and reservoirs demonstrate particular
in aquatic environments. They are the basis
annual biological characteristics (Palmer et
of food chains and food webs which directly
al., 1977; Shubert, 1984; Washington,
provide food for zooplankton, fishes and
1984; Pongswat et al., 2004).
some aquatic animals (Millman et al., 2005;
Phytoplankton succession in open lakes
depends on the availability of nutrients,
* Corresponding author: hydraulic retention time, temperature, light
Tel: (6653) 892-258 intensity and transparency. Phytoplankton
Fax: (6653) 892-259
E-mail: [email protected]
144 NAT. HIST. J. CHULALONGKORN UNIV. 8(2), OCTOBER 2008

FIGURE 1. Map of Thailand showing the location of Doi Tao lake and the four sampling sites.

communities usually undergo a fairly characterize communities. Changes in any

predictable annual cycle, but some species environmental factor will consequently
may grow explosively and form blooms. change diversity (Washington, 1984), as
(Toman, 1996; Hinder et al., 1999; Vaulot, long as adaptation is either rare or
2001). Light limitation by high turbidity is nonexistent, or gene flow from non-adaptive
another factor that frequently controls areas is great. The coexistence and
phytoplankton growth either during the avoidance of phytoplankton species fall into
whole year or seasonally (Ariyadej et al., two categories: (i) the equilibrium theory of
2004; Domingues et al., 2005). competition predicts that different species
Diversity indices are applied in water can coexist by being limited by different
pollution research to evaluate the effects of resources, whilst (ii) disequilibrium
pollution on species composition (Archibald, approaches predict that environmental
1972). Species diversity responds to changes variability permits the coexistence of species
in particular to stresses and limiting factors, competing for the same resource. In
thus reflecting many interactions which may application of these theories to biological
KHUANTRAIRONG AND TRAICHAIYAPORN — PHYTOPLANKTON COMMUNITY 145

FIGURE 2. Total number of phytoplankton species recorded for each month in Doi Tao lake.

community descriptions, a high diversity phytoplankton in Doi Tao lake, in order to

value suggests a healthier ecosystem and a establish primary data that can be used for
low diversity value a less healthy or its sustainable fisheries management.
degraded one. The reduction in numbers of
species and the increase in number
MATERIALS AND METHODS
of individuals that characterize polluted
areas results in significant decreases in
Sample Collection and Processing
values of diversity (Whitton, 1975;
Samples of water at the surface
Sommer, 1993).
(collected at the 30 cm depth from the
Doi Tao lake is an open lake located in
surface) and the bottom samples (collected
the Doi Tao district of Chiang Mai
at the 30 cm above the bottom of the lake)
province, northern Thailand. It has a
were collected monthly from September
capacity and surface area of 39,000,000 m3
2003 until August 2004, from four sampling
and 6 km2, respectively. The lake receives
sites (the sampling sites were 10 m from the
water from the Ping river before draining
The months were grouped together according
into the reservoir of Bhumibol dam. Fishing
to seasons as: winter was considered to be
is the main activity of people who live in
October to January; summer was February to
Doi Tao and nearby districts. The value of
May, rainy was June to September. The
fishery products was several million baht
geographic coordinates of each site was
per year (Doi Tao Fisheries Department,
determined by GPS. The location of the
2003). However, despite the economic and
sampling sites were as follows: Site 1, Ban
local importance of this lake, few researches
Huay Som at 18° 04´ 09´´ N, 98° 46´
have been done on limnology and
56´´ E (inlet of Doi Tao lake); Site 2, Tha
biodiversity. The objective of this study was
Soon at 18° 04´ 36´´ N 98° 53´ 05´´ E
to investigate the diversity, species
(many raft-restaurants, travelling boats and
composition and seasonal succession of
fish cages at this site); Site 3, Ban Mae Lai
 146 NAT. HIST. J. CHULALONGKORN UNIV. 8(2), OCTOBER 2008

sedimentation method using 10 ml of

Lugol’s solution to a final volume of 10 ml
and preserved with 1 ml Lugol’s solution
and stored in the dark, following the
methods of Benson-Evan et al. (1985).
Phytoplankton were identified and counted
under a compound light microscope by the
Drop microtransect method (Benson-Evans
et al., 1985; Traichaiyaporn, 2000). The
text books of Cox (1996), Desikachary
(1959), Krammer and Lange-Bertalot
(1991), Prescott (1978) and Smith (1950)
were used to identify the phytoplankton.
Phytoplankton species number and density
were examined. Abundance of phyto-
plankton were ranked by the density of
phytoplankton counted and recorded
similarly to Benson-Evan et al. (1985) as
dominant (>4,000 individuals/ml), abundant
(1,000-4,000 individuals/ml), frequent (400-
1,000 individuals/ml), occasional (80-400
individuals/ml), and rare (< 80 individuals
/ml).

Diversity Analysis
Phytoplankton dynamics were examined
using Shannon-Weaver index (Washington,
FIGURE 3. The density of each phytoplankton division 1984): H' = -∑(ni /N) ln (ni /N)
observed in Doi Tao lake during the three annual seasons ni is the abundance of species i, and N is
from September 2003 to August 2004. the total number of individuals in the
community.
at 17° 55´ 8´´ N 98° 50´ 03´´ (spillway of The maximum diversity of a
Mae Lai stream drain into the lake); and Site phytoplankton community occurs when all
4, Tha Bor Rae at 17° 55´ 14´´ N 98° 43´ species are equally abundant in numbers or
55´´ E (spillway of Doi Tao lake) (Fig. 1). contribute equally to the total number of
individuals. Maximum diversity is given
Phytoplankton Analysis by: Hmax = ln S
One thousand ml per each sample (8
samples per date) were concentrated by the
KHUANTRAIRONG AND TRAICHAIYAPORN — PHYTOPLANKTON COMMUNITY 147

FIGURE 4. The Shannon-Weaver index (H'), Evenness index (E) and maximum diversity (Hmax) of
phytoplankton communities in Doi Tao lake.

S is the total number of species of a The maximum species number of

community. phytoplankton at anyone sampling time was
104 species, which was recorded in the
The Evenness-index (E) of the winter (January), whereas only 16 different
phytoplankton communities (Washington, species were found in the rainy season
1984) was calculated by comparing the (August) (Fig. 2, Table 2). In winter
actual diversity to the maximum diversity. through to summer, Chlorophytes were the
E = H'/ Hmax most specious division, whereas in the rainy
season the maximum number of species
belonged to the Chrysophyta division as the
RESULTS
number of species decreased markedly in all
other divisions. Photomicrographs of some
Species Richness of Phytoplankton
phytoplankton are presented in Figures 3-6.
The phytoplankton communities in Doi
Tao lake in one year of sampling were
Density of Phytoplankton
composed of 162 species in 98 genera of 6
The total number of phytoplankton
divisions. Division Chlorophyta had the
ranged from a low density of 233
highest number of species (64 species),
individuals/ml in July 2004 to 10,655
followed by the division Chrysophyta (42
individuals/ml in March 2004. Low
species), Cyanophyta (31 species), Eugleno-
phytoplankton densities were observed in
phyta (19 species), Cryptophyta (3 species)
late summer and during the rainy season
and Pyrrophyta (3 species). Species lists and
(233-690 individuals/ml) whilst high
abundance of phytoplankton are presented in
densities were seen in winter through to mid
Table 1.
 148 NAT. HIST. J. CHULALONGKORN UNIV. 8(2), OCTOBER 2008

TABLE 1. List of phytoplankton species in Doi Tao lake from September 2003 to August 2004.

Taxa / Seasons Winter Summer Rainy Taxa / Seasons Winter Summer Rainy
Division Chlorophyta
Actinastrum spp. + + + Scenedesmus spp. + + +
Ankistrodesmus spp. + + - Spermatozopsis erulians - ++ -
Korsch
Ankyra sp. ++ ++ + Staurastrum longbrachi- + + +
atum (Boreg) Gutwinski
Botryococcus sp. + - - Staurastrum spp. + + -
Chodatella sp. - + + Stuarodesmus sp. - + +
Chlamydomonas sp. +++ ++ + Sphaerellopsis sp. - - -
Chlorella sp. + + - Schroederia sp. + + -
Chlorococcum sp. + + - Tetrachloridium sp. + - -
Chlorogonium sp. + + + Tetrastrum sp. - + -
Closteridium sp. + + - Tetraedon minimum + ++ -
(A.Braun) Hansgirg
Closterium sp. + + + Treubaria sp. + + -
Coelastrum spp. + + +
Collodictyon sp. + - - Division Chrysophyta
Cosmarium spp. + + - Achnanthes sp. + + +
Crucigenia spp. + + + Amphora sp. + + +
Dictyosphaerium spp. +++ ++ + Attheya sp. + + -
Dimorphococcus sp. ++ + - Aulacosiera granulata ++ ++ ++
(Ehrenberg) Ralfs
Dunaliella sp. + - - Chrysococcus sp. + - -
Dysmorphococcus sp. + - - Cyclotella sp. ++ ++ +
Gloeotila sp. + + - Cymbella spp. + + +
Golenkinia sp. + + - Cocconeis sp. - + -
Gonium pactorale Müller + + - Dinobryon sertularia + + -
Ehrenberg
Gonium sp. + - - Centritractus sp. + - -
Eudorina sp. + + + Fragilaria spp. + ++ +
Lagerhimia sp. + ++ - Gomphonema sp. + - +
Micrastinium sp. + + + Grammatophora sp. - - +
Monoraphidium sp. + + + Gyrosigma sp. + + +
Pandorina sp. + + - Merosila sp. + + +
Pediastrum spp. + + +
Platymonas sp. + - - Note: +++++ = dominant, ++++ = abundant,
Polyblepharides sp. + - - +++ = frequent, ++ = occasional, + = not found
Polytomella sp. + - -
Radiococcus sp. + + +

summer (1,609-10,655 individuals/ml). The Cyanophyta retained the highest density all
variation in phytoplankton numbers and through winter until mid summer whereas
diversity among seasons was high but not Chrysophyta was the most common division
equal as across all divisions. For example, in late summer until the rainy season (Fig. 3,
Table 2).
 KHUANTRAIRONG AND TRAICHAIYAPORN — PHYTOPLANKTON COMMUNITY 149

Table 1. Continues

Taxa / Seasons Winter Summer Rainy Taxa / Seasons Winter Summer Rainy
Division Chrysophyta Division Cyanophyta
(cont.)
Raphidonema sp. + - - Oscillatoria sp. +++ ++++ ++
Navicula spp. + ++ + Pseudanabaena sp. +++ ++ +
Nitzschia spp. + ++ + Raphidiopsis curvata ++ +++ +
Fritsch & Rish
Oestrupia sp. - - + Raphidiopsis sp. + - +
Pinnularia spp. + ++ + Romeria sp. - + +
Rhizosolenia sp. + + - Spirulina sp. + + +
Surirella spp. + + + Synechococus sp + + +
Stauroneis sp. - - +
Synnedra spp. + - + Division Euglenophyta
Astasia sp. + - -
Division Cyanophyta Euglena acus var. gracilis + + +
Prings
Anabaena spp. + + + Euglena caudata Hübner + + -
Anabaenopsis philippinensis + + - Euglena spp. + + +
(Taylor) Ka
Aphanothece sp. + - - Phacus pyrum Ehrenberg + + -
Botryococcus sp. + - - Phacus spp. + + +
Barzia sp. + - + Trachelomonas hispida - + +
var. crenulatocollis
(Mark) Lemmermann
Chroococcus sp. + + + Trachelomonas spp. + ++ +
Coelomolon sp. + ++ - Strombomonas spp. + + +
Cylindrospermopsis +++ +++ +
raciborskii (Wolosz)
Seenayya & Subba
Division Cryptophyta
Cylindrospermopsis ++++ ++++ + Cryptomonas sp. + +++ +
philippinensis
(Taylor) Ka.
Dactylococcopsis sp. + +++ + Chroomonas sp. + ++ +
Gomphosphaeria sp. + + - Monomasrix sp. - + -
Gleothece sp. + - -
Gloeocystis sp. + + + Division Pyrrophyta
Lyngbya limnetica ++++ ++++ + Peridinium spp. + + +
Lemmermann
Merismopedia spp. + + + Ceratium hirundinella + + +
Schrank
Microcystis aeruginosa + + + Note: +++++ = dominant, ++++ = abundant,
Kütz. Em. Elenkin +++ = frequent, ++ = occasional, + = not found
Oocystis spp. + + -

Phytoplankton Species Diversity Evenness (E) indices were observed

Fluctuations in the Shannon-Weaver throughout the year but on the whole as little
index (H'), maximum diversity (Hmax) and
150 NAT. HIST. J. CHULALONGKORN UNIV. 8(2), OCTOBER 2008

variation among seasons excepting a late of 4.66 in January (Fig. 4, Table 2). The
summer decline and early winter gain. species richness varied from month to
Thus the Shannon-Weaver index ranged month but reached a maxima in January and
between about 2.3 and 3.0 except for the in October the highest number of species
late summer low of 2.05 in May and early with an equal number of individuals in each
winter high of 3.57 in October. The species was found.
maximum diversity remained relatively The Evenness index (E) tended to track
constant at around 4.4 to 4.6 in winter and the Shannon-Weaver index in winter and
summer but at late summer declined to summer within a range of 0.54 to 0.78. The
about 3 and again at late rainy season to the lowest Evenness index was in December
lowest value of 2.77 in August, with a peak while the highest in October and August

Winter

0.7%
0.8% 0.3%
21.9%

64.8% 11.5%

Summer

5.9% 9.4%
0.8%
7.8%

14.2%

61.9%

Rainy

2.0% 1.0%
4.7%
6.8%

52.0%
33.4%

FIGURE 5. Phytoplankton compositions of each divisions in different seasons of Doi Tao lake.
KHUANTRAIRONG AND TRAICHAIYAPORN — PHYTOPLANKTON COMMUNITY 151

TABLE 2. List of phytoplankton species in Doi Tao lake from September 2003 to August 2004.

Density of phytoplankton (individuals/ml) Indices

Number
Season/Month
of species Total Chloro Chryso Cyano Eugleno Crypto Pyrrop H' E Hmax
phyta phyta phyta phyta phyta hyta
September 55 690 45 308 274 44 10 9 2.41 0.60 4.01
Winter October 96 1609 326 362 837 46 15 23 3.57 0.78 4.56
November 89 7473 2730 654 4028 24 23 14 2.55 0.57 4.49
December 88 9134 1571 775 6718 38 21 11 2.42 0.54 4.48
January 104 8908 1312 1329 5988 104 131 44 2.78 0.60 4.66
Summer February 91 10601 548 637 8172 360 824 60 2.71 0.60 4.51
March 95 10655 713 1266 7063 980 472 161 2.95 0.65 4.55
April 100 5089 618 1868 1165 222 1214 2 3.23 0.70 4.61
May 26 335 11 205 113 4 1 1 2.05 0.63 3.26
Rainy June 48 234 9 170 42 9 1 3 2.80 0.72 3.87
July 62 233 5 152 43 18 14 1 3.10 0.75 4.13
August 16 287 0 217 57 13 0 0 2.16 0.78 2.77

(Fig. 4, Table 2) suggested that the phyto- Aulacosiera granulata as the dominant
plankton community in these two months species (Fig. 6).
were at their most diverse.
DISCUSSION
Phytoplankton Community and
For this one year study period, Doi Tao
Seasonal Succession
lake was found to have a high phytoplankton
Throughout the year, the mean
species diversity with a total of 162 species
phytoplankton composition in Doi Tao lake
from 6 divisions recorded over the year.
consisted of the divisions Cyanophyta
Seasonal succession was evident and the
64.3%, Chrysophyta 14.2%, Chlorophyta
maximum number of species belonging to
13.6%, Cryptophyta 4.4%, Euglenophyta
the Chlorophyta division occurred in winter
3.0%, and Pyrrophyta 0.5%. Seasonal
whereas the minimum occurred in the rainy
succession of phytoplankton communities
season when most species present belonged
was observed in this study. The division
to the Chrysophyta. Phytoplankton species
Cyanophyta was the most abundant in
in Doi Tao lake recorded in this study are in
winter and summer, at approximately 64.8%
broad agreement with those reported in 2002
and 61.9% of the total, respectively (Table 2, (158 species) (Seekao et al., 2005). Further
Fig. 5), with Cylindrospermopsis philippinesis, study for a couples of year are needed to
Oscillatoria sp. and Lyngbya limnetica as the monitor in Doi Tao lake to get data for
dominant species (Fig. 6). The replacement formulation the species diversity and
of Cyanophyta by Chrysophyta was seasonal succession of phytoplankton.
apparent during the rainy season, accounting Reports of species diversity in different
for approximately 52.0%, whereas Cyano- reservoirs across northern Thailand showed
phyta consisted of 33.4% of the total indivi- high variation in species diversity; e.g. 122
duals´ composition (Fig. 5) with species were reported in Mae Kuang
Udomtara reservoir (Peerapornpisal et al.,
 152 NAT. HIST. J. CHULALONGKORN UNIV. 8(2), OCTOBER 2008

1999), 68 species in Mae Ngat Differences in phytoplankton diversity

Somboonchol reservoir (Tularak et al., among different lakes and reservoirs will in
part depend on the physico-chemical water
quality in each location (Millman et al.,
2005). The recorded number of species in
Doi Tao lake and the northern reservoirs
was highest in the winter perhaps due to the
clear water in this season which allows high
light penetrance and thus photosynthesis for
phytoplankton growth in all divisions
(Pieterse and van Zyl, 1988; Guenther and
Bozelli, 2004).
The Shannon-Weaver and Evenness
index values of phytoplankton in Doi Tao
lake showed little variation among seasons,
suggesting that overall phytoplankton
species richness and diversity were quite
stable all year round. The maximum values
of both Shannon-Weaver diversity and
Evenness indices were observed in October
2003, suggesting the strongest ecological
health status of the lake for the year
(Washington, 1984). The sharp decline in
both indices in November to December is
likely due to the Cyanophytes bloom (Fig. 3).
Shannon-Weaver index values of
phytoplankton communities can be used to
indicate water pollution status. Values of
FIGURE 6. The seasonal abundance (individuals/ml) of less than 1 are interpreted as heavily
the four most common phytoplankton species in Doi Tao polluted, 1-3 as moderately polluted and
Lake during September 2003 to August 2004. more than 3 as clean water (Whitton, 1975).
The Shannon-Weaver index of Doi Tao lake
2001), 75 and 89 species were reported for varied from 2.05 to 3.57, suggesting that the
Mae Kham and Mae Moh reservoirs around water quality should be classified as
Mae Moh Power Plant, respectively moderately polluted to clean.
(Pinkate and Traichaiyaporn, 2004), and 57 Doi Tao lake is an open lake, receiving
species in the Hui Lan reservoir (Chompusri and giving water from and to the Ping river,
and Peerapornpisal, 2005). In addition, one at the same time supplying water to the
hundred and thirty five phytoplankton Bhumibol dam in Tak province. During
species were recorded in the Banglang 2003 to 2004, water quality in Doi Tao lake
reservoir in southern Thailand (Ariyadej et highly fluctuated in different seasons,
al., 2004, 2005). probably caused by élninyo conditions.
KHUANTRAIRONG AND TRAICHAIYAPORN — PHYTOPLANKTON COMMUNITY 153

These conditions significantly affected water conditions necessary for cyanobacterial

quality parameters including especially the dominance. Also low nutrient levels,
water level, nutrient loading, levels of especially nitrogen and phosphorus as
suspended solids and hydraulic retention limiting factors, allows dominance of those
time of the lake (Khuantrairong and species of Cyanophytes that can fix nitrogen
Traichaiyaporn, 2004) and, therefore, likely and use stored phosphorus from within their
accounts for a major part of the fluctuating cells (Sze, 1998). The succession of the
phytoplankton composition observed in the Cyanophytes by Chrysophytes was found in
lake. the rainy season when the lake had high
The high density of phytoplankton nutrient concentrations (or eutrophic status)
present in winter through to mid summer, and low N:P ratios (nitrogen was the
and low density in late summer until the limiting factor) (Khuantrairong and
rainy season correlates well with the low Traichaiyaporn, 2004). Species within
total suspended solids in the first period and Chrysophyta have good nutrient storage
high suspended solids in the second period (Alam et al., 2001), and also a higher
(Khuantrairong and Traichaiyaporn, 2004), tolerance level to in unsuitable aquatic
and photosynthesis levels and growth of environments relative to Cyanophyta
phytoplankton (Pieterse and van Zyl, 1988). (Primakov and Nikolaenko, 2001), accele-
In the rainy season, loading of suspended rating the replacement of Chrysophyta in
solids by high influx from the Ping river led this season aided by that with lower N:P
to a high turbidity, low water transparency supply ratios, the diatoms (Chrysophytes)
and a short hydraulic retention time of the can divide rapidly when phosphorus is not
lake (Khuantrairong and Traichaiyaporn, limited (Casas et al., 1999). In another study
2004). These factors are therefore likely to of a mesotrophic lake in Japan (Ada
have also controlled the phytoplankton Hayden), cryptophytes were abundant in
growth (Toman, 1996; Pugnetti and winter, Chlorophytes and Chrysophytes
Bettinetti, 1999) leading to the reduced dominated in summer, whereas the
phytoplankton density in the rainy season. Cyanophytes dominated in the rainy season
Seasonal succession of phytoplankton (Millman et al., 2005). The differences in
was found in Doi Tao lake. Phytoplankton the annual phytoplankton composition of this
succession is also reliant upon environmen- lake compared to Doi Tao may simply
tal factors such as nutrients level, N:P ratio, reflect their location in different climatic
trophic status and water residence time (Sze, zones. The most familiar pattern of
1998; Olding et al., 2000; Vaulot, 2001). In succession in tropical lakes and reservoirs
the winter and summer, when Cyanophytes are: the Cyanophytes dominated in winter,
bloomed, the water in Doi Tao lake was thereafter followed by Chlorophytes bloom
clear with low nutrient concentrations and in summer. As the nutrient concentrations in
long water residence time (Khuantrairong the water decrease, Chlorophytes decline
and Traichaiyaporn, 2004). The dominant and are replaced by Cyanophytes which in
species (Cyanophyta division) relate to long turn are replaced by Chlorophytes with
water residence time (Olding et al., 2000) decreasing water temperatures and mixing
because it provides the stable water column of the water in the rainy season. The pattern
154 NAT. HIST. J. CHULALONGKORN UNIV. 8(2), OCTOBER 2008

described for Doi Tao lake was also ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Cyanophytes dominating in winter and
summer but then followed by Chrysophytes This research was financial supported
in the rainy season, and was, therefore, by Graduate School of Chiang Mai
different to the above pattern and of other University and The Conservation and
reservoirs in Thailand (Peerapornpisal et al., Utilization of Biodiversity Project. We
1999; Tularak et al., 2001; Alam et al., would like to thank Doi Tao Fisheries
2001; Ariyadej et al., 2004, 2005; Pongswat Department for providing speed boats to
et al., 2004; Junshum and Traichaiyaporn, collect samples. Finally, special thanks to
2005). One major difference lies in that Doi Dr. Stephen Elliot and Assoc. Prof. Dr.
Tao lake is an open lake with influx and Thipmani Paratasilpin for editing this
loading of nutrients from the Ping river, manuscript.
while the others are closed reservoirs and
lakes. Water velocity in an open lake is a
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