Here are the bases for the Arrangement of

How to write chapter 4 data or Classes of data:

 Qualitative
Analysis - It is the process of breaking up  Quantitative
the whole study into its constituent parts of  Geographical
categories according to the specific  Chronological
questions under the statement of the Qualitative – Data may be arranged
problem. alphabetically, or from the biggest class to
- This is to bring out into focus the the smallest class as from phylum to specie
essential features of the study. Analysis in classifying animals or vice versa, or
usually precedes presentation. listing the biggest the biggest country to the
smallest one or vice versa, etc.
Classification of data - It is grouping
together data with similar characteristics. Quantitative – This is arranging data
Classification is a part of analysis according to their numerical magnitudes,
from the greatest to the smallest numerical
Here are the bases for the Classification of or vice versa.
data:
Geographical – Data may be arranged
 Qualitative (kind) according to their geographical location or
 Quantitative according to direction.
 Geographical
 Chronological Chronological – This is listing down data
that occurred first and last those that
Qualitative (kind) – Those having the same occurred last, or vice versa according to the
quality or are of the same kind are grouped purpose of presentation.
together.
- This is especially true in
Quantitative – Data are grouped according historical rsearch.
to their quantity.
Note that:
Geographical – Data may be classified
according to their location. Classification, Cross-classification and
Arrangement of Data are done for purpose
Chronological – In this, data are classified of organizing the thesis report and in
according to the order of their occurrence. presenting them in tabular form. In tables,
Cross-classification – This is further data are properly and logically classified,
classifying a group of data into subclasses. cross-classified, and arranged so that their
This is breaking up or dividing a big class relationships are readily seen.
into smaller classes. Group-derived Generalizations
Arrangement of data or classes of data –
 One of the main purposes of
These are same as those of classification.
analyzing research data is to form
 inferences, interpretations, Example of this is Quality control in
conclusions, and/or generalizations manufacturing.
from the collected data. In so doing
the researcher should be guided by the The average can be made to represent the
following discussions about group- whole group. A second type of group-
derived generalizations. derived generalization results from using the
average as a representation of the group of
 The use if the survey, usually called
cases and offering it as a typical result. This
the normative survey, as a method of is ignoring the individuals comprising the
collecting data for research implies group or the variations existing in the group
the study of groups. but the average represents the whole group.
 From the findings are formulated
conclusions in the form of Full-frequency distribution reveals
generalizations that pertain to the characteristics of a group. As a third type of
particular group studied. These knowledge growing out of the study of
conclusions are called group-derived groups, we have the full-frequency
generalizations designed to represent distribution – the most characteristic device,
characteristics of groups and are to be perhaps of all statistical work.
applied to groups rather than to
individual cases one at a time. A group itself generates new qualities,
characteristics, properties, or aspects not
There are several types of these but are present in individual cases. For instance,
discussed under six categories by Good and there are many chairs in a room. The chairs
Scates: can be arranged in a variety of ways.
However, if there is only one chair, there can
 Generally, only proportional be no arrangement in any order. Hence,
predictions can be made order and arrangement are group properties
 The average can be made to represent and they represent relationships within a
the whole group group, properties which can arise only if
 Full-frequency distribution reveals there two or more cases.
characteristics of a group
 A group itself generates new qualities, Note that:
characteristics, properties, or aspects Other group properties that exist only
not present in individual cases in groups are cooperation, opposition,
 A generalization can also be made organization, specialization, leadership,
about an individual case teaching, morale, reciprocal sharing of
 In certain cases, predictions on emotions, etc. which vanish in individual
individual cases can be made cases.

Generally, only proportional predictions Two more categories of generalization may

can be made. One type of generalization is be added at this point
that which is expressed in terms of
proportion of the cases in a group, often in A generalization can also be made about
the form of probability. an individual case. For instance, a high
school graduating student is declared How to tally data (responses) gathered
valedictorian of his class. We can generalize through a questionnaire. Tallying responses
that, that student is the brightest in his class. to a questionnaire in a talligram follows.
This is a group-derived generalization
because it cannot be made if there is only Presentation of Data
one student.
Presentation – is the process of organizing
In certain cases, predictions on individual data into logical, sequential, and meaningful
cases can be made. It has been mentioned categories and classifications to make them
earlier that, generally, only proportional amenable to study and interpretation.
predictions can be made. However, in
correlation and regression studies, one There are three ways of presenting data:
variable can be predicted from another.  Textual
 Tabular
Preparing Data for Presentation  Graphical
 Before presenting data in accepted
forms, especially in presenting them Textual Presentation of Data – uses
in form of statistical tables, they have statements with numerals or numbers to
to be tallied first in a tabulation describe data. The main aims of textual
diagram which may be called presentation are to focus attention to some
talligram. important data and to supplement tabular
presentation.
Talligram – a contraction of tally and
diagram. Tabular Presentation of Data

How to construct a talligram. A talligram  Statistical Table defined. A statistical

may be constructed as follows: table or simply table is defined as a
systematic arrangement of related
 Determine the classes and their data in which classes of numerical
respective subclasses along with facts or data are given each a row and
their respective number. their subclasses are given each a
 Make rows for the classes by column in order to represent the
drawing horizontal lines with relationships of the sets or numerical
appropriate spaces between the facts or data in definite, compact, and
lines and the numbers of the rows grouped according to class or
should be two more than the category.
number of classes.
 Make columns for the subclasses  Purpose of a table. The purpose is to
by drawing vertical lines with facilitate the study and interpretation,
appropriate spaces between the the making of inferences and
lines and the number of columns implications of the relationships of
should be two more than the statistical data.
number of subclasses.
 Advantage of Tabular over textual o When data about such subject matter
presentation of data were gathered or the time period
o Statistical tables are concise, and when such data were existent; and
because data are systematically o Sometimes how the data about such
grouped and arranged, explanatory subject matter are classified.
matter is minimal. Headnote or Prefatory Note. This is written
o Data are more easily read, below the title and it is usually enclosed in
understood and compared because parentheses. It explains some things in the
of their systematic and logical table that are not clear.
arrangement into rows and
columns. Stub. The stub contains the stub head and
o Tables give the whole information the row labels. The stub head tells what the
even without combining numerals stub contains, the row labels. Each row label
with textual matter. This is so describes the data contained in that row.
because tables are so constructed Box Head. The box head contains the
that the ideas, they convey can be master caption, the column captions, and the
understood even without reading column subcaptions. The master caption
their textual presentation. describes the column captions and the
column captions in turn describe the
The major functional parts of a statistical subcolumn captions.
table:
Main body, field or text. The main body,
 Table Number field, or text of the table contains all the
 Title quantitative and/or proportional information
 Headnote or Prefatory Note presented in the table in rows and in
 Stub columns. Each numerical datum is entered
 Box Head in the cell which is the intersection of the
 Main body, field or text row and the column of the datum.
 Footnote
 Source note Footnote. The footnote which appears
immediately below the bottom line of the
Table Number. Each table should have table explains, qualifies, or clarifies some
number, preferably in Arabic, for reference items in the table which are not readily
purposes. This is because only the table understandable or are missing.
numbers are cited.
Proper symbols – are used to indicate the
Title. The title should tell about the items that are clarified or explained.
following:
o The subject matter that said table Source note. The source note which is
deals with; generally written below the footnote
o Where such subject matter is situated, indicates the origin or source of the data
or to what entity or persons it belongs, presented in the table.
or form whom the data about such
subject matter were gathered;
The purposes of placing the source note  There is always a line, either single or
are: double, at the bottom of the table.
 To give credit or recognition to the
author of the table or the source or Unity in a table. There should always be
sources of the data; unity in a table. To achieve this, presenting
 To allow the user a basis for too many ideas in a single table should be
determining the accuracy and avoided. One subject matter is enough, one
reliability of the information provided that can be divided into categories which in
by the table; and turn can be divided into common
 To protect the maker of the table classifications.
against any charge of inaccuracy and
unreliability. Textual presentation of tabular data.
Generally, there should be a textual
Rulings and spacing in tables. Ruling is presentation of a table which precedes the
done in a table to emphasize or make clear table may be placed within the textual
relationships. There are no fixed standard presentation. The table and its textual
rules to follow in ruling and spacing tables. presentation should be placed as near as
Emphasis and clarity are the determining possible to each other.
factors.
There are two ways of making a textual
The following guidelines are generally presentation of a table:
followed in the construction of tables for a
thesis report:  All the items in the table are textually
presented. This manner enables the
 The table number is not separated by reader to comprehend the totality of
line from the title. It is written two the data even without consulting the
spaces above the title. table. This is alright if the data are not
 The title is separated from the rest of so many. However, if the data are so
the table by a double line placed two numerous, reading becomes boring
spaces below the lowest line of the and the reader may even skip some of
title. the items.
 The stub, master captions,  Only the highlights or important parts
subcaptions, and the totals are of the data are textually presented.
separated from one another by vertical
and horizontal lines. The basic principles that should be
 The rows and columns are not remembered in the textual presentation of a
separated by lines. Major groups, table are:
however, are separated by single lines.  The textual presentation of a table
For purposes of clarity, rows are should be as complete as possible so
separated by a double space and the that the ideas conveyed in the table
columns are separated by as wide a are understood even without referring
space as possible. to the table are understood even
 Both ends of the table are unruled. without referring to the table itself.
  Textual presentation is generally the findings, whether satisfactory or
followed by interpretation, inference unsatisfactory.
or implication. This is done after the
data from the table have been Probable cause of the condition. Usually,
textually presented. also every condition has a cause but, there
 Findings in the present study should must also be able a logical and valid
be compared with the findings of relationship between the condition and its
other studies as presented in the cause.
related literature and studies. This
Probable effects of the condition. Usually,
enables the researchers to make some
generalizations if there are enough also every condition has an effect, either bad
data to support such genelizations. or good. However, there must also be a
logical and valid relationship between the
Findings. Findings are the original data, condition and its effect and this must be
quantitative or otherwise, derived or clearly given.
taken from the original sources and
A veiled suggestion for continuance or
which are results of questionnaires,
interviews, experiments, tests, remedial measure, if the possible effect is
observations and other data gathering bad. If the effect of the condition is good,
instruments. Findings do not directly then there must be a hint for the continuance
answer the specific questions asked to of the existence of the condition. However,
the beginning of the investigation or the if the effect is deleterious there must be
explicit hypotheses but the findings some suggestions for the adoption of
provide the bases for making the measures aimed at minimizing the harmful
answers. effects.
Data presented in tables and their textual
presentations are examples of findings. Graphical Presentation of Data
Graph – It is a chart representing the
Implication, inference, interpretation. quantitative variations or changes of a
These three terms are synonymous if not variable itself, or quantitative changes of a
exactly the same in meaning. They are
variable in comparison with those of another
used interchangeably.
variable or variables in pictorial or
Implication, inference, or interpretation diagrammatic form.
has at least four elements, namely: Purpose of graphing. The purpose of
graphing is to present the variations,
 Condition changes, and relationships of data in a most
 Cause
attractive, appealing, effective and
 Effect
convincing way.
 Continuance and Remedial
Measure The following are the advantages of the
graphical method:
Statement of the condition or situation. The
condition or situation is stated based upon
  It attracts attention more effectively  Graphs can be made only after the
than do tables, and, therefore, is less data have been tabulated.
likely to be overlooked. Readers may
Types of graphs or charts. Graphs may be
skip tables but pause to look at charts.
classified into the following types:
 The use of colors and pictorial
diagrams makes a list of figures in  Bar graphs
business reports more meaningful.  Linear graphs
(Also, in thesis report)  Hundred per cent graphs and charts
 It gives a comprehensive view of  Pictograms
quantitative data. The wandering of a  Statistical maps
line exerts a more powerful effect in  Ratio Charts
the reader’s mind than tabulated data. Bar graphs
It shows what is happening and what
is likely to take place. o Single vertical bar graph
 Graphs enable the busy executive of a o Single horizontal bar graph
business concern to grasp the essential o Grouped or multiple or composite bar
facts quickly and without much graph
trouble. Any relation not seen from o Duo-directional or bilateral bar graph
the figures themselves is easily o Subdivided or component bar graph
discovered from the graph. o Histogram
Illustration, including attractive charts
and graphs, are now considered by Linear graphs
most businessmen as indispensable o Time series or chronological line
accompaniment to good business chart
reports. o Composite line chart
 Their general usefulness lies in the o Frequency polygon
simplicity they add to the presentation
o Ogive
of numerical data.
o Band chart
Limitations of graphs
Hundred per cent graphs or charts
Here are disadvantages of the graph:
o Subdivided bar or rectangular bar
 Graphs do not show as much graph
information at a time as do tables. o Circle or pie graph
 Graphs do not show data as accurately
as the tables do. Construction of individual graph. In
 Charts require more skill, more time, constructing graphs, two straight lines are
and more expense to prepare than drawn perpendicular to each other,
tables. intersecting at a point called the point of
 Graphs cannot be quoted in the same origin and marked 0 (zero).
way as tabulated data. Here are the principles to be followed in
construction of individual graphs:
  The bar graph – It is often used for  Title
the graphic presentation of data. It is  Scale
generally used to make comparison of  Classification and arrangement
simple magnitudes very much more  Classes, categories, or time series
clearly and more distinctly perceptible  Symmetry of the graph
to the eye.  Footnote
 Source
Comparison in bar graphs is linear – It is
the length of each bar that determines the Number. Charts or graphs are also
size of a magnitude it represents and the numbered for reference purposes.
relative position of that magnitude in a
Title. The same principles hold in graphs as
series of like and related magnitudes.
in tables. The title is usually written above
o Single vertical graph – the bars are the graph.
constructed vertically and they Scale. The scale indicates the length or
portray the magnitudes of the height unit that represents a certain amount
categories into which data have been of the variable which is the subject of the
classified. graph. The scale enables the reader to
o Single horizontal bar graph – the interpret the significance of a number of
bars are constructed horizontally and length or height units.
are used to compare magnitudes of
the different categories into which the Classification and arrangement. The
data are classified. This is also usually principles of Classification and arrangement
used to compare magnitudes of are the same in graphs as in tables.
categories. Classes, categories, or time series are
Horizontal Line - It is also called the indicated at the X-axis and the scale units
baseline, coordinate, or X-axis. are indicated at the Y-axis.

- It represents the Symmetry of the graph. The whole chart or

graph should be about square, otherwise the
variables involved or classes or categories of length should be a little greater than the
a variable involved. height. The chart should be placed on the
Vertical Line - It is also called ordinate or Y- page in such a way that the margins at the
axis. left and at the right should be about the
same, or the margin at the left is a little
- It represents the quantities of wider.
the variables or classes or categories of a
variable involved. Footnote. The footnote, if there is any,
should be placed immediately below the
Essential of a graph graph aligned with the left side of the graph.
Here are the Essential parts of a graph: Source. The source of data, if there is any,
 Number should be written just below the chart at the
lower left immediately below the footnote if  The wandering line of the curve tells
there is any, but it should be above the graph the whole story. At a glance one can
number. see just what the situation is and what
is likely to happen.
Grouped (Multiple or Composite) Bar
 Its preparation requires less time and
graph
skill
- It is used in comparing two or more
Construction. Linear graphs are
categories of a variable during a specified
constructed in much the same way as many
period or over successive period of rime
of other graphs are. A slight difference lies
when the subgroups of the categories have
in the process of locating the intersecting of
common attributes.
the abscissa representing the magnitudes of
Duo-directional or bilateral bar graph the classes or categories of the variable.
- This graph is used to present data in Time series linear charts.
the form of assets, profits, and positive
- (single line) Time series linear single
numbers, liabilities losses and negative
line charts depict the variations of a variable
numbers.
over a period of time. Generally, the
Subdivided (or Component) bar graph abscissa represents the periods of time and
- are used to show the variations or the Y-axis represents quantitative values of
changes of the component parts of a whole the variable. The intersections of the X-axis
and the whole itself. representing time and the Y-axis
representing magnitude are located and
Histogram marked and then joined successively by
- It is composed of bars placed side by straight or curved lines. The resulting line, a
side whose heights indicate the magnitudes broken straight line or a curved line, shows
of their respective classes or categories. the variations of the variable.

- It is used with grouped or class Time series composite or multilinear

frequency distributions. charts.

 Linear graphs – are good devices to - These charts are used when
show variations of values over comparisons are made between or among
successive of time. Changes in the categories of the same variables or
data are indicated by the linear variations of two or more variables over
curves. periods of time.

Here are the advantages of Linear graphs or Frequency polygon.

charts: - It is used to graph class or grouped
 The curve shows data as a continuous frequency distributions. The X-axis
line; hence, it is continuous in its represents the classes and the Y-axis
effect. represents the frequencies of the classes.
The ogive. are arranged according to size with the
largest segment at the bottom.
- It is used to graph cumulative
frequencies (partial sums of frequencies), The pie chart or circle graph
either cumulative frequencies upward (from
- Circle graph has the same principles
lower classes to upper classes) or cumulative
and functions as the rectangular chart. It is
frequencies downward (from upper classes
also equated to 100% and because the circle
to lower classes). The items graphed may be
has 360, 1% is equated to 3.6 so that 60%
absolute frequencies or derived frequencies
must be equal to 216 (3.6 × 60).
(percents).
Pictogram
Band chart
- Pictogram or pictograph is used to
- It is a form of line graph of the time
portray data by means of pictures or
series variety. It shows the proportional
symbols.
variations of the component parts of a whole
over a period of time. The bands Implications of the Findings
representing the proportional changes may - It is the general practice of thesis
be colored or cross-hatched differently to writers to discuss the summary of the
increase the clarity of the variations. implications of their findings at the end of
One hundred per cent graphs or charts chapter 4 or elsewhere in the thesis.
- show the comparison of the An implication consists of at least five
proportional sizes of the component parts elements, namely:
that make up the whole, the whole being  The existence of a condition
made equivalent to 100%.  The probable cause of the condition
There are two types or kinds of 100%  The probable effect of the condition
 The measure to remedy the
 The 100% bar or rectangular chart
unsatisfactory condition or to
 The pie chart or circle graph
continue to strengthen the favorable
Note that: one.
 The entity or area involved or affected
These are to graph budgets,
enrolments, sales, etc.
The 100% bar graph or rectangular chart. The existence of a condition
- Usually, the bar is erected vertically - This condition is a finding
and the whole height is equivalent to 100%. discovered in the research. The condition
may be favorable or unfavorable.
- The bar is subdivided into segments
whose number is equal to the number of The probable cause of the condition
component parts. The sized of each segment
- If there is a condition there must be
is proportional to the percent of the
a cause and there must be a logical
component part it represents. The segments
 relationship between the condition and of the problem must be written first to
the cause, otherwise the cause may not be followed by the findings that
be a valid one. would answer it. The specific
questions should follow the order they
The probable effect of the condition
are given under the statement of the
- Most likely, there is also a probable problem.
effect of the condition and there must be o The findings should be textual
a logical relationship between the generalizations, that is, a summary of
condition and its probable effect. the important data consisting of text
The measure to remedy the and numbers. Every statement of fact
unsatisfactory condition or to continue should consist of words, numbers, or
to strengthen the favorable one statistical measures woven into a
meaningful statement. No deduction,
- It is a natural reaction to institute a nor inference no interpretation should
measure to remedy an unfavorable be made otherwise it will only be
situation. However, if a condition is duplicated in the conclusions.
found to be a favorable one it is also a o Only the important findings, the
natural reaction to continue it in highlights of the data, should be
operation and to even further strengthen included in the summary, especially
it. those upon which the conclusions
should be based.

How to write chapter o Findings are not explained nor

5 elaborated upon anymore. They
should be stated as concisely as
possible.
Summary of Findings o No new should be introduced in the
summary of findings.
Guidelines in writing the summary of
findings. The following should be the Conclusions
characteristics of the summary of findings. Guidelines in writing the conclusions. The
There should be a brief statement about the following should be the characteristics of the
main purpose of the study, the population or conclusions:
respondents, the period of the study, method
of research used, the research instrument, o Conclusions are inferences,
and the sampling design. There should be no deductions, abstractions, implications,
explanations made. interpretations, general statements,
and/or generalizations based upon the
o The findings may be lumped up all findings. Conclusions are the logical
together but clarity demands that each and valid outgrowths of the findings.
specific question under the statement They should not contain any numeral
 because numerals generally limit the same information as the statements
forceful effect or impact and scope of recapitulated.
a generalization. No conclusions
should be made that are not based Some Dangers to Avoid in Drawing up
upon the findings. Conclusions Based on Quantitative Data
o Conclusions should appropriately Here are some factors that a researcher
answer the specific questions raised at should guard against:
the beginning of the investigation in
the order they are given under the  Bias
statement of the problem. The study  Incorrect generalization
becomes almost meaningless if the  Incorrect deduction
questions raised are not properly  Incorrect comparison
answered by the conclusions.  Abuse of correlation data
o Conclusions should point out what  Limited information furnished by any
were factually learned from the one ratio
inquiry. However, no conclusions  Misleading impression concerning
should be drawn from the implied or magnitude of base variable
indirect effects of the findings. Bias. Business establishments, agencies, or
o Conclusions should be formulated organizations usually present or manipulate
concisely, that is, brief and short, yet figures to their favor.
they convey all the necessary
Incorrect generalization. An incorrect
information resulting from the study
generalization is made when there is a
as required by the specific questions.
limited body of information or when the
o Without any strong evidence to the
sample is not representative of the
contrary, conclusions should be stated population.
categorically. They should be worded
as if they are 100 percent and correct. Incorrect deduction. This happens when a
They should not give any hint that the general rule is applied to a specific case.
researcher has some doubts about Incorrect comparison. A basic error in
their validity and reliability. The use statistical work is to compare two things that
of qualifiers such as probably, are not really comparable.
perhaps, may be, and the like should
be avoided as much as possible. Abuse of correlation data. A correlation
o Conclusions should refer only to the study may show a high degree of association
population, area, or subject of the between two variables. They may move in
study. the same direction at the same rate but it is
o Conclusions should not be repetitions not right to conclude at once that one is the
of any statements anywhere in the cause of the other unless confirmed so by
thesis. They may be recapitulations if other studies.
necessary but they should be worded Limited information furnished by any one
differently and they should convey the ratio. A ratio shows only a partial picture in
most analytical work. Suppose the only to recommend the impossible. This, of
information that we have about a certain course, depends upon the situation.
establishment is that the ratio does not show o Recommendations should be logical
the kinds of employees leaving and why and valid. If the problem is the lack of
they are leaving. facilities, it is only logical to
Misleading impression concerning recommend the acquisition of the
magnitude of base variable. Ratios can give lacking facilities.
erroneous impressions when they are used to o Recommendations should be
express relationships between two variables addressed to the persons, entities,
of small magnitudes. agencies, or offices who or which are
in a position to implement them.
Recommendations o There should be a recommendation
Guidelines in writing the for further research on the same topic
recommendations. in other places to verify, amplify, or
negate the findings of the study. This
Recommendations – are appeals to people is necessary so that if the findings are
or entities concerned to solve or help solve the same, generalizations of wider
the problems discovered in the inquiry. application can be formulated.
They should have the following Evaluation of a Thesis or Dissertation
characteristics:
Generally, a thesis or dissertation has
o As mentioned above, to be defended before a panel of examiners
recommendations should aim to solve and then submitted to the proper authorities
or help solve problems discovered in for acceptance as a piece of scholary work.
the investigation. Hence, there should be some guidelines in
o No recommendations should be made evaluating a thesis or dissertation.
for a problem, or any thing for that
matter, that has not been discovered The following are offered to be the general
or discussed in the study. criteria in judging the worthiness of a thesis
Recommendations for things not or dissertation:
discussed in the study are irrelevant.  The Subject and the Problems
o There may also be recommendations  The Design of the Study
for the continuance of a good practice  The Data (Findings)
or system, or even recommendation  Conclusions (Generalizations)
for its improvements. This is to insure  Recommendations
a continuous benefit being accorded
to the universe involved.
o Recommendations should aim for the
ideal but they must be feasible,
practical, nad attainable. It is useless