TEFLIN TEACHER DEVELOPMENT SERIES

Series Editors: Willy A Renandya & Nur Hayati

Assistant Editor: Rahmati Putri Yaniafari

TEFLIN Teacher Development Series contains short practical resource booklets for
English language teachers in Asia published by TEFLIN (The Association for the
Teaching of English as a Foreign Language in Indonesia) through its Publication
Division. Printed titles in the first batch of the series (2019) include:

Introducing Task-based Language Teaching by Rod Ellis

Evaluating, Adapting and Developing Materials for Learners of English as an International
Language by Brian Tomlinson
Cooperative Learning in Language Education by George M Jacobs & Willy A Renandya
Teaching Pragmatics in EFL Classrooms by Nguyen Thi Thuy Minh & Le Van Canh

Order your printed copies by sending an email to:

[email protected]

If you have any queries, please contact:

TEFLIN Publication Division
Email: [email protected]

Copyright © 2019
TEFLIN Publication Division in collaboration with Bintang Sejahtera Press
c/o Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Negeri Malang
Jalan Semarang 5 Malang, East Java, Indonesia, 65145
http://www.journal.teflin.org

ISBN: 978-602-1150-27-6

First published 2019

Cover Designer: Himawan Prakosa
Formatting: Ibnuz Zaki
 Introducing  Task-­‐based  Language  Teaching  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Rod  Ellis  
Curtin  University,  Perth,  Australia  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
TEFLIN  Teacher  Development  Series    
published  by  
TEFLIN  Publication  Division
 a
TEFLIN Teacher'Development'Series'

FOREWORD FROM THE

PUBLISHER !
!

I
t'is'a'great'pleasure'for'TEFLIN'to'publish'this'Teacher'Development'Series,'a'
series' which' provides' useful' and' affordable' resources' for' English' language'
teachers' and' teacher' educators' in' Asia.' The' booklets' in' the' series' cover'
various' topics' pertaining' to' ELT' and' are' written' by' experts' in' the' field.'
Teachers' and' teacher' educators' will' enjoy' reading' the' series' as' the' booklets' are'
written'in'a'friendly'and'accessible'style.'

Throughout' more' than' sixty' years' of' TEFLIN,' we' have' shown' our' full'
commitment' towards' teacher' training' and' education' and' teacher' professional'
development'in'the'field'of'ELT'by'means'of'various'programs.'We'have'organized'
conferences'and'academic'forums'for'English'language'teachers'both'nationally'and'
internationally,'and'collaborated'with'different'organizations'to'provide'support'for'
teachers' in' developing' their' professionalism,' such' as,' by' giving' scholarships' to'
attend'conferences'and'conducting'teacher'training.''

Through' the' TEFLIN' Publication' Division,' we' have' published' volumes' of' the'
TEFLIN'Journal,'a'peerIreviewed'journal'indexed'in'Scopus'and'fully'accredited'with'
an' “A”' rating' by' the' Indonesian' Ministry' of' Research' and' Higher' Education.' The'
journal'contains'both'research'and'concept'papers'in'the'field'of'ELT.'This'TEFLIN'
Teacher' Development' Series' is' another' project' of' the' division' and' is' yet' another'
form'of'our'commitment'to'giving'continued'support'to'the'development'of'English'
language'teaching'in'Indonesia'and'in'the'wider'region.'This'year'we'are'aiming'to'
launch'five'books'of'the'series,'and'are'committed'to'publishing'more'titles'in'the'
following'years'to'support'teachers’'sustainable'professional'development.'

!!Introducing!Task0based!Language!Teaching i'
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We' are' indebted' to' Dr' Willy' A' Renandya' for' sharing' with' us' his' brilliant' ideas'
and'for'giving'his'utmost'effort'and'lending'his'expertise'to'this'project.'Without'his'
capacity' and' networking,' this' project' would' not' be' possible.' We' also' gratefully'
thank' all' the' experts' who' have' contributed' to' the' series.' Their' contribution' is'
invaluable.''

We' hope' this' series' will' serve' its' purpose,' to' empower' English' teachers' and'
facilitate'their'professional'development'through'quality'and'accessible'resources.''

''

'

'

Joko'Nurkamto''' ' ''''''''''Yazid'Basthomi'

President'of'TEFLIN'' '''''''''''Coordinator'of'TEFLIN'Publication'Division'
'

' '

!!Introducing!Task0based!Language!Teaching ii'
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'

SERIES EDITORS’ PREFACE

'
'
'
'

T
'
he'TEFLIN'Teacher'Development'Series'is'a'series'of'short'practical'resource'
booklets' for' English' language' teachers' in' Asia' as' part' of' a' collaborative'
project' with' the' Publication' Division' of' TEFLIN' (The' Association' for' the'
Teaching' of' English' as' a' Foreign' Language' in' Indonesia).' The' booklets' (or'
modules)'are'intended'to'be'used'by'teachers'(both'preIservice'and'inIservice)'and'
teacher'educators'as'a'learning'resource'and'as'the'basis'for'organizing'workshops,'
inIservice'courses'and'various'other'purposes'of'teaching'and'learning'and'teacher'
professional'development.'
The'booklets'in'the'Series'are'written'in'an'accessible'and'teacherIfriendly'style'
and' cover' both' principles' and' techniques' and' include' different' topics' relevant' to'
ELT'and'teacher'professional'development.'Each'booklet'contains'practical'ways'for'
teachers' to' apply' new' ideas' in' their' own' teaching' as' well' as' reflective' tasks' that'
provide'opportunities'for'the'users'to'reflect'on'their'own'classroom'practices.''
For' the' first' batch' of' the' series,' we' have' had' a' great' honor' and' pleasure' to'
work' with' experts' in' various' areas' of' ELT.' One' of' them' is' Rod' Ellis,' a' widely'
renowned'scholar'in'the'field,'whose'contribution'through'his'works'particularly'in'
the'areas'of'second'language'acquisition'research,'language'pedagogy'and'teacher'
education' is' internationally' recognized.' His' book' introduces' the' principles' and'
techniques'of'taskIbased'language'teaching,'a'teaching'approach'that'is'crucial'to'
help'ensure'that'learners'are'able'to'use'the'language'in'meaningful'and'authentic'
communication'and'interaction.'He'explains'key'concepts'behind'TBLT'clearly'and'
offers' practical' tips' on' how' these' concepts' can' be' applied' in' the' language'
classroom.'We'believe'that'the'book'will'inspire'teachers'and'teacher'educators'to'
learn'more'about'TBLT,'try'out'the'ideas'in'their'classrooms'and'share'the'results'
with'their'colleagues.'
'

!!Introducing!Task0based!Language!Teaching iii'
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We'would'like'to'again'extend'our'utmost'gratitude'to'Prof'Rod'Ellis'as'well'as'
other'experts'who'have'contributed'to'the'Series'for'their'kindness'and'generosity'
in'sharing'their'knowledge'and'expertise'and'helping'make'this'project'happen.'We'
are' committed' to' publishing' more' quality' booklets' in' the' coming' years' in' the'
coming'years'in'order'to'meet'the'needs'of'English'teachers'and'teacher'educators'
in'Asia.'We'hope'to'collaborate'with'many'more'experts'in'various'areas'of'ELT'and'
bring' out' booklets' that' are' affordable' and' beneficial' for' the' development' of' ELT'
and'teacher'professionalism'particularly'in'the'Asian'region.

Willy'A'Renandya'
Nur'Hayati'
' '

!!Introducing!Task0based!Language!Teaching iv'
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AUTHOR’S PREFACE
!

T his# book# was# written# for# teachers# interested# in# knowing# more# about# taskI
based&language&teaching&and&in&trying&it&out&in&their&own&classrooms.&It&draws&
on#my#own#and#other#people’s#research#about#taskIbased&language&teaching&
but$ it$ is$ intended$ to$ be$ very$ practical& so& I& have& not& included& lots& of& references& to&
research.(Teachers(will(find(suggestions(for(actual(tasks(and(there(are(lots(of(ideas(
about&how&to&set&about&how&to&teach&a&taskIbased&lesson&and&how&to&do&taskIbased&
assessment.('
TaskIbased& language& teaching% is% the% best% way% to% ensure% that% students% develop%
the$ kind$ of$ knowledge$ of$ a$ language$ that$ they$ need$ to$ communicate$ with$
effectively.*Too*many*students*leave*school*after*years*of*studying*English*with*little*
ability' to' use' the' language' they' have' been' learning' in' every' day' communication.'
TaskIbased&teaching&will&help&to&avoid&this&unfortunate&state&of&affairs.&'
I" have" conducted" numerous" seminars" for" teachers" on" taskIbased& teaching&
throughout'the'world.'I'have'seen'teachers'grow'excited'about'the'possibilities%for%
effective' teaching' it' offers.' ' But' I' have' also' been' made' aware' of' their' doubts' and'
the$problems$they$experience$in$implementing$it.$In$the$final$chapter$of$the$book$I$
try$to$address$the$questions$about$taskIbased&teaching&that&teachers&often&ask.'
I" have" done" my" best" to" write" the" book" in" a" simple" and" accessible" manner."
Inevitably,,however,,there,are,quite,a,lot,of,technical,terms,that,I,have,had,to,use.,
To#help#readers#I#have#put#these#terms#in#bold#print#and#provided#a#glossary#defining#
them%at%the"back"of"the"book.'
My# hope# is# that# reading# this# book# will# motivate# you# to# try# out# taskIbased&
teaching)in)your)own)classroom.'
'
Rod$Ellis'
Curtin'University'
Perth&(Australia)'

!!Introducing!Task0based!Language!Teaching v'
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
!

Foreword!from!the!Publisher!
!

President!of!TEFLIN!and!Coordinator!of!TEFLIN!Publication!Division!!..........!! i!
!
Preface!
!! !
Series!Editors!..................................................................................................!! iii!
Author!!...........................................................................................................!! v !
!
Table!of!Contents!!
!
Table!of!Contents!!.........................................................................................!! vi!
List!of!Tables!!.................................................................................................!! i x !
List!of!Figures!!...............................................................................................!! x!
!
Chapter!One:!Introduction!
!
Getting!Started!!...........................................................................................!! 1!
What%Is%a%Task?!!...........................................................................................!! 2!
Creating!a!Task!out!of!an!Exercise!!..............................................................!! 4!
Task9based!Language'Teaching!!...................................................................!! 6!
Task9supported)Language)Learning!!............................................................!! 9!
Conclusion!!..................................................................................................!! 11!
!
Chapter!Two:!Some!Key!Concepts +
!
Introduction!!................................................................................................!! 12!
Second'Language'Acquisition!......................................................................!! 12!
Educational+Principles!!.................................................................................!! 17!
Conclusion!!..................................................................................................!! 19!

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Chapter!Three:!Choosing!Tasks +
!

Introduction!!................................................................................................!! 21!
Types&of&Tasks!!.............................................................................................!! 21!
The$Design$Features$of$Tasks!!......................................................................!! 30!
Constructing+a+Task9based!Course!!..............................................................!! 32!
Conclusion!!..................................................................................................!! 35!
!
Chapter!Four:!The!M ethodology!of!a!TaskIBased!Lesson +
!

Introduction!!................................................................................................!! 37!
Planning!a!Task9based!Lesson:!Describing!an!Accident!!..............................!! 38!
Pre9task%Phase%Options!!...............................................................................!! 41!
Main%Task%Phase%Options!!............................................................................!! 47!
Post9task%Phase!Options!!.............................................................................!! 54!
Conclusion!!..................................................................................................!! 66!
!
Chapter!Five:!Focus!on!Form +
!

Introduction!!................................................................................................!! 58!
Doing&Focus9on9form!!..................................................................................!! 59!
Conclusion!!..................................................................................................!! 66!
!
Chapter!Six:!Assessing!Students!Using!Tasks +
!

Introduction!!................................................................................................!! 68!
Developing*an*Assessment*Task!!.................................................................!! 69!
Assessing'Task'Performance!!.......................................................................!! 71!
Formative!and!Summative!Assessment!!......................................................!! 74!
Self9assessment!!..........................................................................................!! 79!
Conclusion!!..................................................................................................!! 79!

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Chapter!Seven:!!Addressing!Problem s!in!TaskIBased!Language!
Teaching +
!
Introduction!!................................................................................................!! 81!
Questions)Teachers)Ask!!..............................................................................!! 82!
A"Modular"Language"Course!!.......................................................................!! 87!
!
Glossary!!.................................................................................................................!!90!
Appendix:)The$Heart$Transplant)Task!!...................................................................!!97!
Suggested(Further'Reading!!...................................................................................!102!
References!!.............................................................................................................!104!
! !

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LIST OF TABLES!
!
Table&1:"! Example(of(learner(language(in(the(context(of(incidental(language'!
! learning(!..................................................................................................!!14!
Table&2:"! Examples)of)tasks)in)terms)of)cognitive/linguistic)operations)!
required!!.................................................................................................!!24!
Table&3:"! Examples)of)tasks)based)on)design)features!!........................................!!30!
Table&4:"! Different(types(of(tasks(based!on#language#learner#levels#!...................!!33!

Table&5:"! Examples)of)task)topics)for)three)general)levels)of)proficiency)!...........!!34!

Table&6:"! Examples)of)main)tasks!for$a$topic$area$with$increased$levels$of"!

! difficulty!..................................................................................................!!34!

Table&7:"! Phases&and&aims%in%a%taskIbased&lesson&!...............................................!!37!

Table&8:"! Sample'learning'activities#for#a#taskIbased&lesson&!...............................!!!39!

Table&9:"! Teacher’s)functions)in)taskIbased&language&teaching&!..........................!!!52!

Table&10:"!Strategies$for$doing$focusIonIform%!.......................................................!!67!

Table&11:"!Examples)of)a)traditional)testing)item)and"a"simple"taskIbased&test&!...!!!68!

Table&12:"!A"general"rating"scale"to"assess#students’#production#!.........................!!!73!

Table&13:"!A"specific"rating"scale"to"assess#students’&production&!.........................!!!74!

Table&14:"!Observation,sheet,for,assessing,student#participation#in#a#task#!..........!!!75!

Table&15:&Task&evaluation&sheet&!............................................................................!!76!
! !

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LIST OF FIGURES
!
Figure'1:'!A"Modular"Course!!.................................................................................!!!87

Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching!!!! x!
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

Getting'Started!
Tasks%have%always%had%an%important%place%in%language%teaching%long%before%task$
based&language&teaching&appeared&on&the&scene.&&For&example,&debates&are&popular&
and$a$debate$is$a$kind$of$task.$A$motion$is$framed$(e.g.$ Students(should'be'allowed'
to#bring#their#cell#phones#to#school#with#them).#Two#students#are#chosen#to#propose#
the$motion$and$two$to$oppose$it.$They!take%it%in%turn%to%make%their%case.%Then%after%
they%have%made!their&speeches&other&students&can&ask&questions&or&make&points&for&
or#against#the#motion.#Finally,#the#whole#class#votes#and#the#motion#is#either#passed#
or#defeated.#"

Here$is$another$example!of#a#task."The"students"have"just"read"a"passage"about"a"
famous'person.(One(student(is(chosen(to(role$play%this%person.%The%rest%of%the%class%
fires&questions&at&him/&her&and&the&student&has&to&try&to&answer&them&in&character.&If&
the$ student$ is$ unable$ to$ answer$ a$ question$ he/she$ sits$ down$ and$ another$ student$
has$a$go.$"

Tasks% such% as% these% provide% opportunities% for% students% to% practise%
communicating.+The+idea+is+to+encourage+students+to+make+free+use+of+the+English+
they% have% learned% without% bothering% about% being% linguistically% correct.% In% other%
words,' when' tasks' are' used' in# this# way,# the# focus# is# on# fluency! and$ language$ use$
rather&than&accuracy!and$language$learning.$"

However,( the( occasional( use( of( tasks( such( as( debates( and( role$plays& does& not&
amount' to' task$based& teaching.& It& simply& offers& students& a& chance& to& escape& from!
activities( where( the( focus( is( on( accuracy.( As( we( will( see,( in( task$based& language&
teaching)the)whole)curriculum)is)based)on)tasks.)The)idea)is)that)learners)can)learn)

Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching+++!1"
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the$language$through$trying$to$use$it$in$much$the$same$way$as$children$learn$their$
mother"tongue"through"talking"with"their"parents"and"siblings."
"
Reflection*

Think!of!a!task!such!as!a!debate!or!a!role3play!that!you!sometimes!use!in!your!
own!teaching!or!that!you!experienced!when!you!were!learning!English.!
1. Write!a!description!of!the!task.!
2. Share!your!description!with!a!partner.!
What!are!your!own!views!about!including!such!tasks!in!your!teaching?!

!
What%Is"a"Task?!
The$ starting$ point$ for$ understanding$ what$ task$based& teaching& consists& of& is& to&
develop'a'clear'idea'of'what'a"task%is%and%what%a%task%isn’t.%So%let#us#consider#two#
different(activities(and(ask(whether(they(constitute(tasks."

Activity'1:""Dialogue+

Students!are!given!a!script!of!a!complete!dialogue!and!put!into!pairs.!Each!student!
is! allocated! a! part! in! the! dialogue!and! asked! to! memorize! the! lines! for! this! part.!!
The!students!then!act!out!the!dialogue.+

"
Amir:!" Where%do%you%live?"
Dimas:!" In#Medan."
Amir:!" Is#that#in#Indonesia?"
Dimas:!" Yes.%It%is%actually%in%Sumatera."
Amir:!" Oh.$I$thought&Sumatera&was$part$of$Malaysia."
Dimas:!" No,$Sumatera(is#a#part#of#Indonesia."
"
Activity'2:''Spot'the'Difference+

Students! are! placed! in! pairs.! Each! student! is! given! a! picture! and! told! that! the! two!
pictures!are!basically!the!same!but!there!are!five!small!differences.!Without!looking!at!
each!other’s!picture!they!talk!together!to!locate!and!write!down!the!five!differences.!

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++2 !
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"
How$can$we$decide$if$these$are$tasks?$$To$decide$we$need$a$definition$of$task.$
My#own#definition#is#based#on#criteria1."For"an"activity"to"be"a"task"it#needs%to%satisfy%
four%principal!criteria:"

1. The$students’$primary$focus$must$be$on$meaning.$That$is$students$must$be$trying$
to#use#language#rather#than#to#learn#it."
2. There%must%be%some%kind%of%gap.!The$gap$motivates$the$exchange$of$information$
or#opinions."
3. The$ students$ must$ mainly' rely' on! their& own& linguistic& and& non$linguistic)
resources' to' perform' the' task.' That' is,' they% must% make% do% with% whatever%
language'they'already'have!and$other$ways$such$as$gesture$to$convey$meaning."
4. There%is%a%communicative%outcome.%The%task%is%completed$when$the$outcome$is$
achieved.) Successful) completion) does) not) depend) on) using) the) language)
correctly."

If#we#apply#this#definition#to#the#two#activities#we#can#see#that#Activity#1#is#clearly#
not$a$task.$Performing$the$dialogue$does$not$require$a$primary$focus&on&meaning;&
students'can'memorize'their'part'of'the'dialogue'without'having'to'understand'it.'
There%is%no%gap%because%both%students%can$see!the$complete(dialogue)so)they)know)
what% his/her% partner% is% going% to% say.% They% do% not% have% to% use% their% own% linguistic'
resources'because'the'whole'dialogue'is'given'to'them.'There'is'no'communicative'
outcome.( They( are( simply( reciting( the( dialogue( in# order# to# practice! the$ language!
given&to&them."

In# contrast,# Activity# 2# is# a# task.# The# primary# focus# is# on# meaning# because$ the$
learners'have'to'describe'their'pictures'to'each'other.'There'is'a'gap'because'each'
student' cannot' see' his/her' partner’s' picture.' ' They' have' to' use' whatever' English'
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1
!This"definition"comes"from"Ellis"(2003).!

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they% know% to% describe% their% pictures.% They% can% also% use% gesture% to% try% to% convey%
information.*There*is*a*clear*communicative*outcome*–!finding&the$five$differences$
in# the# pictures.# The# teacher# can# tell# whether# they# have# performed# the# task#
successfully(by!seeing&if&they&have&identified&these&five&differences."

I" am" not" saying" that" Activity! 1" is" a" waste" of" time." Perhaps" learners" can" learn"
something*by*reciting*a*ready$made%dialogue%–!for$example,$they$may$improve$their$
pronunciation.+ But+ if+ students+ only+ do+ activities+ like+ this+ they+ are+ very+ unlikely+ to+
learn& how& to& communicate& freely& and& confidently) in) a) language.) To) learn) how) to)
communicate*learners*need*to#experience#opportunities*for$communicating$and$for$
these,!tasks%are%required."
"
Reflection*

Work!with!a!partner.!!Decide!whether!the!debate!and!the!role3play!activities!described!in!
the!introduction!section!of!this!chapter!are!indeed!‘tasks’.!
To!do!this!you!will!need!to!consider!these!questions:!
1. Is!there!a!primary!focus!on!meaning?!
2. Is!there!a!gap?!If!yes,!is!it!a!gap!involving!reasoning,!information!or!opinion?!
3. Do!students!have!to!use!their!own!linguistic!resources!or!is!the!language!they!need!
provided?!
4. Is!there!a!communicative!outcome?!If!yes,!what!is!it?!

!
Creating)a)Task$out#of#an#Exercise!
It#is#often#possible#to#create#a#task#out#of#an#exercise.#Below#are#two#activities.#
One$is$an$exercise'and'one'is'a'task.''Can'you'see'which'is'which?"

The$difference$between$these$two$activities$is$that$Activity$2$has$a$gap$whereas$
Activity'1'has'no'gap.'It'is'the'gap'that'makes'Activity'2'a'task.'It'is'the'lack'of'a'gap'
that$ makes$ Activity$ 1$ an$ exercise.' In' other' words,' we' can' sometimes! turn% an%
exercise'into'a'task'by'creating'a'gap.'"

Without' a' gap' there' is' no' real' need' to' communicate.' Creating' a' gap' creates' a'
need$ for$ the$ students$ to$ share$ information.$ The$ process$ of$ sharing$ information$ is$
often&not#a#smooth#one.#It#is#likely#to#result#in#misunderstandings#and#the#need#to#

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negotiate( when( problems! occur.& Part& and& parcel& of& learning& a& language& is& learning&
how$to$negotiate$when$a$communication$problem$arises.$"

Activity'1:"Cloze"Activity+

Read%the%poem.%!As#you#read#try#to#decide#where#these#words#should#go:##"
syrupy&sweet&–!explode'0!sore%–!heavy&load&0!rotten&meat&&0!raisin+
"
Dream&Deferred2 "

What%happens%to%a%dream%deferred?"
Does%it%dry%up"
Like%a%____%in%the%sun?"
Or#fester#like#a#____"
And$then$run?"
Does%is#stink#like#_____?"
Or#crust#and#sugar#over#–"
Like%a%____?"
Maybe&it&just&sags"
Like%a%_____."
Or#does#it#just#_____?"
"
Activity'2:""Opinion"Gap!Activity+

Student'A'has'a'card'with'a'poem'that'has'some'words'missing.'Student'B'has'a'
card% with% a% list% of% the% missing% words.% Do% not% show% each% other% your% cards.% Talk%
together'to'work'out'how'to'complete'Student'A’s'poem.'"
+
Student*A* * Student*B*

Dream*Deferred* ! • syrupy!sweet!
What!happens!to!a!dream!deferred?! • explode!
Does!it!dry!up! • sore!
• heavy!load!
Like!a!____!in!the!sun?!
• rotten!meat!
Or!fester!like!a!____! • raisin!
And!then!run?!
Does!is!stink!like!_____?! !
Or!crust!and!sugar!over!–!
Like!a!____?!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
2
!The"poem"is"by"Langston"Hughes.!

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Maybe!it!just!sags!
Like!a!_____.!
Or!does!it!just!_____?!

"

Reflection*

Look!through!a!popular!course!book.!
1. Decide!whether!each!activity!in!the!course!book!is!an!exercise!or!a!task.!!Are!
there!some!activities!that!seem!to!have!some!of!the!characteristics!of!a!task!
and!yet!not!be!fully!tasks?!
2. See!if!you!can!redesign!some!of!the!exercises!to!make!them!tasks!by!adding!a!
gap.!!

Task3Based%Language&Teaching!
Task$based& language& teaching& differs& from& traditional& language& teaching& in& two&
main% ways.% First,% there% is% no% attempt% to% teach% specific% bits% and% pieces% of% language!
directly." Learners" learn" naturally" by" performing" tasks." Second" –! and$ this$ really$
follows&from&the&first&difference&–!a"task$based&syllabus&just%consists'of'a'list'of'tasks;'
that$is,$there$is$no$list$of$the$grammatical$structures$or$vocabulary$to$be$taught."

The$objective&of&a&task$based&lesson&has&to&be&stated&in&a&very&different&way&from&
the$objective$of$a$traditional$type$lesson.$In$a$traditional$lesson,!a"typical"objective"
might& be& ‘Students& will& be& able& to& use& the& prepositions& in,$ at,$ on! correctly( in(
different(time$expressions’.$In$a$task$based&lesson,!a"typical"objective)just)states)the)
outcome'of'the'task'that'is'to'be'achieved'–!for$example,$the$objective$for$the$ Spot%
the$Difference$Task!would&be&‘Students&will&find&the&five%differences%in%two%pictures%
when%they#cannot#see#each%other’s!picture’.*In*other*words,*in*a*task$based&lesson&
there% is% no% attempt% to% specify% what% language& learners& will& learn.& In" fact," different"
students'may'end'up'learning'different'language'as'a'result'of'performing'the'same'
task.&"

The$idea$that$there$are$no$specific$language$objectives$might$seem$quite$radical$
to#many#teachers#–!and$to$students$too."But"as"we"will"see"in"Chapter"2,!it#is#quite#
possible(for!students'to#pick%up%language!just!through'trying'to'communicate!and$in$
some%ways,!this%may%be#a"better"way"than"being"taught"directly.!"

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Let$us$now$look$at$an$example$of$a$task$based&course."

The$Communicational$Language$Teaching$Project!3 !"

In# this# project,# task$based& language& teaching& was& introduced& into& state&
secondary*schools*in*Southern)India)in)the)1980s)as)an)alternative)to)the)traditional)
way$of$teaching.$The$students$came$from$families$where$English$was$not$spoken$at$
home%and%had%very%limited%proficiency%in%the%language.%In%other%words,!they%were%
typical(of(many(students(starting%to%learn%English!as#a#foreign#language."The"project"
illustrates)both)how)to)set)about)designing)a)task$based&course&and&how&tasks&can&
be#used#in#the#classroom."

A" syllabus" consisting" of" tasks" was" drawn" up." The" tasks" drew" on" topics" that" the"
students' were! familiar' with' –! simple' diagrams,' clock' faces,' calendars,' school'
timetables,*maps,*money,*rules,*and*distances.*For*each*topic,!there%were%a%number%
of# different# tasks# which# were# sequenced# from# easy# to# difficult.# For# example,# for#
‘school' timetables’' the' tasks# were:# (1)# Constructing# timetables# from#
instructions/descriptions,. (2). comparing. timetables. to. identify. the. frequency. of.
lessons& in& the& different& subjects,& and$ (3)$ constructing$ timetables$ for$ teachers$ of$
different(subjects(from(given(class(timetables(and"vice"versa."""

The$teachers$made$no$attempt$to$specify$the$language$needed$to$perform$each$
task.& Instead,& they& simply& performed& the& tasks& and& let& the& language& emerge&
naturally( and( spontaneously( as( a( task( was( performed.$ In$ each$ lesson$ there$ was$ a$
pre$ task!followed!by#a# main%task,"which"was"similar"to"the"pre$task.&The&idea&was&to&
use$ the$ pre$task% to% prepare% the% students% to% do% the% main% task.% The% pre$task,&
therefore,( was( very( important.( This% is% where% the% students% were% exposed% to% the%
language'that'they'would'need#to#do#the#main#task.#It#also#enabled'the$teacher$to$
deal%with%any%problems%they%had!in#performing#the#task."Below&is&an!example'of'the'
teacher$ talk!that$occurred$when$the$teacher$was$working$through$a$timetable$pre$
task."

The$students$had$not$yet$developed$much$speaking$ability$so$the$lesson$consists$
mainly' of' the' teacher' talking.' The' teacher' helps' the' students' to' understand' by'
repeating) the) instruction) several) times.) He) also) uses) strategies) to) elicit) student)
production* –! for$ example,$ he$ spells$ out$ ‘Geography’' so' the' student' can' write' it' in'
the$ timetable.$ He$ prompts$ the$ students$ to$ say$ the$ time$ of$ the$ Geography$ lesson.$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3
!The"project"was"directed"by"N."S."Prabhu.!

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The$ teacher$talk% exposes% learners% to% language% in% a" way$ that$ makes$ it$
comprehensible-to-them.--"

Example(of(teacher0talk%during%a%timetable%pre0task"

Teacher:*! Next! question! –! listen! –! The! first! period! after! lunch! on! Tuesday! is!
Geography.! The! first! period! after! lunch! on! Tuesday! is! Geography.!
(Teacher!waits!to!see!if!students!put!their!hands!up!to!come!to!the!
front!and!write!‘Geography’!in!the!correct!place!in!the!timetable!but!
no!hands!go!up).!

Do!you!understand!the!question?!Shall!I!say!it!again?!Shall!I!repeat!
it?!The!first!period!after!lunch!on!Tuesday!is!Geography.!Yes?!Want!
to!try?!(A!student!puts!his!hand!up).!Come,!Murbarak.!

(Murbarak! comes! to! the! board,! locates! the! correct! slot! in! the!
timetable,!but!doesn’t!start!writing.!The!teacher!infers!the!problem!
is!spelling).!

I’ll! tell! you! the! spelling.! G3e3o! …! G3e3o3g3r3a3p3h3y.! What! is! the! –!
What!–!What!time!is!the!first!period!after!lunch?!

Students:!! Two!o’clock.!(several!voices)!

Teacher:!! Two!o’clock!to!…?!

Students:! Two!forty3five.!

Teacher:!! Two!to!two!forty3five.!That’s!what!I!said.!The!first!period!after!lunch!
on!Tuesday.!So!that’s!right.!Geography.!Good.!

"

We# do# not# know# what# the# students# learned# from# this# lesson.# Perhaps# they#
learned'how'to'spell'‘Geography’'and'how'to'express'times'but'perhaps'they'also%
picked'up'a'lot'of'new'words'from'the'teacher’s'talk!(e.g.% period,(lunch,(first)."Most%
important,"however,"is"not"what"language"they"may"have"learned"but"the"fact"that!
they% were% developing% the% ability% to% process% and% understand% English% as% a% tool% for%
communicating."

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Of# course,# we# do# hope# that! students' will! learn& English( by( performing( tasks." In"
fact!an#evaluation#of#the#project4!showed'that'they'did'learn.'In'fact,'the!students'
who$ participated$ in$ the$ task$based& course& outperformed& other& students& in# a#
traditional) language) programme) in# tests# that$ measured! the$ ability$ to$ use$ English$
communicatively."
"
Reflection*

So!far!we!have!looked!at!a!number!of!different!tasks:!
• A!debate!
• A!role3play!task!
• Spot!the!Difference!
• The!Dream!Deferred!Task!
• The!Timetable!Task!
1. These!tasks!differ!a!lot!in!difficulty.!Which!task(s)!would!be!suitable!for!(a)!
beginner3level! students,! (b)! intermediate! level! students,! and! (c)! more!
advanced!students.!
2. Write!an!objective!for!each!of!these!tasks.!

!
Task3Supported(Language(Learning!
Earlier'we'saw'that'tasks'are'not'new.'They'have'figured'in'language'teaching'for'
a" long" time." In" fact," tasks" also" have" a" place" in" language" teaching" based" on" a"
structural(syllabus'(i.e.'a'syllabus'listing'the'vocabulary'and'grammar'to'be'taught).'
When%tasks%are%used%in%this%way%we%talk%about%task$ supported)language)teaching."

One$ very$ common$ traditional) teaching) approach) is) presentation$ practice$

production* (PPP)." The" teacher! chooses& a& specific& grammatical& structure& to& teach&
(e.g.%modal%verbs).%In%the%presentation%stage,!the$teacher$provides$an$explanation$of$
the$ structure$ and/or$ gives$ examples$ of$ its$ use.$ In$ the$ practice$ stage,$ students$
complete( various( mechanical) exercises.( Finally,( students( have( the( opportunity( to(
practise)producing)the)structure)freely!by#performing#a#task.!This%way%of%teaching%is%
very%popular%and%underlies%the%design%of%many%published%course%books.%"

A"special"kind"of"task"is"needed"in"this"kind"of"task$supported'language'teaching'
–!a!focused(task."A"focused"task"is"designed"in"such"a"way"as"to"elicit"the"use"of"the"
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
4
!The"project"was"evaluated"by"Beretta"and"Davies"(1985).!

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structure' that' has' been' targeted.' For' example,# the# Things' in' Pocket' Task! 5! was$
designed' to' encourage' the' use' of' the' modal' verbs' ‘might’,' ‘may’,' and$ ‘must’' to'
express&different&degrees&of&probability.&If&students&think&there&is&a&small&possibility&
that$ the$ owner$ of$ the$ objects$ is$ a$ doctor,! they% might% say% ‘I% think% he% could! be# a#
doctor’.(If(they(are(a(bit(surer,!they%could%say%‘He% may!be#a#doctor’#and"if"they"think&
it#is#more#or#less!certain,"they"should"say!‘He$ must!be#a#doctor’.#Thus,#the# Things'in'
Pockets(Task!serves%to%practice%the%production%of%these%modal%verbs%in%a%meaningful,%
communicative+way."

Things*in*Pockets*Task*

The!teacher!lays!out!some!objects!in!front!of!the!students.!She!explains!that!the!
objects! came! from! the! pocket! of! a! coat! that! she! found! left! on! the! bus! she! was!
travelling!to!work!on!that!day.!
Objects:! a" pipe" –" a" soccer" magazine" –" a" pair" of" scissors" –" a" prescription" for"
medicines" –" a" comb" 3" a" photo" of" a" beautiful" young" woman" –" some"
earrings!
Work!in!groups.!Who!do!you!think!the!person!is?!Complete!this!table!about!the!
owner!of!these!objects.!Give!reasons!for!your!opinions.!
*
!

Things*about*
Possible+ Probable+ Certain+
the*owner*
Sex! ! * *
Age! ! * *
Marital!Status! ! * *
Profession! ! * *
"

Focused(tasks,(like(any(kind(of(task,(must(satisfy(the(four(criteria(for(a(task.((The(
Things'in'Pockets'Task!clearly'does'this.'The'primary'focus'is'on'meaning,'there'is'a'
gap$(an$opinion$gap$in$this$case$as$students$may$have$different$opinions$about$the$
identity'of'the'owner'of'the'objects),'the'students'have'to'use'their'own'linguistic'
resources'to'say'what'they#think,#and#there#is#a#clear#communicative#outcome#(i.e.#
the$completed$table)."

There% are,% however,% dangers% of% using% focused% tasks.% % The% most% obvious% one% is%
that$students$will$treat$the$activity$as$an$exercise$rather$than$as$a$task$because$they$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
5
!The"Things"in"Pockets"Task"was"designed"by"Virginia"Samuda"(2001).!

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know% that% the$ real$ purpose$ is# to# practise# using# the# modal# verbs# they# have# been#
taught! before& they& started& the& task." As" a" result," the" task" may" elicit" stilted," careful"
use$of$English$rather$than$genuine$spontaneous$communication.$Another$problem$is$
that$ it$ is$ not$ easy! to# develop# tasks# that# make# the# use# of# a# specific# grammatical#
structure' absolutely* necessary.) For) example,) in) the) Things' in' Pockets' Task! the$
students' might' simply& chose& to& use& the& adverbs& possible,) probable! and$ certain!
instead(of(the(modal(verbs."
"
Reflection*

Can!you!think!of!a!focused!task!for!practising!the!production!of!these!grammatical!
structures?!Remember!a!focused!task!must!still!satisfy!the!four!criteria!for!a!task.!
• The!present!simple!tense!to!refer!to!actions!carried!out!habitually"
• The!prepositions!‘in’,!‘on’!and!‘at’!in!time!expressions"

!
Conclusion!
In# this# chapter,! we# have# learned# what# a# task# is,# how# to# design# a# task,# and# the#
difference( between( task$based& and& task$supported) language) teaching.) ) We) have)
seen$that$tasks$have$an$important$place&in&any&kind&of&teaching.&"

In#this#book,!we#are#going#to#focus#on#task$based&language&teaching.&However,&in&
the$ concluding$ chapter$ of$ the$ book$ I$ will$ suggest$ that$ task$supported) language)
teaching)can$also$have!a"place"and"will"suggest"how"these"two"approaches!for!using&
tasks%can%be%combined%in%a%language%programme."
"
Reflection*

What!are!your!own!views!about!the!relative!merits!of!task3based!teaching!and!task3
supported!teaching?!!
Which!do!you!think!is!best!suited!to!your!own!teaching!situation?!
Why?!

"

" "

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CHAPTER TWO
SOME KEY CONCEPTS"

Introduction!
In# this% chapter% we% will% examine% the% rationale% for% task$based& language& teaching.&
The$ rationale$ draws$ on$ what$ is$ known$ about$ the$ nature$ of$ second$ language$ (L2)$
acquisition*and*on*general*principles*of*sound*education."

The$ goal$ of$ any$ approach$ to$ language$ teaching# must# be# to# ensure# that# it# is#
compatible+ with+ how+ learners+ acquire+ an+ L2.+ In+ other+ words,+ teachers+ need+ to+
ensure&that&what&and&how&they&teach&matches&the&way&learners&learn.&We&will&see,&
however,( that( there( are( different( theories( about( L2( learning( and( that$ these$ can$
provide(a(rationale(for(both(task$based&and&task$supported)language)teaching.)"

Language'teaching,'like'any'kind'of'teaching,'must'conform'to'widely'accepted'
principles)of)sound)education.)For)example,)educational)theorists)and)practitioners)
now$accept$that$students$are$agents$in$their$own$learning$and$that$teaching$is$most$
effective'when'it'enables'students'to'connect'what'they'are'taught'with'their'own'
personal)experience.)Also,)students)need)to)be)actively)engaged)in)learning,)not)just)
passive$recipients$of$information."

Second'Language'Acquisition!
There% is% an% enormous% amount% of% research% that% has% investigated% how% learners%
acquire( a( second( language( both( inside( and( outside( of( classrooms.( One( of( the( key(
findings' of' this' research' is' that' although" there" are" differences" in" how" learners"
acquire( a( language( in( the( real( world( and( in( the( classroom,( there( are( also( notable(

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commonalities.,To,understand,this,,we,need,to,understand,the,difference,between,
two$different$ways$of$learning."

Incidental*Language*Learning+

Incidental* learning! occurs& when& we& pick$up# things# without# making# a# special#
effort& to& learn& them.& We& can& learn& a& lot& of& things& –! perhaps' most' things' –! in# life#
incidentally.+For+example,+we+learn+how+tie+a+shoe+lace!or#ride#a#bicycle#not#by#being#
told% how% to% do% these% things% but% by% experiencing% them% repeatedly% and% slowly%
mastering* them.* Similarly,* we* can* learn* a* language* just* by* being* exposed* to* it* in*
communicative+ situations+ and+ through+ trying+ to+ communicate+ using+ it." " We" don’t"
need$to$be$taught$the$vocabulary$or$the$grammar$of$a$language.$The$ability$to$learn$
incidentally* is* a* fundamental* human* ability.* As* long* as* we* are* motivated* to* learn*
and$have$opportunities$to$do$so,$we$will!learn.'This,'of'course,'is'how'we'learn#our#
mother'tongue.'"

When% we% acquire% a% second/foreign% language% incidentally,% no% matter% what% the%
context,(we(will(find(the(following:"

• Learners'pick$up#a#lot#of#ready$made%chunks%of%language%%(e.g.% I’m$sorry;$I$don’t$
know;&Can&I&have&a&__?;&I’m&gonna&…).#These$enable$learners$to$express$language$
functions) such) as) apologizing) or) requesting) that) are) important) to) them.) They)
also% provide% the% learner% with% the% material% they% need% to% subsequently% work% out%
the$parts$that$make$up$the$chunks.$For$example,$after$learning#a#series#of#chunks#
involving' I’m! (e.g.% I’m$ sorry,$ I’m$ tired,$ I’m$ cold)" the" learner" can" work" out" that"
sorry,&tired,&cold!are$all$the$same$kind$of$words$(what$we$call$adjectives)$and$that$
therefore'it'is'okay'to'use'other'similar'words'after' I’m! (e.g.% I’m!clever).# In# this#
way,% the% learner% moves% beyond% relying% on% ready$made% chunks% to% producing%
utterances)that)are)more)creative.)"

• Learners'work'on'many'aspects'of'the'language'at'the'same'time.'They'do'not'
analyse'the'parts'that'make'up'chunks'one'at'a'time'but"rather"work"on"several"
chunks' together.' Also,' they' are' busy' mastering' pronunciation,' vocabulary' and'
grammar% simultaneously.% Language% learning% is% not% a% linear% process% of% first%
learning(one(grammatical(structure(and(then(another.(It(is(an(organic(process(of"
mastering*the*language*system*as*a*whole."

• For$ this$ reason,$ learning$ a$ language$ is$ a$ very$ gradual$ and$ slow$ process.$ It$ can$
take% several% months% before% a% learner% has% fully% acquired% a% single% grammatical%
structure!"

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• Inevitably,,then,,learners,make,a,lot,of,errors.%In%fact,%making%errors%is%part%and%
parcel' of' the' process' of' learning.' They' are' natural' and' they' cannot' be' avoided'
when%learners%are%using%the%language%they%know%to%communicate."

• Learners' make' use' of' default' processing' strategies' that' help' learning' but' also%
can$ impede$ development.$ For$ example,$ when$ learners$ hear$ an$ utterance$ like$
There%are%two%boys%playing%by%the%river!they%do%not%need%to%attend%to%the% s" on#
the$noun$ boy!to#understand#there#is#more#than#one#boy#because#the#word# two!
tells%them%this.%So%if%learners'just'focus'on'the'word'two,"they"may"not"notice"the!
0s!on#boy#and#consequently#fail#to#learn#how#to#make#nouns#plural.#This#is#why#
learners'often'continue'to'make'mistakes'with'grammatical'forms'such'as'$s!for$a$
long%time."

Table& 1! illustrates) what) learner$language' looks' like' when' it' takes' place'
incidentally.+All+the+utterances+in+this+table%were$produced$in$a$classroom$context$by$
the$same$beginner$level$learner$over$a$nine$month$period.$You$can$see$that$learning$
is# slow# and# very# gradual.& Initially,& this& learner’s& utterances& are& all& verbless,& then&
verbs&begin&to&appear&in&months&4$6"and"finally"auxiliary"verbs"in"months"7$9.#You#
can$see$that$the$learner$makes$use$of$ready$made%chunks%(e.g.% I"don’t"know)"which"
are$ grammatically$ correct" and" contrast" with" the" errors" in" his" creative" speech." It"
might&look&as&if&this&is&a&poor&language&learner&but&this&is&not&true.&&This&was&a&very&
successful' learner.' It' is' just' that' learning' a' language' takes' time' even' for' learners' $!
such%as%this%one%$!who$are$very$motivated.$"

Table&1:&Example&of&learner&language&in&the&context&of&incidental&language&learning"

Time* Learner*utterances* Context*

Months! Phoc"no"good" The!teacher!had!just!scolded!Phoc.!

133!
me"no"ruler" T:!John,"have"you"got"a"ruler?""

me"no"thirsty"" " S:!(Looking!at!a!picture!of!some!cups.)!

we"no"school" T:!John,"Monday"are"you"coming"to"school?!!
I"don"know""" In!response!to!a!question!from!T.!
umbrella"no"good""""""""""""""""""""""""""""
Looking!at!a!picture!of!a!leaky!umbrella.!

Months! me"no"play"""" Saying! he! wouldn't! play! football! at! break!

436! " time.!!

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Time* Learner*utterances* Context*

me"no"stay"" Saying!he!would!not!stay!after!school.!

Mariana"no"coming""" T:!!Is"Mariana"coming"today?!

bicycle"has"no"pedals" Describing!picture!of!a!bicycle.!

the" man" is" can't" read" it" the" Describing! picture! of! a! book! with! blank!
book" pages.!

Explaining!he!did!not!know!word!for!lorry.!
I"don't"know"that"big"one!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Months! you"did"no"read"properly" To!another!S!who!had!just!read!aloud.!

739!
the"man"is"not"shouting" Describing!a!picture!

She"don't"understand" Another!S!had!given!a!wrong!answer.!

I" no" throw" paper" on" the" T:!Who"threw"paper"in"the"playground?!

floor" !

this"man"can't"read" Describing!a!picture.!

I"not"got"a"pen" Explaining! why! he! couldn’t! do! some!

writing.!

"

Because' incidental' learning' is' a' natural,' unstoppable' process' it' cannot' be'
directed'externally;'it'is'the'learner'who'controls'it,'not'the'teacher.'All'the'teacher'
can$ do$ is$ to$ facilitate$ the$ processes$ involved$ $! for$ example,$ by$ drawing$ learners’"
attention' to' grammatical' features' such' as' plural! $s! to# help# them# overcome# their#
natural' tendency' to' focus' on' content' words' such' as' two! when% they% process% the%
input&they&are&exposed&to."

Incidental* language* learning* results* in* implicit' knowledge." This" is" the" kind" of"
knowledge)we)have)of)our)mother)tongue)and)that)underlies!the!utterances)in)Table%
1."Implicit"knowledge"enables"us"to"communicate"easily,"flexibly"and"spontaneously"
–! as# this# learner# is# able# to# do.# Without# implicit# knowledge,# communication# is#
burdensome*and*hesitant.*If*we*want*to*develop*students’*ability*to*communicate*
effectively)we)need#to#help#them#develop#their#implicit#knowledge.#This#is#what#task$
based& language& teaching& aims& to& do.& It& taps& into& students’& natural& ability& to& learn&
incidentally*and*it*aims*to*foster*the*acquisition*of*implicit*knowledge.*"
"

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Reflection*

Task3based&language&teaching&taps&into&students’&ability&to&learn&
incidentally.++How+does+task3based&language&teaching&do&this?&&!
You$may$need$to$look$back$at$Chapter$1$to$remind$yourself$of$how$tasks$
are$used$in$task3based&language&teaching.&!
"

Intentional)Language)Learning"

Intentional) language) learning! is# when# we# make# a# deliberate# effort# to# learn#
something* –! for$ example,$ by$ memorizing$ the$ meanings$ of$ some$ new$ words,$
studying)a)grammar)rule,)or)consciously)practising)how)to)say)something)correctly.#A#
lot$ of$ traditional$ teaching$ activities$ cater$ to$ intentional$ language$ learning.$ For$
example,(grammar(exercises(are(designed(to(help(learners(learn(intentionally."

Skill$ learning( theory! provides) a) rationale) for) intentional) language) learning.) This)
theory' claims' that' learning' begins' with' declarative' knowledge' which' evolves' into'
procedural* knowledge* and* eventually* automatic* knowledge* through* practice.*
Declarative* knowledge! is# explicit# knowledge.# It# is# knowledge# about! a" linguistic"
feature.( ( For( example,( when( we# look# up# the# meaning# of# a# word# in# a# dictionary# or#
when%the%teacher%explains%a%grammatical%rule,%the%result%is%declarative%knowledge.%
Declarative*knowledge*is*factual*knowledge*and*it*is*conscious.*We*can*say*what*we*
know.& But& it& is& not& easy& to& access& such" knowledge" when" we" are" trying" to"
communicate.+ According+ to+ skill+ learning+ theory,+ however,+ if+ we+ practise+ using+ our+
declarative* knowledge* intensively* it* changes* into* procedural* knowledge," which"
eventually) after) further) practice) becomes) automatic.) In) other! words,' through'
practice,)declarative)knowledge)is)automatized.)When)this)happens)it)is)available)for)
use$in$communication$in$much$the$same$way$as$implicit$knowledge$is."

It# should# be# clear# that# skill$learning( theory( provides( the( theoretical( support( for(
task$supported) language) learning.) The) presentation) stage) of) a) lesson) serves) to)
develop' declarative' knowledge.' Exercises' begin' the' process' of' building' procedural'
knowledge.*Then,&performing&a&task&provides)the)meaningful)practice)that)is)needed)
to#automatize#what%has%been%intentionally%learned."

It#might#seem#that#this#is#the#best#way#to#go#about#teaching#students#a#language#
in# a# classroom# context.# But# there# are# problems# with# skill# learning# theory# and,#
therefore,(with(task$supported)language)teaching.)The)theory"assumes"that"learners"

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learn&a&language&incrementally&in&a&linear&fashion.&&That&is,&it&claims&that&vocabulary&
and$grammar$are$mastered$item$by$item$and$rule$by$rule.$Indeed,$when$learning$is$
intentional,)this)is)the)only)way)that)a)language)can)be)learned.#In#fact,#though,#as#
we#have#seen,#natural#language#learning#is#incidental;#it#is#a#slow,#gradual#process#in#
which%learners%work%on%many%aspects%of%language%at%the%same%time.%%"

Can$ intentional$ language$ substitute$ for$ incidental$ language$ learning?$ To$ some!
extent% it% can.% We% may% be% able% to% short$circuit& the& natural& process& of& learning& by&
studying)and)practising)some)useful)bits)of)language)intentionally.))However,)it)is)not)
possible(to(learn(all(of(a(language(this(way.((A(language(is(just(too(complex(to(learn"
all#of#it#intentionally.#There#is#not#enough#time#for#the#extensive#practice#needed#to#
achieve' automatic' control' over' all' the' words' and' grammatical' structures' of' a'
language.( Also,( even( if( there( were( time,( learners( would( still( have( to( learn( how( to(
combine!all#the#structures#and#words#they#have#learned.#It#is#difficult#to#see#how#this#
can$ be$ achieved$ through$ intentional$ learning.$ It$ is$ impossible,$ for$ example,$ for$ a$
learner& to& learn& all& of& the& hundreds& of& collocations& for& a& word& such& as& clever! –a"
clever& person,% a% clever% argument,% clever% thinking! etc.% intentionally.% There% are% just%
too# many# possible# combinations.# At# best,# therefore,# intentional# language# learning#
can$only$complement$incidental$learning.$It$cannot$replace$it$as$the$way$to$achieve$
mastery(of(a(language."
"
Reflection*

Most%language%learners%know%the%rule%for%subject%verb%agreement%(i.e.%add%s!to#the#
verb%if%the%subject%is%singular%as%in%iron%rusts.)!
This%is%a%simple%rule%and%yet%language%learners%continue%to%make%errors%after%they%
have%been%taught%the$rule$and$say$they$know$it.!

From%your%reading%about%incidental%and%intentional%language%learning,%what%
explanation*can*you*give?!
"

Educational+Principles!
Benjamin( Franklin," the" famous" American) inventor," wrote:" “Tell" me," and" I" will"
forget.(Show(me,(and(I(may(remember.(Involve(me,(and(I(will(understand."(This(idea(
$! that$ we$ learn$ best$ by$ doing$ $! lies% at% the% centre% of% the% thinking% of% some% of% the%

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greatest'educators'(e.g.'Dewey'and'Bruner)'who'have'lived.''According(to(this(idea,(
the$student$is$an$apprentice$slowly$acquiring$skills$under$the$guidance$of$a$master,$
who$ participates$ alongside$ the$ student,$ demonstrating$ and$ providing$ feedback$
when%necessary.%The%view%of%education%that%draws%on%this%idea%contrasts!with%a%very%
different( view( of( education,( where( the( teacher( feeds( information( to( students( and(
the$students$soak$it$up$like$a$sponge$and$then$display$it$on$demand.$"

I"have"summarised"the"thinking"of"well$known%educators%(e.g.%Dewey;%Bruner)%in%
the$form$of$ten#general#principles#that#can#inform#teaching#in#general,#including#the#
teaching) of) a) second/) foreign) language.) As) you) read) through) these) principles,) you)
will$ see$ that$ they$ are$ closely$ interconnected.$ They$ emphasize$ the$ importance$ of$
basing' teaching' on' the" students’" own" experiences" and" of" developing" intuitive"
understanding+ rather+ than+ technical+ expertise.! The$ principles$ underlie$ a$
constructionist) view) of) teaching) and) learning,) which) among) other) things,)
emphasizes) that) the) responsibility) for) learning) should! reside& primarily& with& the&
learner&and&sees&the&teacher’s&job&as&that&of&acting&as&a&facilitator.&"

General*Education*Principles*
*
1. The! personal! interests! and! needs! of! the! students! are! central! and! should!
guide!teaching.!!
2. Teaching!is!effective!when!it!is!based!on!students’!existing!knowledge.!
3. Teaching!should!connect!with!students’!broader!experiences!of!the!world.!
4. Teaching! must! focus! on! intuitive! understanding! and! learning3for3use;! it! is!
more!important!that!students!are!able!to!do!something!than!whether!they!
can!provide!a!technical!explanation.!!
5. Teaching!must!provide!students!with!a!clear!sense!of!purpose!in!what!they!
are!doing!so!that!an!activity!becomes!intrinsically!motivating!for!them.!
6. Teaching!involves!careful!planning!but!what!transpires!may!not!correspond!
to!what!was!planned!as!the!teacher!needs!to!adapt!the!planned!activity!in!
the!light!of!the!students’!response.!
7. Teaching! is! a! social! activity! and! as! such! the! interactions! that! take! place!
between!teacher!and!students!and!between!student!and!student!are!where!
learning!takes!place.!!
8. The!teacher!should!not!act!as!a!‘knower’!who!transmits!information!to!the!
students!but!as!a!facilitator!of!the!activities!that!students!participate!in.!!

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9. Students! need! to! be! actively! involved! in! constructing! their! own! knowledge!
of!a!subject.!
10. Students!should!be!positioned!as!novice!practitioners!not!as!ignorant!pupils.!

"
It#should#be#clear#that#task$based&language&teaching&embodies&these&educational&
principles.*It*is*clearly*informed*by*a*constructivist*view*of*teaching$learning."As"we"
will$see$in$later$chapters,$it$provides$a$basis$for$ensuring$the$functional$relevancy$of$
language'teaching,'it'allows'for'careful'planning'through'the'selection'of'the'tasks'in'
a" task$based& syllabus,& it& treats& teaching& as& a& social& activity,& and& it& positions' the'
teacher'as'a'facilitator'who'helps'students'to'perform'tasks.''"

Task$supported)language)teaching,)in)contrast,)is)less)clearly)compatible)with)the)
ten$ principles.$ It$ is$ difficult$ to$ see,$ for$ example,$ how$ teaching$ based$ on$ structural$
syllabus' connects' directly' with' students’' existing' knowledge' of' what' language' is.'
Students( see( language( as( a( tool( for( communicating( not( as( a( list( of( words( and(
grammatical)structures.))Task$supported)language)teaching)positions)the)teacher)as)
a"‘knower’"(e.g."the"teacher&is&the&one&with&technical&knowledge&of&the&grammatical&
structures'of'the'language)'and'the'students'as'ignorant'pupils.'"

Nevertheless,*task$supported)language'teaching!is#not#entirely#incompatible#with#
these%principles.%By%emphasizing%practice%over%explanation)the)teacher)can)prioritize)
‘doing’(over(‘knowing’(and(when(carefully(implemented(–!especially)when)students)
perform'a'task'in'the'production'stage'of'a'lesson'–!it#can#be#intrinsically#motivating#
and$involve$students$in$actively$constructing$their#own#knowledge."
"

Reflection*

Think!of!your!own!experience!of!learning!a!language!in!a!classroom.!!To!what!
extent!did!what!you!experience!reflect!the!ten!educational!principles?!

You!might!want!to!think!of!the!different!kinds!of!lessons!and!activities!you!
experienced!and!reflect!on!how!each!of!these!embodied!the!ten!principles.!
!

Conclusion!
In# this# chapter,# we# have# examined# the# theoretical# underpinnings# of# both# task$
based&and&task$supported)language)teaching.)I"drew"on"research"in"second"language"

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acquisition* to* outline* what* happens* when* learning* takes* place* incidentally.* I* also*
outlined) skill$learning( theory( which( provides( an( explanation( of( how( intentional(
language'learning'takes'place.'Finally,'I'pointed'to'a'number'of'general'educational'
principles#that#can#inform#teaching."

I"have"tried"to"show"how"task$based&language&teaching&draws&on&what&we&know&
about&the&way&language&is&acquired&incidentally&and&that&it&is&very&compatible&with&
general' educational' principles.' However,' I' have' also' argued' that' task$supported)
language' teaching' cannot' be' entirely' rejected' as,' to' some' extent' at' least,'
intentional( learning( can( be( harnessed( to( help( learners( master( specific( bits( and(
pieces&of&language&and&as&it&is&also&compatible&with&at&least&some&of&the&educational&
principles."

Reflection*

Many!students!leave!school!after!several!years!of!language!instruction!not!being!able!to!
use!the!language!they!have!been!taught!to!communicate!very!well.!!!

Is!this!true!in!your!own!country?!

If!it!is!true,!draw!on!what!you!have!learned!about!second/foreign!language!acquisition!and!
the!ten!educational!principles!to!explain!why.!

If!it!is!not!true,!explain!why!students!in!your!country!are!successful!in!developing!the!ability!
to!communicate!effectively!in!the!language.!

" "

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CHAPTER THREE
CHOOSING TASKS

Introduction!
As# we# saw# in# Chapter# 1,# task$based& language& teaching& requires& a& task$based&
syllabus'–!that$is,$a$set$of$tasks$that$have$been$sequenced$from$easy$to$difficult.$The$
starting( point( for( constructing* such* a* syllabus* is* to* decide* what* types* of* tasks* to*
include(in(it.(In(the(next(section,(therefore,(we(consider(the(main(types(of(tasks(and(
their&suitability&for&learners&at&different&stages&of&development.&&Then,&we&consider&
what%design%factors"determine"the"complexity"of"individual"tasks."In"the"final"section"
we#look#at#how#to#set#about#putting#a#task$based&course&together. !
Types&of&Tasks!
I"will"start"by"looking"at"two"fundamental"differences"in"tasks."I"will"then"consider"
two$ different$ ways$ of# classifying# tasks# –! (1)$ a$ pedagogic$ classification$ where$ tasks$
are$ classified$ in$ terms$ of$ the$ linguistic/cognitive$ operations$ they$ involve$ and$ (2)$ a$
psycholinguistic-classification-where-they-are-classified-in-terms-of-their-potential-for-
assisting'learning.%It%is%important%to%recognize%that%all%the%task%types%I%will%consider%
have%to%satisfy%the%definition%of%a%task%we%considered%in%Chapter%1.+

Two$Fundamental$Distinctions+

1. Real$world&versus&pedagogic&tasks1"
A" real$ world&task!is#based#on#a#situation#that#can#be#found#in#everyday#life.##For#
example,( if( the( students( are( preparing( to( visit( an( English$speaking) country) for) the)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1
!The"distinction"between"real$world"and"pedagogic"tasks"was"first"made"by"Nunan"(1989).!

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first& time,& real$world& tasks& might& include& ‘explaining& the& purpose& of& your& visit& to&
immigration) officer) on) arrival’,) ‘asking) how) to) get) to" the" hotel" where" you" are"
staying’,* and* ‘booking* into* your* hotel’.* * If* the* students* are* planning* to* work* as* a*
tourist' guide,' the' real$world& tasks& could& include& ‘giving& out& information& about& a&
planned' tour’,' ‘describing' important' buildings’,' and$ ‘" answering" questions" about"
local%events’.%Tasks%based%on%real$world&situations&have&situational)authenticity."

Pedagogic)tasks)do)not)aim)to)replicate)the)kinds)of)tasks)found)in)the)real)world)
but$they$do$seek$to$elicit$meaningful$communication.$$For$example,%asking%students%
to# talk# about# two# pictures# in# order# to# identify# the# differences# in# them# is# not#
something*that*people*do*in*real*life.*However,*we*do*sometimes*have*to*describe*
things'carefully.''We'can'say,'then,'that'although'a'pedagogic'task'lacks'situational(
authenticity*it*does*have*interactional*authenticity!because'the'language'use'it'gives'
rise%to%corresponds%to%how%language%is%used%in%everyday%communication.%"

If#there#are#particular#target$tasks%that%the%students%need%to%perform%(as%in!the$
case!for$students$planning$to$work$as$tourist$guides)$then$it$makes$sense$to$first$try$
to#identify#what#these#target#tasks#are#and#then#construct#teaching#tasks#based#on#
them.& If,& however,& the& students& are& elementary& or& secondary& school& students,& it& is&
unlikely" that" they" will" have" any" clearly" identifiable" needs" for" using" English" so" it"
would&be&better&to&base&the&course&around&pedagogic&tasks.&"

Reflection*

Imagine!that!you!want!to!design!a!course!for!a!group!of!students!who!are!planning!
to!become!waiters!in!international!hotels!in!your!country."
Make!a!list!of!the!real!life!tasks!that!they!will!need!to!be!able!to!perform.!

2. Focused(vs.(unfocused(tasks"

We# considered# focused( tasks! in# Chapter# 1.# These# are# tasks# that# have# been#
designed' to' elicit' the' processing' of' some$ predetermined$ linguistic$ feature(s)$ –!
usually& a& grammatical& structure.& They& are& needed& in& task$supported) language)
teaching)to)provide)opportunities)for)students)to)practice)the)structure)that)is)the)
target&of&the&lesson."

Task$based& language& teaching& makes$ use! of! unfocused) tasks." When" learners"
perform' an' unfocused' task,' there' is' no' expectancy' that' they' will' use' specific'
language' items' that' have' been' pre$determined.) Of) course,) it) is) always) possible) to)

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predict( what( language( will( be( required( by( an( unfocused( task( and( it( may( help( to(
make% sure% that% students% know% the% vocabulary% they% will% need% to% perform% the% task.%
But$the$task$itself$has$not$been$designed$to$practise$any$pre$determined(language.("
"
Reflection*

• The!same!kind!of!task!(e.g.!a!spot3the3difference!task)!can!be!designed!as!a!focused!or!
unfocused!task.!
• What!would!a!spot!the!difference!look!like!if!it!was!unfocused?!
• Can!you!design!a!spot!the!difference!task!for!practising!prepositions!of!location?!

"

A"Pedagogic)Classification)of)Tasks+

Tasks% differ% in% terms% of% the% kinds% of% cognitive/linguistic% operations% learners% are%
required' to' carry' out' when' they' perform' them.' This' affords' a' basis' for' classifying'
tasks%pedagogically.%Table!2!on#the#next#page!shows%these"different"operations"and"
gives&an&example&of&a&task&for&each&operation2."""

This%is%a%helpful%way%of%thinking%about%tasks%because%it%can%ensure%that%there%is!a"
variety( of( tasks.( To( some( extent( also,( it( helps( with( grading( (i.e.( deciding( on( the(
difficulty)of)different)tasks).)For)example,)tasks)that)just)involve)listing)or)ranking)will)
generally( be( much( easier( than( tasks( that( involve( comparing,( which( in( turn( will" be"
easier&than&problem$solving(or(creative(tasks.(This(suggests,(therefore,(that(the(early(
stages&of&a&task$based&course&should&consist&of&listing&and&ranking&tasks&and&the&later&
stages&problem$solving(and(creative(tasks.(However,(tasks(with(the(same(operation'
can$vary$greatly$in$difficulty.$For$example,$a$problem$solving(task(can(be(very(simple(
(e.g.%What%should%you%do%if%a%snake%bites%you?)%or%more%difficult(as(in(the(example(in(
Table! 2." Thus" differentiating" tasks" according" to" their" cognitive/linguistic! operations*
cannot&provide&an&adequate&basis&for&sequencing&tasks&in&a&task$based&course."

"

"

"

"
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
2
!This"list"of"tasks"in"terms"their"cognitive/linguistic"operations"is"from"Willis"(1986).!

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Table&2:&Examples&of&tasks&in&terms&of&cognitive/linguistic&operations&required"

Cognitive/*
Linguistic* Example*of*a*Task*
Operations*

Students!make!a!list!of!their!five!favourite!foods/dishes.!They!then!
Listing"
work!in!pairs!to!find!out!which!favourite!dishes!they!have!in!common."

Students!are!given!a!list!of!objects!they!can!take!with!them!to!live!on!a!
desert!island.!They!are!asked!to!rank!them!in!order!of!how!useful!they!
Ordering"
think!each!object!will!be!for!them.!They!work!in!pairs!to!compare!their!
rankings."

Students!are!shown!two!pictures!of!the!same!part!of!a!town!at!
different!points!in!their!history!(i.e.!fifty!years!apart).!They!each!hold!
Comparing"
one!of!the!pictures!and!work!together!to!identify!the!similarities!and!
differences!in!their!pictures."

Students!work!in!groups.!They!are!told!a!family’s!total!monthly!income!
Problem3 and!asked!to!work!out!a!budget!for!the!family.!They!are!given!the!
solving" items!they!should!consider!when!drawing!up!the!budget!(e.g.!food;!
accommodation;!electricity;!transport;!entertainment)."

Students!are!given!a!blank!piece!of!paper!and!asked!to!draw!a!picture!
Sharing!
illustrating!a!memorable!event!in!their!lives.!They!then!work!in!pairs!to!
personal!
describe!their!picture!so!their!partner!can!draw!it!and!in!so!doing!tell!
experiences"
them!about!the!memorable!event."

Students!are!given!a!short!story!without!its!ending.!They!read!the!story!
Creative! and!then!try!to!say!how!it!ended.!!After!students!have!given!their!ideas!
tasks" for!the!end!of!the!story,!the!class!votes!on!what!they!think!is!the!best!
suggestion."
"

Reflection*

Think!of!your!own!example!for!each!of!the!types!of!tasks!listed!in!table!2.!!!
Then!rate!how!difficult!you!think!each!of!your!tasks!is!in!terms!of!the!language!
demands!it!places!on!students.!You!can!use!a!five!point!scale!to!rate!the!task!(5!=!
very!difficult;!1!=!very!easy).!!

+
+
+

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A"Psycholinguistic"Classification!of#Tasks"
A"psycholinguistic"classification"of"tasks"attempts"to"distinguish"tasks"in"terms"of"
the$ inherent$ qualities$ in$ their$ design$ that$ influence$ the$ difficulty$ of$ a$ task$ and$ the$
potential)for)facilitating)language)learning.)"

1. Input$based&versus&output$based&tasks"

An# input$ based&task!exposes&students&to&input&without&requiring&them&to&speak&

or# write.# In# other# words,# input$based& tasks& involve& only& listening& or& reading.&
However,(they(do(not(prohibit(production(on(the(part(of(the(student.((Learners(can(
opt$to$try$to$speak$when$they$perform#an#input$based&task&and,&in&fact,&they&often&
do.$ The$ outcome$ of$ an$ input$based& task& is& always& non$verbal' (e.g.' carrying' out' an'
action;(drawing(a(picture;(completing(a(map).("

All#the#tasks#in#Table%2!are$output$ based&tasks!–!they%all%involve%speaking.%Indeed#
most% of% the% tasks% you% will% find% in% published% course% books% are% output$based& tasks.&
Below& is& an& example& of& an& input$based& task.& The& students& are& asked& to& draw& the&
outline(of(the(map(of(an(island(on(a(piece(of(paper(and(are(shown(the(names(of(the(
different#places#on#the#map.#The#island#looks#like#a#human#face.#They#then#listen#to#
the$ teacher$ who$ tells$ them$ where$ each$ place$ is$ on$ the$ map.$ For$ example,$ the$
teacher'might'say:"

Betu%is%the%main%city%of%the%island.%%It%is%situated%on%the%coast%where%the%nose%of!
the$island$is$3!about&where&the&nostril&is.&&Write&in&Betu&on&the&map.""!

This%task%can%be%used%to%expose%learners%to%the%words%labelling%different%parts%of%
a" face" –! nose,& ear,& neck,& forehead! etc.% But% it% also% exposes% them% to% a% lot% more%
language' as' well' (e.g.# situated," coast,! city,& location).# # The# teacher# can# adapt# the#
input& to& suit& the& students’& ability& to& comprehend& by& using& simple& or& more& difficult&
vocabulary,+ varying+ the+ speed+ he/she+ delivers+ the+ information,+ and,+ if+ necessary,+
repeating)an)instruction.)The$following$is$the$example$of$the$map$task$worksheet."

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Map$Task+

Listen'to'the'teacher’s'description'of'the'island.'Enter'these'places'on'the'map'of'
the$island."

1. Betu!
"
2. Songa!

3. Botomless!
Bay!

4. Mataka!

5. River!Ironga!

6. River!Ilonga!

7. Iluba!Mts.!

"

Input$based& tasks& are& a& good& way& to& start& a& task$based& course& as& students& will&
not$yet$have$sufficient$linguistic$resources$for$speaking.$We$acquire$language$simply$
by# listening# or# reading# so# simple# input$based& tasks& can! prepare% students% for%
speaking)tasks."But"more"difficult"input$based&tasks&also&have&a&place&later&in&a&task$
based&course."

Reflection*

• Decide!where!the!other!places!are!located!in!the!map!of!the!island.!!!

• Decide!which!students!you!would!use!this!task!with.!Then!make!sure!that!the!
descriptions!you!prepare!are!at!an!appropriate!level!of!linguistic!difficulty!for!these!
students.!

2. Type%of%gap%"

All#tasks#must#have#a#gap.##But#the#nature#of#the#gap#can#differ.#The#Map#Task#!is#
an# information$ gap$task."The"teacher"knows"where"the"different"places"on"the"map"
are$ located$ but$ the$ students$ do$ not$ and$ so$ have$ to$ listen$ to$ find$ out.$ $ In$ an$

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information$gap$ task,$ the$ information$ is$ split.$ Either$ one$ person& holds& all& the&
information) and! the$ other(s)$ none$ $! as# in# the# Map$ Task! $! or# each# person# holds#
different(information(that(must(then(be(shared(in(order(to(achieve(the(outcome(of(
the$task$–!see#the#task#involving#comparing#two#pictures#on#pp.#2$3."In"other"words,"
an# information$gap$ task$ can" involve" a" one$way$ exchange$ of$ information$ or$ a$ two$
way$exchange."

In#a# reasoning$ gap$task,!students'all'see'the'same'information'so'the'task'does!

not! involve' sharing' the' information.' Instead,' the' students' have' to' use' the'
information)to)reason)something)out.#The# Timetable)Task!I"mentioned"in"Chapter"1"
is#an#example#of#a#reasoning$task.&"

In#an# opinion%gap%task,!the$students$also$have$access$to$all$the$information.$$The$
goal%is%not%to%exchange%information%but%to%discuss%how%to%resolve%some%issue.%The%
problem(solving(task(and(the(creative(task(in(Table!2!are$opinion$gap$tasks.$"

Some% tasks% have% an% information$gap$ part$ followed$ by$ an$ opinion$gap$ part.$ The$
Heart&Transplant&Task!3!is#a#good#example#of#this#kind#of#complex#task.#Here#is#a#brief#
description+of+it.+"

Heart*Transplant*Task*

The! students! work! in! groups! of! four.! Each! student! is! given! information! about!
one!patient!who!needs!an!urgent!heart!transplant.!They!read!the!information!and!
then!share!it!with!other!students,!filling!in!a!chart!showing!the!details!about!each!
patient.!
When! they! have! completed! the! chart,! the! students! are! told! that! there! is! only!
one!heart!available!and!that!they!must!decide!which!of!the!four!patients!is!most!
deserving!of!the!transplant!operation.!

These% different% types% of% tasks% elicit% different( kinds( of( language.( When( students(
do# an# information$gap$ task,$ they$ have$ to$ listen$ carefully$ to$ each$ other$ and$ try$ to$
make% what% they% say% very% clear.% % There% are,% however,% likely% to% be% breakdowns% in%
communication)leading)to)attempts)to)resolve)these.!Information$gap$tasks$can$help$
develop' the' interactional* competence! needed$ to$ become$ an$ effective$

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
3
!The+Heart+Transplant+Task"comes"from"an"MA"thesis"written"by"Margot"Lange."You"can"find"
the"materials"for"this"task"in"the"Appendix.!

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communicator.+Also,+sorting+out+the+linguistic+problems+that+cause+the+breakdowns+
as#the#tasks#are#performed#can#help#acquisition."

Reasoning$gap$ tasks$ also$ require& very& precise& language.& For& example& in& the&
Timetable)Task!the$students$will$need$to$refer$to$the$exact$times$of$different$lessons$
–!e.g.$ the$first$period$is$on$Wednesday$from$8.30$to$9.15."These"tasks"also"require"
the$language$associated$with$logical!thinking'–!e.g.$The$first$lesson$is$a$Maths$lesson$
and$Mr$Singh$teaches$English,!so#that#lesson#is#not#on#his#timetable."

In# contrast,# opinion$gap$ tasks$ typically$ require$ more$ complex$ language$ and$
longer'turns'at'talk.''In'the' Heart&Transplant&Task,"for"example,"learners"will"need"to"
use$constructions$like$ I"think"that"…!and$to$give$reasons$–!e.g.$$ Sandy&should&get&the&
heart&transplant&because&she&has&two&young&children&to&look&after."The"result"will"be"
longer' sentences' involving' subordinate' constructions.( However,( whereas( an(
information)or)reasoning$gap$task$obligates$active$participation$by$the$students,$an$
opinion$gap$ task$ does$ not.$ A$ student$ can$ opt$ to$ just$ listen$ to$ the$ opinions$ of$ the$
other&students&in&the&group&without&bothering&to&contribute."

Reflection*

• You!will!find!a!copy!of!the!materials!for!the!Heart!Transplant!Task!in!the!
Appendix!at!the!back!of!this!book.!Read!through!the!materials!for!the!task.!!

• What!level!of!students!would!this!task!be!suitable!for?!!

• How!could!this!task!be!made!easier!to!make!it!suitable!for!learners!of!a!lower!
level!of!proficiency?

Task%outcomes+

In#a# closed'task!there%is%just%one%possible%outcome%for%the%task.%In%an% open%task!

there%are%many%possible%outcomes.%Information$gap$tasks$such$as$the$ Map$Task!are$
typically(closed;(the(students(have(to(write(in(the(names(of(the(places(in(the(correct(
position' in' the' map.' Reasoning$gap$ tasks$ also$ have$ closed$ outcomes;$ there$ is$ just$
one$correct$way$of$completing$the$Timetable)Task!from%the%four%class%timetables.%An"
advantage(of(tasks(with(closed(outcomes(is(that(the(teacher(can(quickly(and(easily(
check%if%students%have%completed%the%task%successfully.%Opinion$gap$tasks$have$open$
outcomes;) for) example,) different) groups) of) students) may) arrive) at) different)
decisions(regarding(who(should(be(chosen(in(the(Heart&Transplant&Task."

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The$ task$ outcome$ can$ differ$ in$ another$ way.$ $ The$ outcome$ can$ be$ presented$
non$verbally((e.g.(by(drawing(a(picture),(orally((e.g.(by(telling(a(story)(or(in(writing(
(e.g.%writing%down%the%five%differences&between&two&pictures)."

These%types%of%outcomes%also%have%implications%for%the%grading%and%sequencing%
of# tasks.# Tasks# with# closed# outcomes# will# generally# be# easier# than# tasks# with# open#
outcomes.) Also,) it) is) a) good) idea) in) the) early) stage) of) a) task$based$ course$ to$ use$
tasks%that%have%non$verbal'outcomes'as'the'students'will'not'yet'be'ready'to'start'
speaking)or)writing.)"

Reflection*

• Look!at!the!examples!of!the!tasks!for!the!different!linguistic/cognitive!
operations!in!Table!2!on!p.!26.!!!
• Decide!whether!each!task!has!a!closed!or!an!open!outcome.!
• Can!you!think!of!how!you!might!modify!the!open!tasks!so!that!they!become!
closed!tasks?!

Learner0generated(task(content+

By#and#large#the#tasks#you#will#find#in#published#course#books#have#content#that#
is#developed!by#the#textbook#writer.!But$there$is$another$possibility.$$Students$can$
be#given#the#topic#of#a#task#and#then#asked#to#choose#content#relating#to#the#topic#
themselves.)For)example,)students)could)be)asked)to)draw)a)plan)of)their)house)and)
then%describe%the"house"to"a"partner"who"has"to"draw"it.""

There% are% strong% grounds% for% believing% that% learners% find% it% easier% and% more%
interesting( to( talk( about( content( they( themselves( have( generated.( However,( there(
are$also$advantages$of$using$tasks$where$the$content$is$given&to&the&students.&&Such&
tasks%can%ensure%that%learners%are%exposed%to%a%rich%linguistic%input%and%so%learn%to%
communicate*about*a*variety*of*topics.**Perhaps,*then,*a*task$based&course&needs&to&
include(a(mixture(of(ready$made%and%learner$generated(tasks."

Reflection*

Think!of!a!task!where!the!students!have!to!generate!their!own!content!on!a!topic.!

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The$Design$Features$of$Tasks!
In# the# previous# section,# we# considered# different# types& of& tasks." Now" we" will"
consider) the) design) features) of) individual( tasks." When" you" choose" tasks," you" will"
need$to$consider$these$design$features$because$they$also$affect$task$complexity.$"

Table%3!lists%the%design%features%that%affect%the%complexity%of%a%task.%Each%feature%
can$be$present$in$a$task$(+)$or$not$present$($).#A#task!where%a%feature%is%present%is%
deemed$ to$ be$ less$ complex$ than$ one$ where$ it$ is$ not$ present.$ It$ should$ be$ clear,$
however,( that( many( of( the( features( are( continuous( in( nature( rather( than(
dichotomous.+ The+ number+ of+ elements+ in+ a+ task,+ for+ example,+ can+ be+ very+ few# or#
very% numerous% or% anywhere% in% between.% Also% the% outcome% of% a% task% can% be% very%
simple'or'very'complex'with'intermediate'levels.''"

Any$single$task$will$be$a$bundle$of$features.$We$might$have$a$task$that$has$simple$
input,'involves'the'here$and$now$and$has"a"familiar"topic"(all"+"features"making"the"
task% easy),! but$ the$ information$ involves$ many$ elements$ and$ is$ not$ well$structured(
(both&$!features(making(the(task(complex).(In(other(words,(a(task(may(be(simple(in(
some% respects% but% complex% in% others.% Clearly,! then,& we& can& only& use& the& list& of&
design'features!presented(in(Table!3!to#give#us#a#general#idea#about#how#to#ensure#
that$a$task$is$well$suited'to'the'students’'level."

Table&3:"Examples"of"tasks"based"on"design"features"

Design*
Example*
feature*

Many!tasks!involve!input!which!can!be!oral!or!written.!!The!input!
+/3!simple! can!consist!of!very!simple!language!(e.g.!high!frequency!words;!
input! simple!sentences)!or!complex!language!(e.g.!low!frequency!words;!
lots!of!subordination).!!

A!task!that!allows!students!to!recount!their!own!personal!
+/3!familiar! experience!involves!a!familiar!topic!(e.g.!their!own!family);!an!
topic! unfamiliar!topic!is!one!that!requires!them!to!use!information!
outside!their!personal!experience!(e.g.!a!desert!island).!!

In!a!picture!description!task,!the!here8and8now*condition!allows!
+/!3!here!and!
students!to!see!the!picture!as!they!describe!it;!in!a!there8and8then!
now!
condition!the!picture!is!taken!away!before!they!begin!to!describe!it.!

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A!story!task!that!involves!two!characters!located!in!the!same!place!
+/3!!few!
involves!few!elements;!a!task!that!that!involves!several!characters!in!
elements!
different!locations!has!many!elements.!!

A!map!task!that!involves!learners!drawing!in!the!route!of!a!journey!
+/!3!
that!is!described!in!sequence!provides!structured!information;!the!
structured!
information!is!unstructured!if!the!description!refers!to!parts!of!the!
information!
journey!out!of!sequence.!

A!map!task!that!asks!a!student!to!describe!the!route!followed!so!
another!student!can!draw!the!route!on!an!identical!map!involves!a!
+/!3!single!
single!demand;!the!task!becomes!a!dual!demand!task!if!the!maps!of!
demand!
the!two!students!differ!in!some!details!so!that!the!students!need!to!
deal!with!these!differences!as!well!as!handle!the!route.!

+/3!! A!story!task!that!requires!students!to!just!narrate!the!main!events!
reasoning! has!no!reasoning!demands.!A!story!task!where!students!have!to!
demands! explain!the!actions!of!the!characters!poses!reasoning!demands.!

An!opinion3gap!task!where!students!have!to!state!or!justify!a!single!
choice!(e.g.!the!items!they!would!choose!to!have!on!a!desert!island)!
+/3!simple!
has!a!simple!outcome;!where!students!have!to!state!and!justify!why!
outcome!
they!have!rejected!other!choices!(e.g.!the!reasons!for!the!items!they!
have!not!chosen!to!take!with!them)!has!a!more!complex!outcome.!!
"

Reflection*

Evaluate!the!complexity!of!the!Heart"Transplant"Task!by!answering!these!questions!about!
it:"
• Is!the!input!simple!or!complex?!!!
• Are!students!likely!to!be!familiar!with!this!topic?!
• Is!the!task!a!here3and3now!task!or!a!there3and3then!task?!
• Does!it!involve!just!a!few!or!many!elements?!
• Is!the!information!about!each!patient!well3structured!or!not?!
• Is!it!a!single!or!dual!demand!task?!
• Does!the!task!involve!reasoning?!
• Does!it!involve!a!simple!or!complex!outcome?

"
"

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Constructing+a+Task3Based%Course!
In# a# task$supported) course,) the) syllabus) consists) of) a) list) of) the) linguistic)
items/structures*to*be*taught*along*with*suggestions*for*the*focused*tasks*needed*
in# the# free# production# stage# of# the# lessons.# In# a# task$based& course,& the& syllabus&
consists' just' of# the# tasks# to# be# used.# We# will# focus# on# the# construction# of# a# task$
based&syllabus.&"

A"Specific"Purpose"Course+

If# the# task$based& syllabus& is& intended& for& a& group& of& students& with& definable,&
specific' needs,' the' starting' point' is' to' identify' these' needs.' This# will# involve#
conducting) a) needs% analysis! by# carrying# out# observations# of# the# situations# the#
students'will'have'to'communicate'in'and'by'interviewing'established'participants'in'
these% situations% to% find% out% what% they% have% to% do.% % For% example,% if% the% purpose$ of$
the$course$is$to$prepare$students$to$work$as$waiters$in$international$hotels,$it$will$be$
necessary( to( visit( the( kinds( of( restaurants( and( kitchens( where( waiters( work( and(
draw%up%a%list%of%the%target&tasks!that$are$performed$there$(e.g.$answering$questions&
about& items& on& the& menu;& taking& an& order& for& a& meal;& dealing& with& customers’&
complaints).-The-list-of-target-tasks-provides-the-basis-for-deciding-the-tasks-that-will-
comprise)the)syllabus.)"

There%is%still%the%question%of%how%to%sequence%the%tasks.%One#possibility#might#be#
to#order#the#tasks#in#terms#of#the#frequency#with#which#the#target#tasks#are#carried#
out$in$the$real$life%situation.%For%example,%a%task%involving%taking'an'order'for'a'meal!
would& precede& a& task& dealing( with( customers’( complaints! on! the$ grounds$ of$
frequency."

But$ it$ will$ also$ be$ necessary$ to$ consider$ the$ complexity$ of$ the$ individual$ tasks$
that$make$up$the$syllabus.$ Taking'an'order'for'a'meal,"for"example,"could"involve"a"
simple' input$based& task& where& a& single& customer& places& an& order& and$ the$ waiter$
writes'it'down'or'a'more'complex'task'one'where'there'are'several'customers'who'
change'their'minds'half'way'through'their'order.'Considerable'thought'needs'to'be'
given& to& grading& the& different& pedagogic& tasks& derived& from& the& same& target& task"
type.&This&will&involve&considering&the&design&features&of&the&individual&tasks&(e.g.&the&
number'of'elements'to'include'in'a'task).''"

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A"General"Purpose"Syllabus"
The$ tasks$ included$ in$ a$ general$purpose' syllabus' will' be' mainly' pedagogical'
rather& than& real$world.' As' I' have' already' pointed' out,' they' will' also' be' mainly'
unfocused) tasks4." " Constructing" a" task$based& course& involves& four& steps,& which& are&
considered)below:"

1. Considering*what*task*types*are*best*suited*to*the*students’*level**"

When%I%described%the%different%task%types,%I%also%suggested%what%level%(beginner,%
intermediate,*advanced)*the*task*types*were*best*suited*for.*Table*4!summarizes)my)
suggestions.**"

Table&4:"Different"types"of"tasks"based"on"language"learner"levels"

Level" Type*of*Task"

Simple!information3gap!tasks;!input3based!tasks;!closed!
Beginner!learners!
outcome!tasks;!content!provided!

Information3gap!tasks:!reasoning3gap!tasks;!some!simple!
opinion3gap!tasks;!both!input3based!and!output3based!
Intermediate!learners!
tasks;!a!mixture!of!closed/!open!outcome!tasks;!some!
learner3generated!content!

Mainly!output3based!tasks;!open!outcome!tasks;!
Advanced!learners!! complex!opinion3gap!tasks!involving!an!input!and!an!
output!part;!more!learner3generated!tasks.!
"
2. Choosing(topics"

The$topics$for$the$tasks$should$reflect$the$interests$of$the$students.$One$way$to$
be# sure# of# achieving# this# would# be# to# draw# up# a# list# of# potential# topics# and# ask# a#
sample' of' students' to' rate' them' on' a' five' point! scale& (5& =& very& interesting;& 1& =&
completely) uninteresting).) Students) should) also) be) able) to) add) any) topic) that)
interests'them'to'the'list.'"

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
4
!Commenting"on"his"own"experience"of"working"with"tasks"as"a"teacher"educator,"Van"den"
Branden"(2006)"wrote"“the"main"problem"that"they"(authors;"teachers)"experienced"had"to"
do"with"the"complexity"of"tasks”"(p."206).!

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Topic& familiarity& can& guide& the& choice& of& topics& for& each& student& level.! Table! 5!
below!suggests&topics&suitable&for&three&general&levels&of&proficiency."

Table&5:"Examples"of"task"topics"for"three"general"levels"of"proficiency"

Level* General*Topics*

Students!
Beginner! Family!
School!life!(lessons;!classmates;!teachers)!

Community!!(e.g.!local!customs;!local!amenities;!street!life)!
Intermediate! The!world!around!(e.g.!cities;!travel;!sports;!famous!people;!
television;!internet;!cell!phones)!

Social!issues!
Political!issues!
Advanced!
Moral!issues!
Fantasy!(literature;!movies)!
"

3. Specifying*the*main*tasks"

Specifying*the*main*tasks*involves*choosing*the*topic*area*and*then*constructing*
a" rubric" stating" what" the" students" have" to" do." Table& 6! shows! an# extract# from# a#
course' for' elementary' level' students.' All' the' tasks' relate' to' the' general' topic' area'
‘Family’.%The%main%tasks%are%sequenced%from%very%simple%(filling%in%a%table)%to%more%
complex((matching(descriptions(to(pictures).(("

Table&6:"Examples"of"main"tasks!for$a$topic$area$with$increasing!levels!of#difficulty"

Topic*Area* Main*Tasks*

Listen!to!some!information!about!the!names!and!ages!of!different!
Family!
family!members!and!fill!in!a!table.!

Listen!to!information!about!different!family!members!and!complete!a!
Family!
family!tree.!

Listen!to!descriptions!of!different!family!members!and!match!the!
Family!
descriptions!with!pictures.!
"
"
"

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4. Deciding(the(specific(tasks"
For$ each$ main$ task,$ there$ can$ be$ a$ number$ of$ specific$ tasks,$ all$ with$ the$ same$
specific' topic' and' involving' the' same' task' operation' but' differing' in' terms' of' their'
design'features.'For'example,'for'the'third'of'the'main'tasks'shown'in'table'6,"the"
specific!tasks%could%vary%in%terms%of%the%number%of%the%members%in%the%family%(two%
or#three#is#much#easier#than#four#or#five),#the#complexity#of#the#input,#the#amount#of#
detail'in'each'description,'whether'the'descriptions'of'each'member'are'structured'
in#the#same!or#way#or#in#different#ways,#whether#there#is#a#description#of#a#family#
member%for%whom%there%is%no%corresponding%picture,!etc.%The%students%benefit%from%
repeating) the) same) main) task) but) the) specific) tasks) build) on) each) other,) gradually)
becoming)more)demanding%cognitively%and%linguistically."

Reflection*

Describe!tasks!that!you!would!consider!suitable!for:!
1. Beginner!level!students.!
2. Intermediate!level!students!
3. Advanced!level!students!
You!will!need!to!consider!the!type!of!task,!the!topic,!what!the!main!task!involves!and!some!
specific!tasks!based!on!the!main!task.!

Conclusion!
One$of$main$problems$teachers$face$in$task$based&language&teaching&is&selecting&
tasks% that% set% the% right% amount% of% challenge% for% their% students.5! This% involves%
evaluating* the* tasks* that* they* find* in* their* course* books* and* also* sometimes*
designing'new'tasks.'To'do'this,!teachers(need(to(consider(task(complexity(by(asking(
whether&it&is&the&right&type&of&task&and&whether&the&design&features&make&the&task$
too#simple#or#too#complex.#If#the#task#seems#too#difficult,!it#can#be#replaced#with#a#
task% of% a% simpler% type% or% the% task% can% be% made% simpler% by% altering% some% of% its%
features( $! for$ example,$ by$ simplifying$ the$ linguistic$ input,$ reducing$ the$ amount$ of$
information( that( needs( to( be( processed,( presenting( the( information! in# a# more#
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
5
!In"Chapter"7,"however,"I"suggest"how"some"focused"tasks"can"be"incorporated"into"a"task$
based"course.!

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structured( way,( reducing( the( need( for( extensive( reasoning,( or( simplifying( the(
outcome'of'the'task.'"

Complexity,,however,,does,not,just,lie,in,the,task,itself,but,also,in,how,the,task!is#
handled' by' the' teacher' and' students.' This' leads' us' to' a' consideration' of' the'
methodology*of*task$based&language&teaching&–!the$focus$of$the$next$chapter."

"
"

"

" "

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"

"

CHAPTER FOUR
THE METHODOLOGY OF A TASK-
BASED LESSON

Introduction!
In# this# chapter# we# will# consider# the# design! and$ the$ different$ participatory)
structures!of#a#task$based&lesson."

Design'of!a"Task0 Based%Lesson+

As# shown# in# Table# 7! below,' there$ are$ three$ phases$ in$ a$ task$based& lesson& each&
with%a%different%aim."

Table&7:"Phases!and$aims$in$a$task$ based&lesson"

Phase* Aim*

Pre3task!phase! To!help!students!prepare!to!perform!the!task.!

To!enable!students!to!perform!the!task!in!ways!that!will!assist!
Main!task!phase!
language!development.!

To!extend!the!task!and/!or!to!focus!on!any!language!problems!
Post3task!phase!
that!occurred!during!the!main!task!phase.!
"
However,(not(every(lesson(will(consist(of(all(three(phases.(Sometimes(there(will(
just%be%the%main$task%phase.%At%other%times,%there%will%be%a%pre$task%phase%followed%
by# the# main$task% phase% or% the% main$task% phase% followed% by% the% post$task% phase.%
Teachers(will"need"to"decide"which"phases"to"include"in"their"lesson"plan"by"taking"

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into%account%the%needs%of%their%students%and%the%difficulty%of%the%task%chosen%for%the%
main%task%phase.%"

Participatory*Structures*+

Participatory* structure* refers* to* how* the* activities! involved( in( the( lesson( are(
organized*in*the*classroom.**There*are*four*possibilities:"

1. Teacher$class%(i.e.%an%activity%is%performed%by%the%teacher%with%the%whole%class)"
2. Student$class%(i.e.%the%activity%is%performed%by%a%student%with%the%whole%class)"
3. Student$student' (i.e.' students' work' in' pairs' or' small' groups' to' complete' the'
activity)"
4. Individual)students)(i.e.)students)complete)the)activity)working)independently)."

In#the#next#section,#I#provide#a#lesson#plan#involving#all#three#phases#and#a#variety#
of#participatory)structures."In#the#sections#that#follow#I#will#offer#suggestions#for#the#
kinds&of&activities&that&can&figure&in&each&of&the&three&phases&of&a&lesson."
!

Planning'a'Task3Based%Lesson:%Describing%
an#Accident!
"
The$ following( is( a( description( of( the! materials) for) a" task$based& lesson& intended&
for$a$large$class$of$intermediate$level$students$studying$general$English$–!the$kind$of$
class% found% in% many% state% schools% where% English% is% taught% as% a% foreign% language.!
After&the&description+of+the+task%materials,"the"activities"in"the"lesson"are"presented"
in#Table%8."

Task*Materials*

The!task!is!a!focused,!information!gap!task.!The!linguistic!focus!is!the!simple!past!
6
tense.! The! materials! are! a! picture! composition ! consisting! of! four! pictures!
depicting!an!accident!involving!a!bicycle!and!a!truck.!The!picture!composition!is!
cut!up!into!separate!pictures.!The!task!requires!students!to!work!out!the!correct!
order!of!the!pictures!and!give!a!description!of!the!accident."

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
6
!The"picture"composition"comes"from"Byrne"(1967).""In"fact,"any"picture"composition"can"be"
used"for"this"lesson.!

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"

Table&8:"Sample"learning"activities"for"a"task$ based&lesson"

Participatory*
Phase* Activities*
structure*

Brainstorming!–!the!teacher!asks!the!students!if! Student3class!
they!have!ever!seen!a!road!accident!involving!a! !
bicycle!and!invites!students!to!tell!the!class!what! !
happened.! !
! !
The!teacher!explains!the!task!they!are!going!to! Teacher3class!
Pre3task! do.! !
! !
Four!students!volunteer!to!come!to!the!front!of! Individual!students!
the!class.!The!teacher!gives!each!student!one!
picture!and!tells!them!they!have!three!minutes!to!
plan!how!to!describe!their!picture!to!the!rest!of!
the!class.!!

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Participatory*
Phase* Activities*
structure*

The!four!students!take!turns!to!describe!their! Student3class!
pictures.!They!cannot!see!the!other!students’! !
pictures.!The!rest!of!the!class!are!told!that!the! !
pictures!are!not!being!described!in!the!right!order! !
so!they!must!listen!carefully!to!try!to!work!out! !
what!happened.! !
! !
Individual!students!from!the!rest!of!the!class!ask! Student3students!
the!four!students!at!the!front!questions!about! !
Main! their!pictures!in!order!to!get!a!clearer!idea!of! !
task! what!happened.! !
! !
The!teacher!asks!for!volunteers!from!the!rest!of! Student3class!
the!class!to!provide!a!full!description!of!how!the!
accident!happened.!The!teachers!asks!the!
students!at!the!front!to!decide!whether!the!
accident!has!been!described!correctly.!!
Volunteers!continue!to!describe!the!accident!until!
someone!provides!a!complete!and!clear!
description!of!the!accident.!

The!teacher!has!made!notes!of!any!student! Teacher3class!
utterances!containing!an!error!in!the!use!of!the! !
past!tense.!The!teacher!writes!up!the!incorrect! !
utterances!on!the!board!one!at!a!time!and!asks! !
Post3
students!to!say!how!to!correct!them.! !
task!
! !
The!teacher!asks!the!students!to!think!of!a!title! Individual!students!
for!the!accident!and!then!to!write!a!description!of!
it!in!class!if!there!is!time!or!else!for!homework.!
"
This% lesson% involves% all% three% phases% and% a% variety% of% participatory% structures%
(although) there) is) no) pair) or) small) group) work).) It) involves) three) of) the) language)
skills% –! speaking,* listening* and* writing* (in* the* post$task% activity).% There% is% no%
preparation!of#the#vocabulary#needed#to#describe#the#accident#or#instruction#in#the#
use$ of$ the$ past$ tense$ $! the$ students$ have$ to$ use$ their$ own$ linguistic$ resources.$
However,(the(teacher(can((and(should)(step(in(to(provide(help(if(a(student(lacks(the(
necessary( vocabulary.% For% example,% if% a% student% describing% the% fourth% picture% said%

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Then% a% van% came! the$ teacher$ could$ say$ Was$ it$ a$ van$ or$ an$ ambulance?! ! Also% if% a%
student'makes'an'error'in'the'use'of'the'past'tense'(e.g.' The$driver$ get!out$of$his$
truck),!the$teacher$could$quickly$reformulate$the$utterance$correcting$the$error$(e.g.$
Yes,%the%driver%got!out$of$his$truck).#In#general,#though,#the#teacher’s#role#in#the#pre$
task% and% main$task% phases% is% that% of% ‘task$manager’.) ) In) the) post$task% phase,%
however,(it#changes.#The#teacher#now#takes#on#the#role#of#‘instructor’#and#the#focus#
switches(to(the(correct(use(of(the(past(tense."

Reflection*

The!lesson!plan!outlines!one!way!of!using!the!task!materials.!But!the!same!
materials!could!be!used!in!other!ways.!

Outline!a!different!lesson!using!the!same!task!materials!

"
In#the#following#sections,#I#will#outline#a#variety#of#options#that#teachers#can#draw#
on#for#the#three#phases#of#the#lesson.#I#will#illustrate#these#options#by#referring#to#
the!Heart&Transplant&Task,"a"copy%of%which%you%can%find%in%the%Appendix%at%the%back%
of#this#book. "

Pre3Task$Phase$Options!
The$ aim$ of$ all$ the$ options$ in$ the$ pre$task% phase% is% to% facilitate% the% students’%
performance* of* the* task* in* the* main* phase* of* the* lesson.* This* can* be* achieved* in*
three%ways:"

1. By#arousing#the#students’#interest#in#the#topic#of#the#task."
2. By#activating#content#knowledge#relevant#to#the#performance#of#a#task"
3. By#helping#students#with#the#language#they#will#need#to#perform#the#task."

Some%options%provide%just%one%type%of%support'but'others'can'involve'two'or'all'
three."

Motivating)Students+

If#students#are#not#interested#in#performing#the#task,#the#lesson#will#be#a#failure.#
There% are% many% ways% to% motivate% students.% One% way% is% a% competitive% activity.% For%
example,(the(teacher(could&divide&the&class&into&teams&and&play&a&quiz&game&about&
heart& transplants.& The& teacher& asks& the& questions& and& chooses& students& who& raise&

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their& hands& first& to& answer.& A& student& gets& a& point& for& the& team& if& the& answer& is&
correct&but&loses&a&point&if&it&is#wrong.#The#teacher#keeps#a#record#of#the#points#each#
team% wins% and% announces% the% winning% team% at% the% end% of% the% quiz.! The$ following$
are$some$sample$questions$for$the$quiz."

Heart+Transplant+Quiz+

1. What"is"a"heart"transplant?+
2. How"do"doctors"find"a"heart"for"a"transplant"operation?+
3. Where"does"a"heart"transplant"operation"take"place?+
4. Who"does"a"transplant"operation?+
5. When"does"a"person"need"a"heart"transplant?+
6. Who"decides"whether"a"person"needs"a"heart"transplant?+
7. Can"you"tell"me"something"that"would"make"a"person"unsuitable"for"a"heart"
transplant?+
8. Why"do"sick"people"often"need"to"wait"a"long"time"for"a"heart"transplant?+
9. What"happens"after"a"person"has"had"a"heart"transplant"operation?+
10. What"are"the"chances"of"a"person"who"has"a"transplant"living"for"more"than"
ten"years?+

"
Performing*a*Similar*Task"
This% was% the% option% used% in% the% Communicational% Language% Teaching% Project%
(see$Chapter$1).$The$teacher$works$through$a$task$with$the$whole$class,$scaffolding$
their&understanding&and&production,&and&helping&them&to&see&what%they%need%to%do.%
Then%the%students%work%on%a%very%similar%task%independently%in%the%main%task%phase.%
For$ example,$ the$ teacher$ first$ does$ a$ timetable$ task$ with$ the$ class$ and$ then$ sets$
them% to% do% a% similar% timetable% task% by% themselves.% % Crucial% to% making" this" option"
effective'is'the'skill'of'the'teacher'in'guiding'the'students'through'the'pre$task."

This%option%would%work%well%for%the% Heart&Transplant&Task.""The"teacher"plans"a"
similar'task'that'involves'selecting'the'best'person.'For'example,'the'teacher!could&
use$ information$ about$ four$ people$ who$ need$ a$ scholarship$ to$ study$ overseas$ and$
ask$ them$ to$ give$ reasons$ for$ and$ against$ each$ person$ being$ awarded$ the$
scholarship.+This+would+give+the+teacher+the+opportunity+to+help+the+students+with+
the$complex$language%they%need%to%give%reasons%for%the%person%they%select%and%the%
persons'they'reject.'"

This% option% clearly% has% a% strong% motivating% function% but% it% also% helps% students%
with%both%language%and%content."

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!Providing)a)Model"

This% option% requires% making% a% recording# of# a# group# of# proficient# speakers#
performing* the* main* task.* The* recording* is* then* played* to* the* class* to* show* the*
students'how'to'perform'the'task.''"

This% is% quite% a% challenging% activity% and% will% probably% work% best% if% students% are%
given&some&support.&For"example,"for"the"Heart&Transplant&Task!they%could%be%asked%
to# write# down# the# reasons# the# speakers# gave# for# their# choice# of# the# person# to#
receive&the&transplant.&This&would&give&the&students&a&clear&purpose&for&listening&to&
the$recording.$A$more$supportive"way"would"be"to"give"the"students"a"transcript"of"
the$recorded$discussion$so$they$can$read$and$listen$at$the$same$time.$An$advantage$
of# a# transcript# is# that# it# would# enable# the# teacher# to# point# out# useful# words# and#
expressions)in)the)transcript."

This% option& helps& students& with& both& content& and& the& language& relevant& to&
performing*the*task."

Brainstorming+

This%is%a%technique%for%stimulating%thinking%and%developing%ideas%about%a%topic.%It%
calls%for%spontaneous%participation.%When%used%in%task$based&teaching,&it&serves&to&
both% activate% students’% knowledge% about% the% topic% of% the% task% and% to% introduce%
some%key%vocabulary.++"
A"good"way"of"conducting"a"brainstorming"session"is"for"the"teacher"to"write"up"
the$ topic$ on$ the$ whiteboard$ and$ then$ give$ the$ students$ two$ minutes$ to$ think$ of$
three% words/ideas% related% to% the% topic.! When% they% are% ready,% the% brainstorming%
starts#with#the#students#firing#out#their#ideas#and#the#teacher#writing#them#on#the#
whiteboard.,Finally,(the(teacher(can(try(to(organize$the$ideas$into$a$mind$map.%The$
topic&is&written&in&the&centre&of&the&board&and&then&lines!are!branched!out$from$the$
topic& to" represent" the" various" ideas" suggested" by" the" students." Second" and" third"
level$of$branches$can$be$used$to$represent$the$connections$between$ideas.$The$final$
result' is' a' hierarchically' organized' set' of' ideas' along' with' the' vocabulary' for'
encoding(them.((Here#is#an#example#of#a#mind#map#for#‘Heart#Transplant’."

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"
+
Linguistic)Support"

Teachers(need(to(decide(whether(linguistic(support(is(needed.!This%will%depend%
on#the#complexity#of#the#task#and#the#task#topic.#If#the#task#is#cognitively#demanding#
and$ the$ topic! an# unfamiliar# one,# it# would# make# sense# to# provide# some# linguistic#
support' in' the' pre$task% phase% of% the% lesson.% This% will% ease% the% burden% on% the%
students’(processing(abilities(when(they(perform(the(task.(However,(if(the(task(is(not(
so#demanding#and#the#topic#a#familiar#one,#it#might#be#best#to#let#the#students#rely#
on#their#existing#linguistic#resources."

If# it# is# decided# to# provide# linguistic# support,# a# decision# needs# to# be# made#
whether& it& should& consist& of& vocabulary& or& grammar& or& both.& In& general,& help& with#
vocabulary*is*preferable.*This*is*because*vocabulary*is*more*important*for*successful*
performance* of* a* task* than* grammar.* If* learners* have* to* struggle* with* the* words*
they% need% to% express% their% ideas,% fluency% will% suffer.% Three% ways% in% which% teachers%
can!target&unfamiliar&vocabulary&in&the&pre$task%phase%are7:"

• predicting*(i.e.*asking*learners*to*suggest*words*related*to*the*task*title*or*topic)"
• cooperative*dictionary*search*(i.e.*allocating*different*learners*words*to*look*up*
in#their#dictionary),!and$"
• words$and$definitions$(i.e.$learners$match$a$list$of$words$with$their$definitions)."

The$choice$of$words$to$pre$teach&in&these&ways&depends&on&the&task&the&students&
have%to%perform.!They%should%be%words%that%are%important%for%performing%the%task%
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
7
!These"suggestions"for"the"pre$teaching"of"vocabulary"in"a"task$based"lesson"come"from"
Newton"(2001).!

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and$ that$ the$ students' will' probably' not' know.' A' suitable' choice' of' words' for' the!
Heart&Transplant&Task!could&be:&&"

Medical"assistance"–"life"expectancy"–"depression"–"strict"diet"–"insurance"–"stress"3"
stressful"–"public"relations"company"–"divorced"–"only"child"

"
In#task$supported)language)teaching,)it)will)be)necessary)to)pre$teach&the&target&
structure'of'the'lesson.'But'in'task$based&language&teaching,&it&is&better&to&avoid&this&
as# it# may# result# in# the# students# prioritizing# form# rather# than# meaning# when# they#
perform$the$task.$The$ Heart&Transplant&Task!is#an#unfocused#task#so#pre$teaching)a)
specific'grammatical'structure'is'not'an'option."

Strategy(Training"

Students( need( to( be( able( to( negotiate( when( communication( problems( arise.((
That%is,%they%need%to%signal%when%they#do#not#understand#something#and#help#other#
students'linguistically'when'they'need'it.'Some'students'are'very'good'at'doing'this'
but$ others$ are$ not.$ Thus,$ it$ might$ be$ an$ idea$ to$ train$ them$ in$ the$ strategies$ they$
need.%A%very%useful%strategy%is%requesting!clarification.+The+teacher+first+explains+the+
importance+of+seeking+clarification+whenever+they+fail+to+understand+something+and+
then%shows%them%different%expressions%for%doing%this%(e.g.%Sorry,&I&don’t&understand;&
Could&you&repeat&that?&&Did&you&mean&___?"What"does"____"mean?)."

Strategic)Planning"

One$ of$ the$ most$ effective$ ways$ of$ preparing$ students$ to$ perform$ a$ task$ is$ to$
allocate' time' for' them' to' plan.' Planning' is' common' for' writing' tasks' but' it' is# also%
very%helpful%with%oral%tasks.%When%students%are%given%time%to%plan,%they%are%likely%to%
perform'the'task'more'fluently,'using'more'complex'and'sometimes'more'accurate'
language.(("

When%students%plan,%they%need%to%be%given%a%copy%of%the%task%materials%and"the"
teacher'needs'to'make'sure'that'they'understand'the'purpose'of'the'task.''For'The'
Heart& Transplant& Task," for" example," each" student" should" be" given" the" reading"
material( for( his/her( particular( patient( and( asked( to( consider( whether& this! person'
should'receive%the%heart%transplant%and%the%reasons%for%their&decision."

"
"

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Strategic)planning)can)be)carried)out)in)a)number)of)ways:"
1. It# can# be# unguided# or# guided.# In# unguided# planning,# no# suggestions# are# given#
about& what& to& plan.& In& guided& planning,& the& students& are& directed& to& focus& on&
content&or&on&language.&"

2. The$amount$of$time$allocated$to$planning$can$be$varied."This%will%depend%on%the$
task.& Complex& tasks& warrant& longer& planning& time.& For& a& task& like& the& Heart&
Transplant)Task,"10"minutes"would"be"suitable."In"the"Describing*an*Accident*Task*
students'were'just'given'two'minutes'to'prepare'to'describe'their'picture."

3. Students(can(be(left%to%plan%however%they%like%or%they%can%be%instructed%to%take%
notes.' They' should' be' discouraged' from' writing' out' full' sentences,' however.''
Also,&it&is&advisable&to&take&their&notes&away&from&them&before&they&start&the&task."

4. Finally,(planning(can(be(carried$out$individually,$in$groups,$or$with$the$teacher.$In$
general'though,'planning'works'best'if'carried'out'individually."

Planning' helps' to' achieve' all' three' aims' of' the' pre$task% phase% and,! for$ that$
reason,! is# a# very# effective# preparation# activity.# It# can# help% motivate% students% to%
perform' the' task,' activate' content,' and' help' with' the' language' needed.' Research'
has$shown$that$when$students$do$pre$task%planning,%they%perform%the%task%better.%
For$example,$they$are$more$fluent$and$they$use$more$complex$language8."

Reflection*

Which!pre3task!options!would!you!include!in!a!lesson!plan!for!the!following!task?!!
First!decide!on!the!students!you!would!use!this!task!for.!This!is!important!because!
your!choice!of!options!should!be!guided!by!how!much!help!you!consider!the!
students!will!need.!

Family*Budget*Task*

Students!work!in!groups.!They!are!told!a!family’s!total!monthly!income!and!asked!
to!work!out!a!budget!for!the!family.!They!are!given!the!items!they!should!consider!
when!drawing!up!the!budget!(e.g.!food;!accommodation;!electricity;!transport;!
school!fees;!monthly!savings;!entertainment).!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
8
!If"you"are"interested"in"looking"at"the"research"that"has"investigate"the"effect"of"pre$task"
planning"you"could"look"at"Ellis"(2005).!

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Main%Task%Phase%Options!
Two$ kinds$ of$ options$ are$ available$ in$ the$ main$task% phase;% task$performance*
options'(i.e.'options'that'teachers'can'consider'when'constructing'their'lesson'plan"
for$a$task$based&lesson)&and&process&options&(i.e.&the&online&choices&available&to&the&
teacher'as'the'task'is!being&performed)."

Task0 Performance)Options+

1. Participatory*structure"

A"key"decision"concerns"the"participatory"structure"of"the"main$task%phase.%If#the#
task% is% of% the% input$based& type,& e.g.& involves& students$ listening$ to$ descriptions$ or!
instructions) and) demonstrating) comprehension) of) the) input) by) performing) some)
actions!as#in#the# Map$Task!(see$Chapter$3),$a$teacher$class%participatory%structure%is%
required.(This(is(also(possible(with(some(output$based&tasks.&For&example,& Spot%the%
Difference!can$be$performed$in$a$whole$class$setting$if$the$teacher$holds$one$of$the$
pictures) and) all) the) students) the) other) picture.) One) advantage) of) a) teacher$class%
participatory) structure) is) that) the) teacher) can) provide) language) support) by) asking)
questions)and)providing)feedback."

With% many% tasks,% however,% pairs% or% groups% are% needed.% The% Heart& Transplant&
Task!requires'groups'of'four.'Each'student'in'the'group'holds'information%about%one%
of# the# four# patients.! The$ advantages$ of$ small$ group$ work$ are$ well$established.+ It+
increases( both( the( quantity( and( quality( of( students’( production.( ( It( can( also(
motivate( students.( When( groups( are( working( smoothly,( students( help( each( other,(
negotiate( for( meaning( when( communication( problems( arise,( and( jointly( solve(
language' problems.' There' are' also' dangers,' however.' Students' may' overuse' their'
L1,$ fail$ to$ behave$ co$operatively+ or+ engage+ in+ off$task% talk9." In" an" opinion$gap$ task$
such%as%the% Heart"Transplant"Task,"for"example,"students"may"fail"to"systematically"
consider)each)patient,)jump)immediately)to)selecting)who)should)get)the)transplant,)
and$then$just$chat$among$themselves$in$their$L1.$"

While&teacher$class%and%small%group%work%are%the%major!participatory)structures)
in#a#task$based&lesson,&there&will&also&be&opportunities&for&student$class%interaction%
and$ for$ individual$ student$ work.$ The$ sample$ lesson$ plan$ in$ this$ Chapter$ illustrates$
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
9
!Storch"(2001)"emphasized"the"importance"of"students"adopting"a"collaborative$orientation"
characterized"by"co$construction"of"language"through"mutual"scaffolding.!

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the$use$of$a$student$class%participatory%structure.%A%lot%of"the"time"in"this"lesson"is"
taken&up&with&students&addressing&the&whole&class&with&the&teacher&just&as&a&listener.&
Opinion$gap$ tasks$ such$ as$ the$ Heart& Transplant& Task! afford& an& opportunity& for& a&
reporting) stage.) Once) the) groups) have) completed) their) discussion,& the& group&
leaders'take'it'in'turn'to'report'their'groups’'findings'to'the'whole'class.''"

Individual) student) work) is) also) possible) –! as# in# the# Communicational# Language#
Teaching) Project.) It) is) well$suited' to' tasks' that' involve' a' written' outcome.' For'
example,'the'Heart&Transplant&Task!could&be&modified&by&giving&each&student&access&
to#the#information#about#all#four#patients#and#simply#asking#them#to#write#a#report#
with%their%recommendation%about%who%should%receive%the%transplant."
When% drawing% up% a% lesson! plan,& teachers& should& give& careful& thought& to& what&
participatory) structures) they) wish) to) include) in) the) main$task% phase% and% aim% for%
variety.))"

2. Allocation)of)time)for)the)main)task"
The$teacher$should$consider$whether$to$set$a$time$limit$for$performing$the$task%
or# allow# the# students# whatever# time# they# need# to# complete# it.# This# is# actually# an#
important) decision) because) it) will) influence) the) students’) use) of) language) as) they)
perform' the' task.! When% there% is% no% time% pressure,% students% are% likely% to% produce%
language$ that$ is$ more$ complex$ and$ accurate$ but$ less$ fluent.$ When$ there$ is$ time$
pressure,'fluency'increases'but'to'the'detriment'of'accuracy'and'complexity10."""

Teachers(may(find(it(odd(to(pressure(students(by(setting(a(time(limit(but(it(makes(
good$sense$to$do$so!sometimes.!It#will#prepare#students#for#communicating#in#the#
real% world% where% very% often% they% will% not% have% time% to% work% out% what% to% say.% The%
case% for% setting% a% time% limit% is% perhaps% stronger% if% students% have% had% time% for% pre$
task%planning."

3. Access%to%task!materials"
Another( performance( option( is( whether( students( should( be( allowed( access( to(
the$ input$data$ available$ in$ the$ task$ materials$ while$ they$ perform$ a$ task.$ For$
example,(the(teacher(could(allow(students(to(keep(the(information(about(the(four(
patients(in!the$Heart&Transplant&Task!or#could#take#it#from#once#they#had#read#it#and#
planned'what'to'say."
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
10
!Yuan"and"Ellis"(2003)"reported"a"study"that"showed"that"accuracy"increased"when"
learners"had"plenty"of"time"to"perform"a"task.!

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If# the# students# continue# to# have# access# to# the# input$data,% they% are% likely% to%
‘borrow’'words'and'expressions'from'it'when'performing'the'task.'However,'if'the'
information)is)removed,)they)will)have)to)generate)their)own)utterances.)There)are)
pros% and% cons% regarding% this% option.% The% input$data$ can$ be$ viewed$ as$ a$ form$ of$
support,( assisting( learners( to( perform( utterances( that( would( be( beyond( them(
without' it.' However," there" is" always" a" danger" of" ‘borrowing’" becoming" a" very"
mechanical)process)where)students)simply)read)sentences)from)the)text)they)have)
been$ given,$ removing$ the$ need$ for$ learners$ to$ engage$ in$ the$ struggle$ to$ generate$
their&own&utterances.&If&the&task&is&a"difficult"one,"the"opportunity"to"borrow"from"
the$input$will$be$beneficial$but$if$the$task$is$viewed$as$easy,$it$would$be$preferable$to$
encourage)students)to)generate)their)own)utterances)by)removing)the)input$data."

4. Surprise(information"
The$ final$ option$ consists' of' introducing' a' surprise$element& into& the& task11." For"
example,( halfway( through( the( Heart& Transplant& Task! the$ teacher$ could$ introduce$
some% new% information% about% each% of% the% four% patients.% In% the% case% of% Sandy,% for%
example,( the( students( could( be( told" that" her" husband" has" reappeared" and" has"
agreed&to&help&care&for&the&children.&&"

An# obvious# advantage# of# selecting# this# option# is# that# it# can# prolong# the# talking#
time.&But&it&might&also&prompt&the&learners&to&produce&more&complex&language&as&
they%see%the%need%to%modify%their%original%opinions.%On%hearing%the%new%information%
about& Sandy," for" example," a" student" might" be" led" to" say" Well,% I% thought% Sandy%
probably(shouldn’t(have(the(operation(because(of(all(her(family(responsibilities(but(
now$her$husband$is$back,$he$can$take$care$of$these.$"

Reflection*

What!performance!options!would!you!incorporate!into!the!main!task!phase!of!
your!lesson!plan!for!the!Family*Budget*Task?*

Give!reasons!for!your!choices.!

"

+
+

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
11
!The"idea"for"introducing"a"surprise"element"comes"from"Skehan"and"Foster"(1997).!

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Process'Options"
The$processes$that$arise$as$a$task$is$performed$are$unpredictable.$This$is$because$
a" task" always" has" to" be" interpreted" by" the" students" performing" it." The" Heart&
Transplant) Task! was$ designed$ to$ encourage$ students$ to$ discuss$ each$ patient$ by$
considering*reasons"for"and"against"each"being"chosen"for"the"operation."But"it"does"
not$follow$that$all$the$students$will$perform$the$task$in$this$way.$Some$may$do$so.$
But$ others$ may$ decide$ who$ should$ get$ the$ transplant$ and$ then$ just$ discuss$ the$
reasons'for'choosing'that'person.'How'students'interpret'a'task'will'affect'the'way'
they% use% language.% % Thus,% different% processes% of% language% use% can% arise% when% the%
same%task%is%performed%by%different%students."

In# general,# the# processes# of# language# use# in# task$based& teaching& are& very"
different( from( those( found( in( traditional( language( teaching.( In( a( traditional(
classroom,)students)are)typically)limited)to)answering)teacher’s)questions)and)their)
turns&are&very&short&$!just%a%single%word%or%a%short%phrase.%Tasks%give%students%the%
chance! to# initiate# talk,# to# use# a# variety# of# language# functions# (requesting,#
apologizing,* expressing* agreement* and* disagreement,* hypothesizing,* explaining*
etc.),! and$ to$ produce$ longer$ turns.$ It$ is$ this$ kind$ of$ talk$ that$ facilitates$ incidental$
acquisition.+The+goal,$then,$is$to$ensure$that$tasks$do$indeed$result$in$these$kinds$of$
language' use.' To' understand' how' this' can' be' achieved' we' need' to' consider' the'
roles&that&the&students&and&teacher&adopt.&"

1. Students’)roles"
Students(need(to(function(primarily(as(communicators+without+losing+sight+of+the+
fact%they%are%also%learners.%As%communicators,%students%engage%fully%in%performing%
the$ task$ either$ as$ listeners$ if$ the$ task$ is$ input$based& or& as& speakers& if& the& task& is&
output$based.'As'learners,'they'need'to'be'responsive(to(the(opportunities(to(learn(
new$language."

As# listeners,# students# need# to# be# prepared# to# participate# in# the# negotiation( for(
meaning." This" means" that" they" must" always" work" to" understand" the" input" and" be"
prepared& to& signal& when& they& have& not& understood) something.) It) is) through) the)
negotiation( for( meaning( that( students( can( learn( new( language.( As( speakers,(
students' need' to' participate' fully' in' performing' the' task.' This' means' helping' out'
when%other%students%show%they%do%not%understand%something.%It#also#means#being#
prepared&to&take&risks&in&the&struggle&to&express&an&idea.&But&participating&fully&does&
not$ mean$ dominating$ the$ talk.$ There$ has$ to$ be$ opportunity$ for$ all$ members$ of$ a$
group&to&contribute&to&the&talk.&A&task&works&best&if&all&the&students"work"as"equals."

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As#learners,#students#need#to#seek#assistance#if#they#do#not#know#a#word#or#they#
are$ not$ sure$ whether$ a$ grammatical$ structure$ is$ correct.$ For$ example,$ if$ a$ student$
wants&to&say& Leila&suffers&from!depression!and$is$not$sure$whether$ in! or# from!is#the#
correct&preposition,&the&student&should&be&prepared&to&ask&another&student&or&the&
teacher.(There(are(times(too(that(learners(should(monitor(their(own(speech(and(try(
to#self$correct&their&mistakes.&&"

To# sum# up,# we# can# ask# what# student# behaviours#in# performing# tasks# work# best#
for$acquisition.$Here$is$a$list.$Students$need$to:$"

• Persist!when%they%face%difficulties"
• Take!risks%using%their%linguistic%resources%creatively%to%express%their%ideas"
• Try#to#verbalize#their#ideas#explicitly"
• Engage%collaboratively#with#other#students"
• Pay#attention#to#form#when#needed"
• Provide'feedback'to'help'other'students"

Teachers(should(observe(students(as(they(perform(tasks(and(look(for(evidence(of(
these% behaviours.% When% they% see% them,% they% will% know% that% the% tasks% are% working!
effectively."

2. Teachers’)roles"
"

Task$based& language& teaching& calls& for& considerable& skill& on& the& part& of& the&
teacher.( This( is( because( the( teacher( has( to( juggle( a( number( of( different( roles,(
switching)from)one)to)another)strategically)as)the)task)unwinds.)Table)9"on#the#next#
page!shows%the!various(functions(a(teacher(needs(to(perform(in(three(key(roles(–!as#
a"task$manager,(as(a(communicator,(and(as(an(instructor."

As#a#task$manager'the'teacher'may'need'to'handle'large'classes,'deal'with'over$
talkative(students,(establish(a(policy(for(the(use!of#the#mother$tongue,(ensure(that(
the$students$follow$the$instructions$they$have$been$given,$address$noise$problems$
etc.%But%in%these%respects,%task$based&teaching&is&no&different&from&traditional&ways&
of#teaching.#Skilful#task#management#is#a#requirement!in#any#teaching#approach."

The$ central$ role$ in$ task$based& teaching& is& the& teacher$as# communicator.# # Task$
based& teaching& requires& the& teacher& as& well& as& the& students& to& focus& on& achieving&
the$task$outcome.$This$requires$that$the$teacher$behaves$as$an$equal$partner'with'
the$ students.$ Table& 9! shows% the% kinds% of% language% use% that% will% occur% when% the%
teacher' acts' as' a' co$conversationalist, rather, than, as, an, instructor., , Task$based&

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language' teaching' will' only' work' effectively' if' the' teacher' allows' the' students' to'
have%some%control%over%the%interactions%a%task%gives%rise%to."

But$there$are$also$times$when$the$teacher$needs$to$act$as$an$instructor.$$The$aim$
of#task$based&teaching&is&not&just&to&develop&the&ability&to&communicate.&It&seeks&to&
also%facilitate%incidental!language'acquisition'(see'Chapter'2).'To'fulfil'this'aim,'the'
teacher' needs' to' sometimes' switch' roles' from' acting' as' a' communicator' to'
behaving) as) an) instructor.) This) means) looking) out) for) the) right) moments) to) focus)
learners’( attention( on( language( by,( for! example,( presenting( useful( vocabulary,(
modelling)useful)grammar)structures,)and)correcting)errors.))"

Table&9:&Teacher’s&functions&in&task$ based&language&teaching"

TeacherGasGtaskGmanager* TeacherGasGcommunicator* TeacherGasGinstructor*

• Explains!the!rationale! • Endeavours!to!ensure! • Presents!useful!

for!task3based! talk!is!comprehensible! vocabulary!
teaching! • Makes!strategic!use!of! • Models!a!useful!
• Gives!out!task! the!students’!mother! language!structure!
materials! tongue! (e.g.!I"think"that"…."
• Gives!task!instructions! • Checks!that!students! because"….)!

• Sets!a!time!limit!for! have!understood! • Responds!to!students’!

performing!the!task! • Scaffolds!students’! questions!about!
production! language!
• Organizes!small!group!
work! • Negotiates!for! • Corrects!students’!
meaning! errors!
• Monitors!students!
performing!the!task! • Encourages!students! • Provides!explicit!
to!initiate!interaction! linguistic!guidance!
• Decides!when!to!stop!
students! • Asks!referential! !

• Organizes!the!public! questions!(i.e.!avoids! !
performance!stage!of! questions!testing! !
main!task!phase! students)!
• Responds!to!the!
message!content!of!
students’!utterances!
• Allows!students!to!self3
select!when!to!speak!

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Teachers( without( any( experience( of( task$based& teaching& may& find& it& difficult& to&
handle'these'different'roles.'They'need'to'be'aware'of'the'functions)involved)in)the)
different( roles( and( the( language( behaviours( associated( with( them.( However,(
learning( how( to( get( the( balance( right( will( probably( only( come( from( experience( of(
doing&task$based&teaching."

Illustrating+the+Process+Features+

The$extract12!below&illustrates&the&kinds&of&process&features&and&the&teacher&and&
student'roles'that'are'characteristic'of'a'task$based&lesson.&The$students$are$young$
Japanese'children'who'are'just'starting'to'learn'English.'The'extract'comes'from'the'
performance*of*an*input$based&task.&The&teacher&is&telling&the&students&to&find&the&
picture( cards( representing( different( animals( and( to( take( them( to( the( zoo,( which( is(
depicted' in' a' frieze' on' the' wall' of' the' classroom.' Both' teacher' and' students' are'
focused(on(trying(to(perform#the#task#(i.e.#Taking'Animals'to'the'Zoo).##"

T:!! Okay!the!next.!Okay,!listen!listen!listen.!Please!take!the!squirrels,!squirrels!to!
the!zoo.!Squirrels."
S2:!!Doubutsuen![the!zoo]?"
T:!! Zoo,!that's!right."
S5:!!Green?!Blue?"
S1:!!White?"
T:!!! No,!no,!no,!not!white.!Not!green.!Not!blue.!Brown!(pointing!to!a!brown!item!in!
the!classroom)."
S2:!!Brown"
S3:!!(Showing!‘two’!with!his!fingers)!two?"
T:!! Two,!yes.!three!(.)!two!(.)!one!(.)!go"
Ss:!! (All!the!students!showing!the!correct!cards)!"
T:!! Yes,!everyone!is!correct."

"
We# can# see# various# communicative# strategies# used# by# the# teacher# and# the#
students.( S2( uses( Japanese( to( check( his( comprehension( of( zoo." S3" uses" mime"
(showing)two)fingers))to)check)whether)she)has)understood)that) squirrels!is#plural.#
The$ teacher$ uses$ very$ simple$ language$ and$ repeats$ the$ key$ word$ in$ her$ initial$
command' (e.g.' squirrels)" to" encourage" learners" to" attend" to" it." She" points" to" an"
object'in'the'classroom'to'help'students'understand'brown."""

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
12
!This"extract"comes"from"Shintani"(2016).!

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It#is#clear#that#the#primary%focus%here%is%on%communicating.%But%we%can%also%see%
evidence' of' the' students' functioning' as' learners.' S2’s' repetition' of' brown,! for$
example,!serves%no%communicative%purpose%but%helps%to%consolidate%this%word%in%his%
memory.' The' teacher' functions' as' a' task$manager,( signalling( when( it( is( time( for(
students' to' show' their' cards' and' as' an' instructor' when' she' confirms' that' all' the'
students'have'chosen'the'correct'cards."

Reflection*

Here!is!an!extract!from!a!traditional!language!lesson!where!the!focus!is!on!using!
language!correctly.!!How!do!the!process!features!of!this!lesson!differ!from!those!
found!in!a!task3based!lesson?!!

In!this!lesson!the!teacher!is!working!through!a!drill!designed!to!practise!negative!
sentences.!

T:!!Do!you!make!your!bed!every!morning?!<nods>!"
L:!!Yes,!I!make!my!bed!every!morning.!"
T:!!(shakes!his!head)"
L:!!No,!I!don't!make!my!bed!every!morning.!"
T:!!Does!your!father!make!your!bed!every!morning?!"
L:!!Yes,!my!father!makes!my!bed!every!morning.!"
T:!!Does!your!little!brother!make!your!bed!every!morning?!"
!!!!!(demonstrates!a!small!brother)"
L:!!Yes,!my!little!brother!makes!my!bed!every!morning.!"
T:!!(shakes!his!head!vigorously)"
L:!!No,!my!little!brother!doesn't!make!my!bed!every!morning.!"
L:!!I!have!no!little!brother."

Post3Task$Phase!Options!
There%is!a"variety"of"options"available"to"the"teacher"after"the"performance"of"the"
main% task.% These% involve% extension% activities% that% build% on% the% communicative% task%
itself' and' language$focused( activities( that( address( the( linguistic( problems( that(
became&evident&in"the"students’"performance"of"the"task."

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Extension)Activities"

One$useful$extension$activity$for$a$speaking$task$is$to$set$the$students$a$writing$
activity.((This(option(can(be(seen(in(the(example(of(a(lesson(plan(for(the( Describing*
an#Accident#Task."After"completing"the"task"the"students"were"asked"to"write"about"
the$ accident.$ A$ similar$ extension$ task$ is$ possible$ for$ the$ Heart& Transplant& Task.""
Students(could(be(asked(to(write(a(letter(to(one(of(the(patients(who(was(not(chosen(
for$the$operation$explaining%the%decision.%"

Another( useful( extension( activity( is( task( repetition.( The$ first$ performance$ of$ a$
task% enables% the% learners% to% formulate% ‘what’% they% want% to% say% while% the% second%
performance*allows*for*greater*attention*to*be*paid*to*the*choice*of*language.&Task&
repetition(can(be(carried(out(under(the(same(conditions(as(the(original(performance(
or# under# different# conditions.# For# example,# if# the# first# performance# was#
unpressured,) the) second) could) be) pressured.) Or,) if) the) first) performance) involved)
group& work,& the& second& could& call& for& individual& student& performances.& & It& would&
also%be%possible%to%offer%some%direct%instruction%between%performances%of%the%same%
task.& For& example,& for& the& Heart& Transplant& Task," the" teacher" could" show" the"
students'how'to'construct'conditional'sentences'when'discussing'each'patient'(e.g.'
If#Sandy#could#find#someone#to#look#after#her#children,#she#would#be#free#to#go#into#
hospital)for)the)operation)" and" then" encourage" them" to" use"such%sentences%when%
they%repeat%the%task.%"

Teachers( may( be( wary( of( repeating( the( same( task( but( in( fact( students( –!
especially) younger) students) –! often& enjoy& it13." It" is" probably" best," though," not" to"
repeat&the&task&immediately&after&the&first&performance.&&Students'could'be'asked'to'
repeat&the&task&in&a&later&lesson.&&"

Addressing)Language)Problems"

It# is# sometimes# said# that# there# is# no# grammar# in# task$based& teaching.& This& is&
fundamentally+mistaken.+There+is+attention+to+grammar+in+the+main+task+phase+(see+
Chapter$5)$but$grammar$has$more$prominence$and$can$be$more$directly$addressed$
in# the# post$task% stage.% The$ choice$ of$ which$ linguistic$ forms$ to$ focus$ on$ should$ be$
based&on&the&teacher’s&observations&of&the&language&problems&that&arose&during&the&
main%task%phase.!"
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
13
!Shintani"(2016)"asked"her"children"to"repeat"the"same"task"nine"times"in"different"lessons."
There"was"no"sign"of"the"children"getting"bored"as"each"time"the"task$as$process"changed."
The"children"gradually"became"more"competent"in"performing"it."!

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Possible(language$focused(options(include:"

1. Delayed'error'correction"
This%requires%the%teacher%to%note%down%any%errors%that%students%made%while%they%
performed( the( main( task.( The( teacher( can( then( write( sentences( containing( the(
errors%on%the%whiteboard%and%invite&students&to&try&to&correct&them."

2. Consciousness$raising'tasks"
These% involve% presenting% students% with% some% data% related% to% a% particular%
linguistic) feature) central) to) the) performance) of) the) task) (e.g.) the) use) of) the)
prepositions)in,$on!and$at!in#expressions#of#time),#guiding#the#analysis#of#the#data#to#
help%them%discover%the%underlying%rules,%and%then%asking%students%to%state%the%rules%
explicitly.*Consciousness$raising'tasks'constitute'a'kind'of'discovery$based&grammar&
activity.(The(aim(is(to(develop'awareness'of'grammar'rules."

3. Proof%listening14"
For$ this$ activity,$ an$ audio$ recording$ of$ the$ task$ will$ need$ to$ be$ made.$ Students$
are$asked$to$make$a$transcript$of$an$extract$of$their$task$performance,$identify$the$
errors% they% made,% and% then% try% to% correct% them.% They% can% do% this% working%
individually)or)in)small)groups."

4. Practice(exercises"
The$teacher$can$find$or$design$practice$exercises$for$the$specific$language$points$
that$need$attention.$Traditional$text$books!are$full$of$such$exercises.$Note$that$when$
such%exercises%are%included%in%the%post$task%phase,%this%results%in%an%inversion%of%the%
traditional)PPP)approach,!that$is,$the$exercises$follow$the$task$rather$than$precede$
it.$"

The$ post$task% stage% is% a% very% important% part% of% a% task$based& lesson.& In& these&
language$focused( activities,( there( is( an( explicit( focus( on( language.( Students( cease(
acting' as' communicators' and' become' learners.' The' teacher' adopts' a' much' more'
traditional) teacher) role.) Both) students) and) teachers! may$ find$ task$based& language&
teaching)less)intimidating)knowing)that)a)point)in)the)lesson)is)reached)where)there)
are$the$kinds$of$language$learning$activities$that$they$are$familiar$with."

"

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
14
!The"idea"for"proof"listening"comes"from"Lynch"(2001).!

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Reflection*

When!some!students!were!performing!the!Heart"Transplant"Task!you!noticed!
them!making!an!error!as!illustrated!in!these!student!utterances:!
o I"think"Sandy"because"has"a"family"to"look"after."
o Maybe"not"Max"because"big"cigarette"smoker."
o It"should"be"Margaret"because"has"insurance.

Describe!the!error!in!these!utterances.!!Then!say!how!you!would!address!it!in!the!
post3task!stage!of!the!lesson.!

Conclusion!
In# Chapter# 2,# I# drew# a# distinction# between# incidental! and$ intentional( language(
learning," pointing" out" that" task$based& language& teaching& caters& to& the& former& and&
task$supported)language)teaching)to)the)latter.)It)should)now)be)clear,)however,)that)
a"task$based&lesson&actually&creates&opportunities&for&both&types&of&learning.&In&the&
pre$task% and# post$task% stages,% students% function% primarily% as% learners.% In% the% main%
task%phase,%they%function%primarily%as%communicators.%This%is%the%phase%designed%to%
set$up$opportunities$for$incidental$acquisition.$The$strength$of$task$based&language&
teaching) lies! in# the# balance# between# giving# students# opportunities# to# experience#
communication)and)language$focused(work.(In(contrast(to(task$supported)language)
teaching,* however,* the* language$focused( work( is( learner$centred.( That( is,( it(
addresses& attested& (real)& problems$ rather$ than$ predicted$ (possible)$ language$
problems.**This*is*one*of*the$major&strengths&of&task$based&language&teaching."

Reflection*

Either!find!a!task!in!your!students’!course!book!or!design!your!own!task.!
Then!prepare!a!lesson!plan!for!this!task.!!You!will!need!to:!
1. Decide!which!phases!to!include!in!your!plan.!
2. Decide!the!options!to!include!in!each!phase.!

"

"

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CHAPTER FIVE
FOCUS ON FORM

Introduction!
In# task$based& language& teaching,& the& teacher& and& the& students& are& primarily&
engaged& in& the& effort& to& communicate* in* order* to* achieve* the* outcome* of* a* task.**
But$this$does$not$mean$that$there$is$no$attention$to$form.$In$Chapter$4,$we$saw$that$
there%are%various%ways%of%attracting%learners’!attention'to'form'in'the'pre$task%stage%
(for%example,%when%they%are%planning'how'to'do'the'task)'and'also'in'the'post$task%
stage& (for& example,& when& teachers& go& over& the& errors& students& made& during& the&
performance* of* a* task).* It* is* during* the* main* task* phase* of* a* lesson* that*
communication) becomes) the) priority.) However,) even! in# this# phase# there# are#
opportunities*to*attend*to*linguistic*form.**"

What%is%focus&on&form?""Here"is"a"definition:"

Focus&on&form&overtly&draws&students’&attention&to&linguistic&elements&as&they&
arise&incidentally&in&lessons&whose&overriding&focus&is&on&meaning&or&
communication.15!+

The$ linguistic$ elements$ involved$ may$ be$ sounds$ (pronunciation),$ letters$

(spelling),+ words+ (vocabulary)+ or+ grammatical+ structures.+ The+ idea+ behind+ focus+ on+
form%is%that%although%meaning%is%primary%when%performing%a%task,%there%are!times&
when% attention% to% form% can% and% should% take% place.% Focus% on% form% is% in% fact% an%
essential(feature(of(task$based&teaching.&It&helps&to&facilitate&language&learning."

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
15
!This"definition"of"focus"on"form"is"Michel"Long’s"(2001)."He"was"one"of"the"first"to"point"
out"the"importance"of"focus"on"form"in"task$based"language"teaching.!

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Native' speakers' and' advanced' language' learners' are' able' to' focus' on' meaning'
and$ form$ simultaneously., Language, learners,, however,, may, find, this, difficult.,
Learners' with' low' proficiency' struggle' when' communicating' and' this' makes' it'
difficult(for(them(to(also(attend(to(form.(If(they(focus(on(meaning,(attention(to(form(
suffers.'But'if'they'focus!on#form,#they#will#not#be#able#to#communicate#fluently.#This#
suggests& that& in& order& to& focus& on& form& learners& need& to& take& time& out& from&
communicating*every*now*and*again.*In*this*chapter,*we*will*look*at*how*this*can*be*
achieved(in(task$based&teaching."
"
Reflection*

When!we!focus!on!form,!we!pay!attention!to!how!words!are!spelt!and!
pronounced!or!to!grammatical!features.!Think!of!occasions!when!you!focus!on!
form!while!you!are:!
• Reading!
• Writing!
• Listening!
• Speaking!
In!which!language!skills!is!it!easier!to!focus!on!form?!!Why!is!this?!

"

Doing&Focus3On3Form!
Focus& on& form& occurs& when& there& is& some& kind& of& problem.& The& problem& could&
arise&because&someone&says&something&that&another&person&does&not&understand&or&
because'students'do'not'know'how'to'express'what'they'want'to'say.'The'teacher'
has$the$main$responsibility%for%doing%focus%on%form%but%students%can%also%make%use%
of#focus#on#form#strategies#when#they#are#performing#tasks#in#small#groups.#"

Two$basic$types$of$focus$on$form$can$be$distinguished:"

1. Pre$ emptive'focus%on#form"
This%occurs%when%the%teacher%or%a%student'makes'linguistic'form'the'topic'of'the'
discourse)even)though)no)error)has)been)committed."

2.!" Reactive(focus%on#form"
This%occurs%when%the%teacher%or%another%student%responds%to%an%error%that%a%
student'has'made'while'communicating."

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Each%of%these%two%types%of%focus$on$form%involves%a%number%of%strategies%which%
serve%to%attract%learners’%attention%to%form%during%the%performance%of%a%task.%These%
strategies(take(up(very(little(time(so(they(do(not(detract(seriously(from(the(primary(
focus&on#meaning."

Pre0 Emptive(Focus(on(Form+

Pre$emptive' focus$on$form% can% be% student$initiated' when' a' student' asks' a'
question)about)a)linguistic)form.)In)Example)116!a"student"is"not"sure"whether"to"use"
the$ present$ or$ past$ tense$ and$ so$ asks$ the$ teacher.$ The$ teacher# answers# and# also#
explains)why)present)tense)is)needed)in)this)case.))"

Example(1+

S:!" I"have"a"question."I"met"one"of"my"friends"who"WAS!or#who#IS!from%Thailand?"
T:!" IS!from%Thailand."
S:!" Ah."
T:!" Because&it’s%always%true%she’s%from%Thailand."
"
Pre$emptive' focus' on' form' can' also' be' teacher$initiated.( The( teacher( can( pre$
empt%by%means%of%query%to%check%whether%students%know%a%particular%linguistic%form%
as# in# Example# 2.# The# task# required# students# to# talk# about# aeroplanes# and# the#
teacher' wants' to' be! sure% that% the% students% know% the% word% take0off! so# she# asks# a#
question)to)elicit)the)production)of)this)word."

Example(2+

T:!" What’s&the$opposite$of$landing?$"
S:!" take%off."
T:!" take%off."
Ss:"take%off."
"
Alternatively+ the+ teacher+ can+ just+ advise+ students+ to+ take+ care+ that+ they+ use+ a+
particular) linguistic) feature) correctly.) For) example,) in) the) Describing* an* Accident*
Task!(see$Chapter$4)$the$teacher$could$point$out$that$the$students$need$to$use$past$
tense% by! saying:( ( Remember& you& are& describing& something& that& happened& in& the&
past.&So&use&past&tense.""

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
16
!Many"of"the"examples"of"focus"on"form"in"this"chapter"are"taken"from"Ellis,"Basturkmen"
and"Loewen"(2001).!

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Arguably,* student$initiated' focus' on' form' is' preferable' to' teacher$initiated.((

When% students% initiate,% there% is% self$evidently) a) linguistic) problem.) But) when)
teachers& initiate,& the& problem& may& not& be& a& real& one.& In& Example& 2,& the& teacher&
predicted(the(students(did(not(know(the(meaning(of( take0off!but$in$fact$they$did,$so$
her$question$was$unnecessary.$Perhaps$then$teachers$should$refrain$from$initiating$
attention'to"form"unless"it"is"clearly"necessary"and"just"welcome"students’"questions"
about&forms&they&are&not&certain&about&as&in&Example&1.&"
Both%types%of%pre$emptive'focus'on'form'are'very'explicit'and'didactic.'They'are'
unlikely(to(figure(in(communicative(behaviour#outside#the#classroom.#For#this#reason#
they%should%be%used%sparingly%to%avoid%turning%the%lesson%into%a%traditional%language%
lesson."
"

Reflection*

Here!are!two!more!examples!of!pre3emptive!focus!on!form.!!!

1. Is!the!focus!on!form!in!these!examples!teacher3!or!student3initiated?!
2. What!are!the!forms!that!are!being!focused!on?!
3. Do!you!think!the!focus!on!form!in!these!examples!will!help!the!students!
learn?!

T:!!So!if!he’s!committed!theft,!what!is!he?!
H:!!Um!he!was!in!prison!for!two!years,!
T:!!Yeah!that’s!where!he!was,!what!do!we!call!the!person!who!commits!theft?!
B:!!Thief!!!
T:!!Thief!
H:!!Thief!
T:!!Yeah!okay!
!
L:!! What’s!mean!positive?!
S:!!That!means!mmm!
T:!!They!are!optimistic!mm!okay!she,!she!feels!good!about!the!future!
S:!!Mhm!
T:!!She!feels!like!the!future!will!be!good!for!her!

+
Reactive(Focus(on(Form+
There% is! a" range" of" strategies" for" doing" reactive" focus" on" form." Whereas" pre$
emptive' focus' on' form' is' invariably' didactic,' reactive' focus' on' form' can' be'
conversational,as,well,as,didactic.,It,can,prompt,learners,to,correct%their%own%errors%

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or# it# can# provide# the# correction.# It# can# be# implicit# or# explicit.# Teachers# need# to#
familiarize) themselves) with) these) ways) of) doing) reactive) focus) on) form) and) be)
aware%of%the%strengths%and%limitations%of%each."

1. Conversational,and,didactic&focus&on&form"
"

Conversational, focus$ on$ form! occurs& when& the& attention& to& form& arises& in& the&
course' of' dealing' with' a' communication' problem' resulting' in' the' negotiation( for(
meaning!as#in#example#3#below.!Here$the$teacher$misunderstands$the$name$of$S1’s$
group& when& the& student& fails& to& pronounce& best" clearly." The" problem" is" resolved"
when%the%teacher%requests%confirmation%(Bess’%group?)!that$pushes$S1$to$articulate$
best!more%distinctively.%This%kind%of%focus%on#form#is#very#natural#and#could#in#fact#
occur%in%ordinary%conversation%outside%the%classroom."
+

Example(3+

S1:!" My"group"has"a"name."
T:!" What$name?"
S1:!" Bes."
T:!" Bess’%group?"
S1:!" best"
T:!" oh,$best,$okay"
S2:!" best"
T:!" best,&not&group&three,&the&best,&that’s&a&lovely&name"
"
Didactic'focus$ on$ form!occurs&when&the&attention&to&form&arises&even&though&no&
communication)problem)has)occurred.)In)this)case,) negotiation(of(form!rather&than&
negotiation( of( meaning( takes( place.( Example( 4( on# the# next# page! occurred' in" an"
activity'where'the'students'had'to'make'up'alibis'to'explain'why'they'could'not'have'
committed(a(crime.(The(focus(on(form(centres(on(the(student’s(utterance( I"was"in"
restaurant," which" is" missing" the" definite" article." The" teacher" clearly" understands"
what# the# student# meant# but# still# reacts# by# recasting# the# utterance# using# a#
confirmation*request!(In#the#restaurant?).#It#should#be#noted#that#even#though#the#
teacher' is' behaving' didactically,' the' exchange' overall' maintains' its' communicative'
flavour(because(the$teacher’s$intercession$is$very$brief."

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Example(4+

T:!" What%were%you%doing?%"
S:!" I"was"in"restaurant."
+ (2#seconds#pause)+
S:!" I"was"in"restaurant."
T:!" In#the#restaurant?"
S:!" Yeah!and$I$was$eating!with%my%friend."
"
When%students%are%working%in%groups%they%often%engage%in%conversational%focus%
on# form# when# communication# problems# arise.# They# are# less# likely# to# engage# in#
didactic&focus&on&form&as&this&is&a&very&teacher$like%behaviour.%%Teachers%on%the%other%
hand%engage%more$frequently$in$didactic$than$conversational$focus$on$form.$This$is$
because'there'are'generally'few'occasions'in'classrooms'where'a'real'breakdown'in'
communication) between) a) student) and) the) teacher) occurs.) ) Thus,) to) ensure) a)
reasonable) level) of) focus) on) form,& it& is& necessary& for& teachers& to& respond& to&
students’(errors(even(though(they(have(understood(what(they(said."

2. !Input$providing)and)output$prompting)focus)on)form"
Both%conversational%and%didactic%focus%on%form%can%be%input$providing)or)output$
prompting.! Input$providing) focus) on) form) supplies) learners) with) the) correct) form)
when% they% have% made% an% error.% This% typically% involves% a% recast," defined" as" a"
reformulation, of, all, or, part, of, an, erroneous, utterance, by, replacing, an, incorrect,
linguistic)form)with)the)correct&one.&In&Example&5&the&teacher&recasts&the&student’s&
utterance( making( two( corrections( –! replacing* go! with% went! and$ inserting$ the$
indefinite' article' (a)" before" movie." A" recast" can" be" a" confirmation" request" as" in"
Example(4(above(in(which(case(it(is(a(question(or(it(can(be(a(statement(as(in(Example(
5.#"
Example(5+

S:" Last%weekend%I%go%to%see%movie."
T:" You$went$to$see$a$movie."
S:" Yes,%it%was%a%Batman%movie."
"
As#can#be#seen#in#both#Examples#4#and#5,#the#students#who#made#the#error#do#
not$ uptake! the$ teacher’s$ correction.$ That$ is$ they$ do$ not$ repeat$ their$ utterance$
correctly(but(just(carry(on(with(what(they(want(to(say.(This(is(quite(natural(if(they(

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are$ primarily$ focused$ on$ meaning.$ But$ it$ might$ help$ them$ avoid$ making$ the$ same$
kind%of%error%later%if"they"did"uptake"the"correction"and"self$correct."

Output$ prompting) focus$ on$ form! pushes& students& to& make& the& correction&
themselves.)In)Example)6,)the)teacher)uses)a)clarification*request!to#get#the#student#
to#correct#a#preposition#error.#Sometimes#teachers"request"clarification"when"they"
do#not#understand#what#the#student#says#(i.e.#the#focus#on#form#is#conversational)#
but$ often,$ as$ in$ Example$ 6,$ the$ teacher$ elects$ to$ push$ the$ learner$ to$ self$correct&
even$though$he/she$understands$(i.e.$the$focus$on$form$is"didactic).""

Example(6+
S:!!I"visited"my"elder"brother"in"Friday."
T:!!Sorry.&When?"
S:!!On#Friday.#He#lives#in#Jakarta."
"
It#is#possible#to#combine#an#output$prompting)and)input$providing)strategy)and)
this% is% perhaps% the% most% effective% way% to% do% focus% on% form.# In# Example# 7,# the#
teacher'first'just'repeats'the'students’'incorrect'utterance,'stressing'the'parts'that'
are$ incorrect,$ and$ then,$ when$ the$ student$ fails$ to$ self$correct,' recasts.' This'
combination) of) strategies) gives) a) student) chance) to) self$correct& but& if# that# fails#
provides)the)correction.)Thus,)if)the)student)is)able)to)self$correct&after&the&prompt,&
recasting*becomes*unnecessary."
Example(7!17 "
L:" I"think"that"the"worm"will"go"under"the"soil."
T:" I"think!that$the$worm$will!go#under#the#soil?"
L:" (no$response)"
T:" I"thought!that$the$worm$would!go#under#the#soil."
L:" I"thought!that$the$worm$would!go#under#the#soil."

3. Implicit(and(explicit(focus(on(form"

Reactive(focus(on(form(can(differ(in(another(important(way.((It(can(be(implicit(or(
explicit.)) Implicit(focus$ on$ form!occurs&when&the&teacher&recasts&the&whole&or&part&
of#a#student’s#utterance#or#requests#clarification.#Explicit(focus(on(form!occurs&when&
an# interlocutor# directly# signals# an# error# has# occurred,# makes# a# metalinguistic#
comment'(e.g.' use$past$tense)"or"explicitly"corrects"the"error.""The"focus"on"form"in"
Examples) 5) and) 6) is) implicit) in) nature.) Example) 8) below) illustrates) a) more) explicit)
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
17
!This"example"comes"from"Doughty"and"Varela"(1998).!

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focus&on&form.&Here,&the&teacher&intervenes&directly&to&explain&that&it&is&better&to&use&
the$word$ cinema"rather"than% theatre!to#refer#to#the#place#where#movies#are#shown.#
Teachers(will(need(to(make(a(decision(about(whether(to(employ(implicit(or(explicit(
focus$on$form% strategies.% Implicit% strategies% detract% less% from% the% communicative%
flow%of%an%activity%but%explicit!strategies(may(sometimes(be(needed(to(ensure(that(
learners'attend'to'the'teacher’s'feedback.''Explicit'focus'on'form'can'also'be'very'
brief&if&it&just&involves&giving&the&correct&form."
Example(8+

S1:" In#the#theatre#(3.0)#you#can’t#watch#movie#at#the#theatre"
S2:" Two$movies?"
" (2#seconds#pause)"
T:" A"better"word"here,"S2,"is"cinema."
S1:" Cinema?"
S2:" Cinema?"
T:" Cinema,(yeah."
S1:" ‘Cause'in'the'cinema'you'can'watch'two'uh'movies"
T:" That’s'right,'yep."
"
Reflection*

1. Comment!of!the!linguistic!forms!addressed!in!the!focus!on!form!examples!
below.!
2. What!strategies!were!used!to!focus!on!form!in!these!examples?!
3. How!effective!are!these!strategies?!

(1)*
S:! When!he!18!years!old!he!m3!if!he!doed!it!
T:!!Did!it!
S:!!Uh,!did!it!
T:!!Yeah!
(2)*
S:!!Must!go!to!the!prison?!went!to!the!prison!
S:!!He!was!depression!in!prison!because!
T:!!Ooo!this!is,!what!part!of!language!is!this?!
S:!!Depressed!
T:!!Depressed!great!excellent!well!done!
S:!!He!was!depressed!in!prison!because!he!wife!divorced!with!him!and!take!
the!two!sons!away!from!he!

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(3)*
T:!!What!did!you!buy!at!McDonald’s?!
S:!!Chicken!
T:!!Chicken?!
S:!!Meal.!
T:!!Chicken!meal?!
S:!!Yeah.!
(4)*
S:!!I!I!fink!this!is!very!
T:! I!THink,!try,!try!get,!get!your!tongue!between![th]!
S:! I!THink!
T:!!Think!

Conclusion!
Table!10!summarises(the(different(ways(of(doing(focus(on(form.(If(teachers(are(to(
make%effective%use%of%focus$on$form,&they&need&both&knowledge&of&these&strategies&
and$ the$ ability$ to$ deploy$ them$ skilfully$ in$ their$ interactions$ with$ students.$ The$
strategies(constitute$an$essential$element$of$task$based&language&teaching."

There% are% advantages% and% disadvantages% of% all% of% these% different% strategies% so%
teachers( (and( students)( should( not( limit( themselves( to( any( one( way( of( drawing(
attention'to'form.'Clearly,'though,'focus!on#form#will#only#be#effective#in#facilitating#
learning(if(learners(pay(attention(to(the(linguistic(forms(that(are(brought(into(focus.(
Some% types% of% focus% on% form% –! such% as% recasts% –! are$ so$ inherently$ communicative$
that$ students$ may$ not$ notice$ the$ specific" linguistic" form" that" is" addressed." If" a"
student' fails' to' self$correct,' this' may' indicate' they' have' not' noticed' their' error' or'
the$ correction.$ In$ this$ case,$ it$ is$ a$ good$ idea$ to$ make$ the$ focus$ on$ form$ more$
explicit.))"

Teachers( should( also( be( wary( of( over$doing& focus& on& form& as& this& will& cause&
students' to' behave' as' learners' rather' than' as' communicators.' In' the' ideal' task$
based& lesson,& the& teacher& and& students& need& to& function& predominantly& as&
communicators+but+also+take+time+out+from+communicating+to+function#as#learners#
or# instructors# by# focusing# on# form.# Achieving# a# balance# between# communicating#
and$focusing$on$form$is$the$key$to$effective$task$based&teaching."

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Table&10:&Strategies)for)doing)focus$ on$ form18"

Options* Description*
Pre8emptive*focus8on8 The!teacher!or!a!student!makes!a!linguistic!form!the!topic!
form* of!the!discourse!even!though!no!error!has!been!
! committed.!
1.!Student3initiated! A!student!asks!a!question!about!a!linguistic!form.!
2.!Teacher3initiated" The!teacher!gives!advice!about!a!linguistic!form!he/she!
thinks!might!be!problematic!or!asks!the!students!a!
question!about!the!form."
Reactive*focus8on8form! The!teacher!or!another!student!responds!to!an!error!that!
" a!student!makes!in!the!context!of!a!communicative!
" activity."
Conversational"vs." !
didactic" !
1.!Conversational! The!response!to!the!error!is!triggered!by!a!failure!to!
! understand!what!the!student!meant.!It!involves!
! ‘negotiation!of!meaning’."
2.!Didactic" The!response!occurs!even!though!no!breakdown!in!
! communication!has!taken!place;!it!constitutes!a!‘time3
! out’!from!communicating.!It!involves!‘negotiation!of!
" form’."
Input3providing"versus" !
output3prompting" !
1.!Input3providing" The!teacher!or!another!student!responds!to!a!student’s!
! error!by!providing!the!correct!form.!This!often!involves!a!
! recast.!
2.!Output3prompting!" The!teacher!or!another!student!indicates!there!is!a!
" problem!with!a!student’s!utterance!thereby!encouraging!
! the!student!to!self3correct."
Implicit"vs."explicit" !
1.!!Implicit!feedback" The!teacher!or!another!student!responds!to!a!student’s!
! error!without!directly!indicating!an!error!has!been!made!
! e.g.!by!means!of!a!recast."
2.!!Explicit!feedback" The!teacher!or!another!student!responds!to!a!student’s!
error!by!directly!indicating!that!an!error!has!been!made,!
e.g.!by!formally!correcting!the!error!or!by!using!
metalanguage!to!draw!attention!to!it."
"

"

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
18
!This"table"is"an"extended"version"of"the"table"in"Ellis,"Basturkmen"and"Loewen"(2002).""
This"article"provides"a"fuller"account"of"how"to"do"focus"on"form.!

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"

CHAPTER SIX
ASSESSING STUDENTS USING TASKS

Introduction!
In#traditional#language#assessment,#tests#measure#what#language#learners#know#
about& the& language& they& are& learning.& The& tests& involve& discrete& point& items& –! for$
example,(multiple(choice(or(filling$in$the$blank.$In$task$based&assessment,&the&focus&
is#on#functional(abilities((i.e.(what(learners(can(do!with%the%language).%It%involves%the%
use!of!tasks%–!either&input$based&or&output$based.''Task$based&assessment&involves&
the$same$kinds$of$tasks$as$in$task$based&teaching.&That&is&the&tasks&must&conform&to&
the$four$criteria$for$a$task$(see$Chapter$1).$$"
Table!11!below&provides&examples&of&a&traditional$testing$item$and$a$simple$task$
based& test.& The& discrete( point( test! assesses$ whether$ students$ know$ the$ correct$
preposition) following) the) word) interest." The" task$ based& test! assesses$ students’$
ability'to'understand'directions.'"
Table&11:&Examples&of&a&traditional(testing(item(and(a(simple(task$ based&test"

DiscreteGpoint*language*test* TaskGbased*language*test*

Choose!the!correct!answer.! The!students!are!given!a!map!of!their!
school!showing!the!different!buildings.!!The!
My!brother!is!very!interested!___.!
teacher!describes!the!route!taken!by!a!visitor!
a. with!aeroplanes!
who!is!being!shown!round!the!school.!The!
b. in!aeroplanes!
students!draw!in!the!route!on!their!map.!!
c. to!aeroplanes!
d. aeroplanes!
"

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There%is%an%obvious%advantage%of%task$based#assessment.#It#enables#teachers#to#
say$ something$ about$ students’$ ability$ to$ understand$ and$ produce$ language$ for$ a$
communicative+ purpose.+ In+ discrete+ point+ testing+ teachers+ can+ find+ out+ what+
language'students'know'but'not'whether'they'can'use'what'they'know$when$they$
are$communicating.$"

If#students#know#they#will#be#assessed#by#means#of#discrete$point&tests,&they&will&
want% to% be% taught% the% language% items% that% will% be% assessed.% But% if% students% know%
they%will%be%assessed%by%means%of%tasks,%they%will%be%motivated&to&perform&tasks&in&
the$ classroom.$ Teaching$ and$ testing$ need$ to$ be$ in$ harmony,$ mutually$ supporting$
each%other.%So%by%assessing%in%the%same%way%you%teach,%you%can%provide%support%for%
task$based&teaching."

Reflection*

Think!about!the!language!tests!that!you!have!taken!in!the!past.!!Were!they!
discrete3point!tests!or!did!they!involve!doing!tasks?!

Developing*an*Assessment*Task!
Developing*an*assessment*task*involves*the*following*steps:"

1. !Decide& what& the& assessment& objective& is.! Assessment' objectives' are' based' on'
teaching) objectives.) For) example,) if) a) teaching) objective) is) to# demonstrate#
understanding+of+directions+by+drawing+in+a+route+on+a+map,!this%can%also%serve%
as#the#objective#of#an#assessment#task."

2. Collect'the'input'data'needed#for#the#task.!The$input$data$may$be$oral,$written$or$
non$verbal.( For( example,( the( input( data( needed( for( the( assessment( task( about(
directions*in*the*example*above*will*consist*of*a*map*and*a*set*of*oral*directions.*"

3. Ensure' that' the' input' data' is' of' an! appropriate( level( of( complexity.! This% will%
involve' considering' the' design' features' affecting' task' complexity' that' we'
examined( in( Chapter( 3.( In( the( case( of( an( assessment( task( for( directions,( it( is(
necessary( to( consider( the( level( of( detail( in( the( map,( the( number& of& directions,&
and$the$linguistic$complexity$of$the$directions.$The$aim$should$be$to$ensure$that$

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the$level$of$complexity$of$an$assessment$task$the$same$as$that$of$the$tasks$used$
for$teaching."

4. Prepare&the&rubric&for&the&assessment&task.!This%tells%the!students'what'they'will'
do.$ It$ should$ be$ very$ clear$ and$ inform$ the$ students$ exactly$ what$ is$ required.$ A$
suitable) rubric) for) the) directions) assessment) task) is:) As# you# listen# to# the#
directions* draw* in* the* route* on* your* map.* You* will* hear* five* directions.* Each#
direction)will)be)said)once)only.)You)will)not)be)able)to)request)clarification.+

5. Decide& on& the& procedures& to& be& followed& in& conducting& the& test.! For$ the$
directions*task,*a*suitable*procedure*would*be*to*give*the*students*the*map,*to*
study&for&a&minute&or"two"and"then"to"say"the"directions"one"at"a"time"at"normal"
speaking)speed)with)a)short)pause)between)each)direction.+

6. Decide& how& to& assess& students’& performance& of& the& task.! This% will% involve%
establishing+ the+ criteria+ that+ will+ be+ used+ to+ assess+ performance# and# award#
marks.'The'students'should'also'be'told'what'these'criteria'are.'"

In#the#next#section#I#will#explain#how#you#assess#students’#performance#of#a#task."

Reflection*

Describe!an!assessment!task!for!this!objective:!
Students"will"be"able"to"order"a"meal"from"a"menu.!

You!will!need!to:!
• Describe!the!materials!you!would!need!for!this!assessment!task.!
• Prepare!a!rubric!for!the!assessment!making!it!clear!what!the!students!have!to!
do.!
• Outline!the!procedure!you!would!follow!in!conducting!this!assessment.!

"

"

" !

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Assessing'Task'Performance19!
Assessment' in' discrete$point& language& tests& is& straightforward.& A& student’s&
answer'is'either'correct'or'incorrect.'If'correct,'the'student'earns'a'mark.'By'adding'
up#the#marks#on#all#the#items#in#the#test,#a#percentage#score#can#be#arrived#at.#This#
is#what!makes&traditional&assessment&attractive&to&teachers.&"

Assessment'using'tasks'is'more'complicated.'There'are'two'ways'it'can'be'done.'
One$ way$ is$ very$ simple$ –! just% see% if% the% student% has% achieved% the% outcome% of% the%
task.& For& example,& in& the& assessment& task! for$directions,$the$teacher$could$look$to$
see# if# the# students# have# drawn# in# the# route# correctly# on# their# maps.# This# would#
result' in' a' score' of' 1' (able' to' understand' directions)' or' 0' (not' able' to' understand'
directions)., It, would, also, be, possible, –! and$ more! informative+ $! to# design# a# scoring#
scheme& such& as& the& one& below& to& assign& a& range& of& marks& depending& on& how&
successfully( the( students( performed( the( task.! This% would% enable% the% teacher% to%
make% more% fine$grained( statements( about( the( students’( ability( to( understand'
directions* (i.e.* no* ability* to* understand* directions;* some* ability* to* understand*
directions;+fully+able+to+understand+directions).+"

Scoring(scheme(for(route0drawing(task+

Points******************************

4!! Route!marked!correctly!in!all!details.!
3!! Starting!point!and!end!point!marked!correctly!but!route!contains!one!error.!
2!! Starting!point!and!end!point!marked!correctly!but!route!contains!two!or!more!
errors.!
1!! Starting!point!marked!correctly!but!fails!to!mark!rest!of!route!correctly!including!
end!point.!
0!! No!route!drawn!or!unable!to!locate!starting!point!on!the!map.!

"
Assessing' tasks' in' this' way' works' well' for' closed' input$based& tasks& such& as& the&
directions* task* where* students* have* to* listen* or* read* and* there* is* just* one* correct*
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
19
!For"a"very"clear"and"practical"account"of"how"to"carry"out"task$based"assessment"along"
with"lots"of"examples"of"assessment"tasks"and"rating"sheets"see"Task0based+assessment+for+
English+language+learning+at+secondary+level+produced"by"the"Hong"Kong"Curriculum"
Development"Institute.!

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way$of$completing$the$task.$It$becomes$a$bit$more$complicated$for$closed$speaking$
tasks%such%as% Spot%the%Difference."If"there"is!a"finite"number"of"differences!between&
the$two$pictures,$then$marks$can$be$awarded$in$terms$of$the$number$of$differences$
the$students$have$successfully$identified.!The$difficulty$here$is$that$this$task$will$be$
performed(by(a(pair(of(students(and(so(the(same(mark(will(have(to(be(awarded!to#
both% students% irrespective% of% their% individual% contributions% to% achieving% the%
outcome.("

Assigning&marks&becomes&much&more&complicated&if&the&task&is&an&open&output$
based&task&such&as&the!Heart&Transplant&Task!especially)if)this)involves)speaking.)It)is!
no#longer#possible#to#assess#purely#in#terms#of#whether#the#outcome#of#the#task#has#
been$achieved$as$there$is$no$single$correct$outcome.$$It$is$now$necessary$to$assess$
the$quality!of#the#students’#production.#To#do#this,#it#is#necessary#to#devise#a#rating!
scale.'There'are'two'kinds'of'rating'scale'that'can'be'used.'One'is'a'general'rating'
scale&that&assesses&the&overall&quality&of&the&students’&production&(e.g.&in&terms&of&
accuracy&and&fluency).&The&other&is&a&rating&scale&that&can&be&used&to&assess&whether"
students' include' all' the$ information) required) for) a) successful) performance) of) a)
specific'task."

I"will"illustrate"these"two"ways"of"assessing"student"production"for"this"task:"

Presenting*My*Own*Town*Task*

You!have!a!web3based!friend!who!lives!in!Australia.!He!has!asked!you!to!tell!him!
about!your!hometown.!Record!a!description!of!your!town!to!send!him!in!an!audio3
file.! In! the! presentation! of! your! town! mention! where! your! town! is! situated,! its!
population,!tourist!attractions,!and!sports!and!entertainment!facilities.!!!

"
The$general$scale$is$based$on$the$key$aspects$of$the$students’$production:$"
• Content"
• Organization"
• Pronunciation"
• Fluency"
• Range&of&language&used"
• Accuracy'of'language.''"

The$ teacher$ listens$ to$ each$ student’s$ audio$file% and% assigns% a% mark% from% 1% to% 5%
for$ each$ of$ these$ aspects.$ It$ is$ possible$ to$ arrive$ at$ a$ total$ mark$ by$ adding$ up$ the$

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marks& assigned& to& each& aspect& but,& more& helpfully,& this& way& of& assessing& the&
performance*of!a"task"shows"what"aspects"a"student"is"strong"or"weak"in."A"general"
rating'scale'as#shown#in#Table#12!can$be$used$for$other$tasks$as$well."

Table&12:"A"general"rating"scale!to#assess#students’#production"

General*aspect* Description* Mark*(1*to*5)*

Content! The!content!is!relevant!and!sufficient.! !

Organization! The!content!is!presented!logically!and!clearly.! !

Pronunciation! It!is!easy!to!hear!what!the!student!is!saying." !

The!student!speaks!without!undue!hesitation! !
Fluency!
and!the!need!to!reformulate.!

The!student!uses!a!range!of!vocabulary!and! !
Range!of!language!
grammatical!structures.!

Accuracy!of! The!student!makes!very!few!lexical!or! !
language! grammatical!errors.!
"
A"specific"rating"scale!needs%to%be%based%on%what%a%particular%task%requires%the%
students'to'do.' Presenting! my#own#Town# task! requires'an'opening'with'a'greeting'
followed'by'information'relevant'to'the'features'of'the'town'mentioned'in'the'task'
rubric& and& should& conclude& with& an& appropriate( ending! (see$ Table$ 13$ on$ the$ next$
page)." Marks" are" assigned" from" 0" to" 3" in" terms" of" the" appropriateness/!
completeness*and*clarity*of*the*information*provided*for*each*element*in*the*task.*
As# this# kind# of# assessment# focuses# on# students’# functional" ability," no" marks" are"
assigned( for( either( range( of( language( or( accuracy.( This( approach( to( assessment( is(
ideal&for&a&specific&purpose&language&course&based&on&real$world&tasks&(see&Chapter&
3).$It$will$be$necessary,$however,!to#draw#up#a#different#rating#scale%for%each%task%as%
each%task%will%have%different%communicative%requirements."

"

"

"

"

"

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Table&13:"A"specific!rating'scale!to#assess#students’#production+

Appropriateness/*
Clarity*of*expression*(0G
Task*elements* completeness*of*content*
3*marks)*
(0G3*marks)*

Opening!! ! !

Situation! ! !

Population! ! !

Tourist!attractions! ! !

Sports!and!entertainment!
! !
facilities!

Ending!! ! !
"

Reflection*

Design!a!specific!rating!scale!for!assessing!the"Ordering"from"a"Menu"Task.!
You!will!need!to!consider!what!the!specific!requirements!are!for!this!task!to!be!
performed!successfully.!

!
Formative*and*Summative*Assessment!
One$of$the$great$advantages$of$task$based&assessment&is&that&it&can&be&used&to&
provide(qualitative(feedback(to(students(as(well(as(assigns(marks.(This(is(especially(
true%in%task$based& formative*assessment!but$also$applies$to$ summative)assessment."
These%two!types&of&assessment&differ&in&a&number&of&important&respects."

Formative*Assessment+

The$main$purpose$of$formative$assessment$is$to$provide$feedback$to$students$on$
their&strengths&and&weaknesses&to&enable&them&to&see&how&they&need&to&improve.&
The$ teacher$ decides& who,& how& and& when& to& assess& and& assessment& is& carried& out&
throughout' a' task$based& course.& It& is& important& to& achieve& a& balance& between&
teaching) and) assessment.) Students) should) not) feel) that) they) are) always) being)

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assessed% as% this% may% have% a% negative% impact& on& how& they& perform& the& teaching&
tasks."

It#is#a#good#idea#to#carry#out#formative#assessments#informally#by#observing#how#
students'perform'the'tasks'used'for'teaching.'This'will'enable'teachers'to'evaluate'
the$level$of$engagement$of$different$students."To"undertake"this,"they"can"look"for"
indicators*of*active*engagement!–!taking!risks,&negotiating&for&meaning,&helping&to&
scaffold( other( students’( production( –! and$ also$ for$ signs$ of$ a$ failure$ to$ engage$
effectively)–!long%periods%of%silence,%off%task%behaviour,&rude&comments.&The&teacher&
will$need$to$choose$different$students$to$focus$on$in$different$lessons$so$that$over$
time%all%students%receive%an%assessment.%%"

An#observation#scheme#such#as#the#one#in#Table%14%below&–!designed'to'assess'
students’( participation& in& an& opinion& gap& task& such& as& the& Heart& Transplant& Task! –!
can!help%to%ensure%that%this%kind%of%informal%formative%assessment%is%systematic.%%"

Table&14:&Observation,sheet%for%assessing%student%participation%in%a%task!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Name:!!!_____________________!!!!Date:!!_____________________!!

1. The!student!participates!actively!in!group!discussions.!! Yes/No+

2. The!student’s!contributions!are!relevant.!! Yes/No+

3. The!student!can!convey!factual!information!clearly.!! Yes/No+

4. The!student!can!express!personal!opinions.!! Yes/No+

5. The!student!uses!communication!strategies!effectively.!! Yes/No+

6. The!student!acknowledges!other!students’!contributions.!! Yes/No+

7. The!student!assists!other!students!to!contribute.! Yes/No+

8. The!student!can!agree/disagree!appropriately.!! Yes/No+
"

There% are$ also% advantages% in% carrying% out% a% more% systematic% formative%
assessment.( This( will( require( designing( special( assessment( tasks( such( as( those(
discussed' in' the' previous' section.' However,' it' is' not' necessary' to' assign' marks.''
Assigning& marks& can& motivate& some& students' but' demotivate' others.' What' is'
important)is)providing)students)with)qualitative)feedback,)which)can)be)achieved)by)
showing(each(student(his/her(completed(rating(scale(chart.("

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Irrespective* of* whether* the* formative* assessment* is* carried* out* informally"
through'observation'or'by'using'specially'designed'assessment'tasks,'teachers'need'
to#give#careful#thought#about#how#they#will#give#feedback#to#students.#This#needs#to#
be# individualized.# For# example,# the# teacher# could# conduct# short# conferences# with#
individual& students,& sharing& the& information& from& their& observation& sheets& or&
assessment' task' ratings,' encouraging' them' to' reflect' on' their' performance,' and'
prompting)them)to)make)plans)for)future)action."

Formative*assessment*serves*another*purpose.*It*can*help!the$teacher$see$what$
tasks% are% working% well% and% which% ones% less% so.% One% way% of% doing% this% is% to% ask%
students' to' complete' a' simple' questionnaire' in' the' post$task% stage% of% a% lesson% to%
evaluate'the'task'they'have'just'completed.'There'is'an'example'in#table#15#below.'
By# observing# the# task$in$action,( the( teacher( can( also( see( to( what( extent( the(
students' responded' to' the' task' in' the' way' that' was' intended.' For' example,' in' the'
Heart&Transplant&Task,!the$teacher$can$look$to$see$if$students$gave$reasons$for$the$
patients% they% did% not% choose% as% well% as% the% one% they% did.% Information% collected% in%
this%way%can%help%the%teacher%make%changes%to%the%task%if%it%is%to%be%used%again."

Table&15:&Task%evaluation)sheet"

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!YES!________________!NO!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5*********4*********3********2********1**********************************************

1. I!enjoyed!doing!the!task.!
2. I!found!the!task!useful.!
3. I!found!the!task!too!easy.!
4. The!task!gave!me!opportunity!to!practise!speaking.!
5. I!learned!some!new!language!doing!this!task.!

"
Reflection*

Formative!assessment!is!very!important!but!it!is!also!very!time3consuming!
because!students!must!be!assessed!individually.!!!
How!easy!would!it!be!to!carry!out!formative!assessment!in!the!classes!you!teach!
or!are!likely!to!have!to!teach?!
Can!you!think!of!ways!in!which!you!could!carry!out!formative!assessment!of!
individual!students!in!very!large!classes?!

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Summative)Assessment+

Summative)assessment)is)carried)out)at)some)terminal)point)in)the)course)–!for$
example,(at(the(end(of(a(school(term(or(a(course.(It(aims(to(provide(an(indication(of(
the$ students’$ achievement20! up# to# that# point.# For# a# summative# assessment,# it# is#
often& necessary& to& use& an& assessment& task& that& has& been& designed& by& an&
administrator* or# examination# authority# to# ensure# that# the# test# has# equivalence#
across&a&wide&body&of&students."

The$ tasks$ chosen$ for$ summative$ assessment$ need$ to$ be$ chosen$ carefully$ to$
ensure& that& they& are& at& an& appropriate& level& of& difficulty& and& reflect& the& specific&
abilities& that& are& the& focus& of! the$ instruction$ –! for$ example,$ understanding$
directions,+ giving+ an+ oral+ presentation+ about+ a+ familiar+ topic,+ or+ making+ a+ written+
recommendation+ based+ on+ information+ provided.+ The+ tasks+ used+ should+ be+
criterion$referenced'and'the#criteria#for#the#successful#performance#of#a#task#need#
to#be#explicit#and#given#to#students.#One#way#to#do#this#is#to#show#them#the#rating#
sheet%for%a%task%before%they%start%to%perform%it.%The%rating%sheet%specifies%how%the%
teacher'will'score'a'students’"performance"on"a"task"so"the"students"know"what"is"
expected'of'them.'"

Marks& are& assigned& in& a& summative& assessment& and& are& kept& as& part& of& each&
student’s(record.(For(this(reason,(it(is(important(to(ensure(that(the(marks(assigned(
for$the$performance$of$a$task%are%reliable%so%that%a%student%and%anyone%else%who%is%
shown&the&marks&can&be&confident&the&assessment&is&fair.&&One&of&the&problems&with&
rating'scales'such'as'those'above'is'that'they'involve'subjective'judgments'to'some'
extent.& How& then& can& they& be! made! reliable?( There( are( two( ways( of( achieving(
reliability.* One* is* to* ask* another* person* to* rate* the* student’s* performance.* If* both*
assessors& agree& on& the& marks& assigned,& there& are& grounds& for& believing& the&
assessment' is' reliable.' If' they' disagree,' the' two' assessors& can& discuss& their& ratings&
and$try$to$come$to$an$agreement.$Alternatively,$their$marks$could$just$be$averaged.$
Often,' though,' it' will' not' be' possible' to' find' another' assessor.' In' this' case,' the'
original( assessor( could( wait( a( day( or( so( and( then( rate" the" performance" a" second"
time%and,%if%necessary,%make%an%adjustment%to%the%original%mark%that%was%awarded.%"

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
20
!My"concern"in"this"chapter"is"entirely"with"assessing"achievement,"not"proficiency.""When"
we"assess"achievement"we"are"only"interested"in"how"students"have"performed"in"a"
particular"course"of"instruction."Proficiency"is"an"abstract"construct"that"refers"to"the"
learner’s"general"ability"to"use"a"language."Different"kinds"of"tests"are"needed"to"assess"
proficiency.!

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++77 !
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A" summative" assessment" can" also" be" used" to" give" guidance" to" students." It" is"
important,* whenever* possible,* to* give* students* qualitative* feedback* about$ their$
performance*of*an*assessment*task,*not*just*their*marks.*"
"
Reflection*

The!letter!below!was!written!in!response!to!the!following!task:!

Think"of"a"problem."It"can"be"a"real"problem"or"an"imaginary"one."Then"write"a"
letter"to"a"close"friend."In"your"letter"explain"the"problem"and"the"solutions"you"
have"thought"of."Ask"for"your"friend's"advice.!

*!
th
September!4 ,!Thursday,!2017!
Dear!Eiko!

!!!!I!want!to!see!you!now.!How!are!you?!!Maybe,!you!will!be!very!careful,!but!I'm!
very!sad!and!I!have!trouble!on!my!mind.!

!!!!You!know!my!boyfriend,!Toshiro.!He!is!very!nice!and!we!love!each!other.!But!he!
must!go!to!America!for!his!business!in!this!year.!He!want!to!go!to!America!with!
me.!I!want!to!go!there,!too.!But!we!have!some!problem.!One!is!my!school.!I'm!
secound!year!college!student!now!and!I!must!go!to!Tsuda!university!in!this!year.!
The!other!one!is!my!parents.!I!spoke!them!this!story,!but!they!object!!They!are!
very!angry.!

So!I!am!writing!a!letter!for!you,!and!I!want!your!replie!soon.!

!!!!I!think!some!solution.!I!leave!in!Japan,!and!I!go!to!America!during!my!vacation,!
but!this!solution's!problem!is!“I!must!pay!big!money".!I!think!this!cost!is!very!high.!
I!can't!pay!big!money.!

!!!!A!secound!choice!is!to!go!to!America!and!to!get!married!after!graduation.!This!
solution!will!be!glad!to!my!parents,!but!I'll!become!an!uneasy!feeling.!Before!I!go!
to!America,!he!will!fined!another!girl.!So!I!think!the!best!thing!for!me!to!do!is!"I!go!
to!America!right!now!and!we!get!married".!This!is!my!solution,!but!if!you!have!a!
good!solution,!please!tell!me!!I!want!your!advice.!

Thank!you!Michiko!
!
Carry*out*a*summative*assessment*of*the*student’s*response*to*this*task.****

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++78 !
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Self3Assessment!
So# far# we# have# assumed# that# it# is# the# teacher# who# carries# out# an# assessment.##
But$there$is$also$a$good$reason$to$ask$students$to$self$assess.%For%a%start,%this%eases%
the$ teacher’s$ workload$ because,$ as$ noted$ above,$ conducting$ formative$ and$
summative) assessments% can% be% very% time$consuming.* More* importantly,* asking*
students' to' self$assess$ encourages$ them$ to$ engage$ in$ the$ self$reflection* that* is*
needed$ if$ task$based& teaching& is& to& work& effectively.& Self$ assessment! encourages*
students' to' take' responsibility' for' how$ they$ perform$ tasks$ and,$ thereby,$ for$ their!
own$learning.$"

When% the% students% self$assess$ they$ should$ do$ so$ in$ relation$ to$ the$ specific$
abilities(a(task(is(designed(to(assess.(They(can(be(given(the(same(rating(sheets(used(
by#the#teacher#and#complete#these"immediately"after"finishing"a"task."They"can"then"
compare(their(own(ratings(with(those(of(the(teacher.(This(serves(a(double(purpose.(
It# helps# them# to# understand# the# assessment# criteria# and# also# enables# them# to#
develop'a'better'understanding'of'the'purpose"for"performing"tasks.""

Students( may( initially( be( unskilled( in( self$assessment' but' over' time' they' will'
become&better&and&their&assessments&will&move&into&line&with&those&of&their&teacher.&"

"

Conclusion!
There% is% no% doubt% that% task$based& assessment& is& more& complicated+ and+
demanding( than( traditional( language( assessment.( There( is( comfort( in( tests( that(
involve'objective'answers'that'can'be'easily'scored.'But'just'as'traditional'language'
teaching) is) limited,) so) too) is) traditional( language( assessment.( Ultimately,* what%
teachers( (and( administrators)( want( to( know( is( whether( students( can( mobilize( the(
language' they' have' learned' to' achieve' communicative' goals.' Only' task$based&
assessment' can' show' this.' Task$based& assessment& tells& us& whether& and& to& what&
extent%students%can!do#actual#tasks21."It"tells"us"about"their"communicative"abilities."

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
21
!Brindley"(2013)"provides"a"clear"but"quite"technical"account"of"task$based"assessment.""In"
his"article,"while"pointing"out"the"advantages"of"task$based"assessment,"he"also"discusses"a"
number"of"problems.!

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++79 !
 a!
TEFLIN Teacher"Development"Series"

Parents(will(be(keen(to(know(how(their(children(are(doing(in(their(English(classes.((
Sending'them'a'school'report'that'says'that'their'child'scored'75%'on'a'test'is'not'
very%informative.%Telling&them&about&their&children’s&ability&to&understand&directions,&
give%oral%presentations,%read%recipes,%write%email%messages%and%letters%in%English%etc.%
is#much#more#meaningful.##"

" "

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++80 !
CHAPTER SEVEN
ADDRESSING PROBLEMS IN TASK-
BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

Introduction!
Task$based&language&teaching&is&challenging.&Many&teachers&are&used&to&teaching&
in#a#traditional#way#and#will#not#find#it#easy#to#change.#Task$based&teaching&involves&
a"radical"departure"from"presentation$practice$production!(PPP),%which%is%based%on%
the$ idea$ that$ language$ learning$ is$ a$ linear$ process$ of$ learning$ one$ item$ after$
another.) In) contrast,) task$based& teaching& views& learning& as& taking& place& holistically&
and$incidentally$as$learners$perform$tasks.$Teachers$do#not#teach#language;#rather,!
they%facilitate%its%development.%Asking%teachers%and%students%to%adopt%this%view%of%
learning( and( teaching( can( be( very( threatening.( For( this( reason( they( may( resist(
adopting)task$based&teaching."
I" have" two" purposes" in" this" chapter.% The% first% is% to% address% the% questions% that%
teachers(often(ask(about(task$based&teaching.&I&am&hoping&that&by&doing&this&I&can&
ease$ teachers’$ doubts$ and$ encourage$ them$ to$ try$ it$ out$ in$ their$ classrooms.$ The$
second'purpose'is'to'acknowledge'that'in'many!teaching)contexts)teachers)will)be)
tied% to% a% structural% syllabus% and% traditional% ways% of% assessment% and% so% will% not% be%
free$to$adopt$task$based&teaching&wholesale.&I&will&suggest&how&task$based&teaching&
can$still$be$made$to$work$in$such$contexts."
!

!
!
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Questions%Teachers%Ask!
Task0 based&teaching&seems&to&be&all&about&speaking&but&what&about&reading&and&
writing?+
Teachers(sometimes(form(the(impression(that(task$based&teaching&is&only&about&
the$ oral$ skills$ (listening$ and$ speaking).$ This$ may$ be$ because$ they$ think$ that$
‘communicating’, is, just, about, speaking., In, fact,! we# communicate# using# all# four#
language' skills.' There' are' many' tasks' that' involve' reading' or' writing' and' a' lot' of'
tasks% integrate% the% use% of% all% four% language% skills.% In% the! Heart& Transplant& Task," for"
example,' students' have' to' read' the' information' about' the' four' people' needing' a'
transplant,) talk) to) each) other) about) who) should) get) the) transplant) (involving)
speaking) and) listening)) and) could) also) be) asked) to) write) a) report) with) their)
recommendation."

How$can$I!do#task0 based&teaching&with&beginner0 level$learners?"

Another( belief( that( some( teachers! hold% is% that% task$based& teaching& is& only&
appropriate(for(students(who(have(already(developed(some(proficiency(in(the(target(
language.( They( think( that( learners( have( to( know( some( English( before( they( can( do(
tasks.& This& belief& originates& in& the& assumption& that" tasks" always" involve" speaking.""
But$ as$ I$ have$ pointed$ out$ in$ Chapter$ 3,$ many$ tasks$ $! such% as% the% Map$ Task! –! only%
involve' listening.' If' the' input' in' a' task' is' made' comprehensible,' beginners' will' be'
able% to% pick% up% language.% In% due% course,% after% they% have% acquired) some) language,)
incidentally* they* can* gravitate* to* output$based& tasks.& Thus,& task$based& teaching& is&
feasible(for(beginners(if(input$based&tasks&are&used."

How$do#I!know%what%language%learners%have%learned%in%task0 based&language&
teaching?"

Teachers(understandably+want+to+know+what+students+are+learning.++In+traditional+
teaching,*they*can*check*to*see*if*the*students*have*learned*the*specific*items*that*
are$the$focus$of$a$lesson.$For$example,$if$the$aim$of$the$lesson$is$to$teach$the$past$
tense,&they&can!quickly(see(if"learners"are"able"to"use"this"tense"accurately."It"is"also"
possible( to( check( if( students( have( learned( the( target( of( a( focused( task.( But( with(
unfocused) tasks,) it) is) not) so) easy.) This) is) because) when) acquisition) is) incidental)
rather& than& intentional,( different( students( will( pick( up( different( bits( of( language(
from%performing%the%same%task.%%"

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++82 !
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One$possibility$where$vocabulary$is$involved$is$to$write$up$the$key$words$needed$
to# perform# a# task# on# the# whiteboard# before# students# do# the# task# and# ask# them# if#
they% know% them.% Then,% after% performing% the% task,% the% teacher% can% show% them% the%
words&again&to&check&if&they&now&know&them.&In&this&way&they&can&show&them&that&
some%words%they%did%not!know!initially,(they(did(know(after(performing(the(task.(Of(
course,!full$acquisition$of$new$words$will$require$multiple$opportunities$to$hear$and$
use$them."

Grammatical)structures)are)acquired)very)slowly)and)gradually)and)it)is)unlikely)
that$ students$ will$ acquire$ a$ particular$ structure$ from$ performing$ just$ one$ task.$
However,$by$observing$how$students$do$tasks$over$a$period$of$time$teachers$will$be$
able%to%see%that%there%is%progress%in%their%communicative%ability,%which%is%much%more%
important) than) knowing) whether) learners) are) able) to) use) a) specific) grammatical)
structure'accurately.)"

Where%is#the#grammar#in#task0 based&teaching?"

This% question% addresses% the% over$riding& concern& that& teachers& have& about& the&
place& of& grammar& in& task$based& teaching.& It& reflects& the& common& perception& that&
task$based& teaching& neglects& grammar& and& it& is# often# motivated# by# teachers’# fear#
that$ it$ will$ not$ prepare$ their$ students$ for$ the$ kinds$ of$ high$stake& traditional&
examinations*that*exist*in*many*instructional*contexts.*"

In#fact,#though,#although#there#are#no#grammar#lessons#in#task$based&teaching,&
there#is#plenty#of#grammar:"

• In#guided#strategic#(pre$task)&planning&when&learners&can&be&shown&how&to&use&
specific'structures'(see'Chapter'4)."

• By#performing#focused#tasks."

• Through'focus$on$form%techniques%as%a%task%is%performed%(see%Chapter%5)."

• Through' explicit# instruction# and# grammar# exercises# in# the# post$task% stage% of% a%
lesson&if&performance&of&the&task&shows&this&is&needed."

What%do#I!do#if#students#just#use#their#mother#tongue?"

The$aim$of$task$based&teaching&is&to&get&students&to&use&the&target&language&to&
achieve'the'task'outcome.'However,'this'does'not'mean'that'students'should'never'
use$their$mother$tongue.$It$is$often$useful$for$students$to$work$out$how$to$do$a$task$
in# their# own$ language$ before$ they$ get$ started$ on$ the$ task.$ Students$ can$ also$ use$

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++83 !
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their& mother& tongue& to& show& they& have& not& understood& something& as& we& saw& in&
Chapter( 4.( Teachers,( too,( can( make( strategic( use( of( the( mother( tongue( to( help(
students'understand.'"

It#is#overuse%of%the%mother%tongue%that%is%a%potential%problem.%One%reason%why%
students' resort' to' performing' a' task' in' their' mother' tongue' is' because' the' task' is'
too#difficult#for#them.#This#is#why#the#choice#of#task#is#so#important.#In#Chapter#3#we#
looked&at&the&factors(that(teachers(need(to(consider(in(selecting(tasks.(If(the(task(is(
at# the# right# level,# students# are# less# likely# to# rely# on# their# mother# tongue.# Also,# of#
course,( with( input$based& tasks& they& will& necessarily& have& to& process& the& target&
language.(The(pre$task%stage%can%also%help%to%ensure%use%of%the%target%language%–!for$
example,( if( students( have( the( opportunity( to( plan( before( they( do( a( task( or( if( the(
teacher'scaffolds'the'students'through'the'performance'of'a'similar'task,'they'are'
better%prepared%to%use"the"target"language.""

How$can$I!use$tasks$in$a$mixed$ability$class?+

The$difficulty$of$catering$to$students$with$mixed$ability$is,$of$course,$a$problem$in$
any$ approach.$ Arguably,$ however,$ it$ is$ less$ of$ a$ problem$ with$ task$based& teaching&
than% with% traditional,% structural% approaches.% In# fact,# task$based& teaching& is& well$
suited'to'less'academic'students.'This'is'because'the'ability'to'acquire'incidentally'is'
universal* and* does* not* depend* on* the* kind* of* intelligence* involved* in* formal,*
intentional(language(learning.&Also,&tasks$by$their$nature$do$not$dictate$the$language$
that$ students$ need$ to$ use$ but$ rather$ allow$ them$ to$ use$ whatever$ resources$ they$
have% available.% Thus% the% same% task% can% be% performed% in% very% different% ways% by%
different(learners(in(accordance(with"their"L2"proficiency."

Here$are$some$suggestions$for$coping$with$mixed$ability'students:"
• Prepare& an& easy& and& more& difficult& version& of& the& same& task& and& allocate& the&
different(versions(to(students(according(to(their(ability."

• Encourage*students*to*request*clarification*if*they*do*not*understand.*Write*up*
expressions)they)can)use)for)this)on)the)whiteboard."

• Be#prepared#to#use#the#students’#mother#tongue#to#help#out#if#necessary#and#do#
not$insist$that$students$always$use$the$target$language."

• Scaffold( the( performance( of( a( task( with( the( students( varying( the( amount( of(
scaffolding+according+to+students’+individual+needs."

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++84 !
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• In# mixed# ability# groups,# make# sure# that# it# is# one# of# the# less# proficient# students#
who$ is$ made$ responsible$ for$ reporting$ the$ outcome$ of$ the$ task$ to" the" whole"
class.&This&will&force&the&less&proficient&students&to&engage&actively&in&the&task."

• Allow%the%less%proficient%students%time%to%plan%before%they%start%a%task.%The%more%
proficient*students*can*go*straight*to*the*main$task%phase."

• Give%less%proficient$students$the$opportunity$to$repeat$a$task."

How$do"I!do#task0 based&teaching&with&a&large&class?"

Again,' the' management' of' large' classes' is' a' major' problem' irrespective' of' the'
teaching)approach.)The)solution)often)suggested)is)small)group)work)but)this)can"be"
difficult(to(organize,(especially(in(classrooms(where(desks(are(arranged(in(traditional(
rows%and%the%groups%cannot%be%easily%monitored%by%the%teacher.%Remember,%though,%
it#is#possible#to#conduct#tasks#in#lockstep#with#the#whole#class.#In#the#case#of#input$
based&tasks,&this&is&required.&But&it&is&also&possible&with&output$based&information$
gap$tasks$if$the$information$is$split$between$the$students$and$the$teacher.$Teachers$
might&also&benefit&from&using&closed&(as&opposed&to&open)&tasks&as&it&is&much&easier$
to#see#if#a#task#has#been#successfully#accomplished#and#students#can#get#feedback#
on#how#well#they#performed#it.#This#has#merit#in#any#class#but#is#eminently#practical#
in#large#classes."
The$ Communicational$ Language$ Teaching$ Project$ conducted$ in$ India$ (see#
Chapter(1)(was(designed(for(large(classes.(There(was(no(group(work(in(this(project.(
Instead,) the) teachers) did) tasks) with) the) whole) class) and) then) students) worked)
individually) on) a) similar) task.) However,) even) in! large& classes& with& fixed& desks,& it# is#
easy"to"get"students"to"work"in"pairs"on"tasks."

Are$there%any%task0 based&course&books&I!can$use?"

There%are%still%very%few%task$based&course&books&available.&This&is&because&major&
publishers*stick*to*the*tried*and*tested*structurally*organized*courses*that*teachers*
are$familiar$with.$However,$traditional$course$books$are$likely$to$include$some$tasks.$
So"teachers"can"use"these."They"can"either"just"ignore"the"presentation"and"practice"
materials) or) make) use) of) them) only) in) the) post$task% stage% if% the% students’%
performance* of* the* task* shows* they* are* needed.* There* are* also* a* lot* of* ideas* for*
tasks% and% actual! tasks% available% on% the% web.% Try% googling% ‘Task$based& language&
teaching) materials.’) For) example,) Jane) Willis) has) a) very) useful) site) at)
https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/six0types0task0tbl."

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++85 !
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What%do#I!do#if#my#students#resist#doing#tasks?"

Some%students,%like%teachers,%want%to%stick%to%tried%and%tested%ways%and%thus%will%
resist&doing&tasks.&If&they&are&used&to&intentional&language&learning&where&they&are&
told%what%language%they$are$supposed$to$learn,$they$may$wonder$what$the$purpose$
of# doing# tasks# is.# For# such# students# it# is# necessary# to# explain# what# task$based&
teaching) consists) of) and) why) it) is) advantageous.) If) students) view) tasks) as) non$
serious,! fun$ activities$ that$ just$ give" them" a" break" from" the" serious" business" of"
learning(a(language,!teachers(can(explain(that(in(fact(there(is(plenty(of(grammar(in(
task$based&teaching&(see&suggestions&above).&"

In# fact,# many# students# find# task$based& language& teaching& motivating.& This& is&
especially&the&case&in&specific&purpose&courses&based&on&real$world&tasks.&They&will&
be# able# to# see# a# direct# connection# between# what# they# are# doing# in# the# classroom#
and$ their$ needs$ for$ the$ language$ in$ the$ world$ outside.$ But$ even$ students$ in$ a$
general'language'course'are'likely'to'find'tasks'interesting'and'so'will'be'motivated'
to#do#them."

How$can$I!do#task0 based&teaching&if&I!have%to%follow%a%structural%syllabus%and%
prepare%students%for%a%traditional%test?"

This%is%perhaps%the%key%problem%that%teachers%face.%Many%teachers%are%tied%to%a%
syllabus'mandated'by'the'Ministry'of'Education'in'their'country.'Their'students'are'
required' to' sit' examinations' that' assess' explicit' knowledge' in' traditional' multiple'
choice&or"fill$in$the$blank$tests.$It$is$understandable,$then,$that$teachers$will$choose$
to# stick# to# their# traditional# way# of# teaching.# However,# a# well$designed' task$based&
course'will'equip'students'to'perform'well'in'such'tests'and,'as'I'will'explain'on#the#
next%page,"need"not"exclude"teaching"based"on"a"structural"syllabus."The"approach"
that$I$recommend$in$contexts$where$teachers$are$constrained$in$what$and$how$to$
teach&is&a&modular&one."

Reflection*

Are!there!any!other!problems!in!implementing!task3based!teaching!that!you!can!
think!of?!
!
Get!together!with!another!teacher.!Talk!about!the!problems!you!foresee!with!
task3based!teaching!and!try!to!come!up!with!solutions.!

!
! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++86 !
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A"Modular"Language"Course!
" A"modular"language"course"has"separate"components"–!one$task$based&and&the&
other& structurally$based.' Such' a' course' is' not' the' same' as' a' course' that' seeks' to'
integrate( the( teaching( of( structures( with( tasks( as( is( the( case( in( task! supported)
language' teaching.! That% is,% in% a% modular% course% the% task$based& and& structurally$
based&components&are&kept&separate!as#shown#in#Figure#1."

"

Figure'1:'A'Modular'Course"

Figure'1!illustrates)what)a)modular)course)looks)like.)The)task$based&component&
is#primary#and#the#structural#component#secondary.#The#course#starts#off#with#tasks#
and$only$later,$after$students$have$developed$some$communicative$ability,$does$the$
structural( component$ kick$ in.$ The$ rationale$ for$ this$ is$ that$ the$ early$ stages$ of$
learning( a( second( language( do( not( involve( grammar( (see( Chapter( 2).( Initially(
students' learn' vocabulary' and' formulaic' chunks,' which' can' be' picked' up' through'
performing* tasks.* These* provide* a* basis# for# the# later# emergence# of# grammar.# The#
structural( component( aims( to( help( the( natural( processes( involved( in( learning(
grammar% at% a% point% when% learners% are% developmentally% ready% to% benefit% from% the%
intentional(learning(that(explicit(instruction(caters(to."In"other"words,"the"structural"

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++87 !
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component(serves(as(a(buttress,(supporting(the(natural(learning(that(is(still(ongoing(
in# the# task$based& component.& One& way& of& achieving& this& is& through& the& use& of&
focused(tasks(that(target(specific(structures(that(students(are$now$beginning$to$use,$
albeit'often'erroneously.'But'grammar'exercises'can'also'have'a'role'at'this'stage."

A"key"issue"in"a"modular"language"course"is"what"grammatical"structures"to"teach"
in# the# structural# component.# A" structural" syllabus" consists" of" a" graded& list& of&
grammatical) structures) sequenced) from) easy) to) difficult.) The) assumption) is) that)
teachers(will(start(with(the(easiest(structure(and(then(work(their(way(systematically(
through'the'structures.!Such%an%approach,%however,%is%not%appropriate%in%a%modular(
language' course.' ' Students' will' have' picked' up' easy$to$learn& structures& through&
performing*tasks*making*it*unnecessary*to*teach*them.*What*is*needed*is*a*focus*on*
those& structures& that& are& problematic& for& students& –! that$ is,$ structures$ where$
students#are#persistently#making#errors#because#of#the#default#processing#strategies#
mentioned( in( Chapter( 2.( From( what( we( know( from( second( language( acquisition(
research,( learners( are( likely( to( continue( to( find( some% difficult% structures' such' as'
subject(verb(agreement((e.g.( My#father# live!…),$prepositions$(e.g.$ on!the$weekend),#
uncountable* nouns* (e.g.! advices),# embedded# questions# (e.g.# He# asked# where% did% I%
live)! etc.% % These% structures% are% those% that% are% typically& assessed& in& traditional(
grammar% tests.% The% structural% component,% therefore,% should% not% be% based% on% a%
syllabus!but$should$be$informed$by$a$ checklist!of#potentially#problematic#structures.#
Which%structures%are%actually%taught%would%depend%on%the%grammatical%errors%that%
students&continue&to&make.&This&would&require&judgment&on&the&part&of&the&teacher&
who$ would$ need$ to$ observe$ students’$ performance$ of$ tasks$ and$ take$ note$ of$ the$
persistent(errors(they(make.((These(errors(could(be(addressed(in(the(post$task%stage%
of#a#task$based"lesson"but,"given"their"persistence"in"learners’"communicative"use"of"
language,(they(could(also(be(tackled(in(more(formal(grammar(lessons."

In#a#modular#course,#then,#task$based&language&teaching&figures&throughout&but&
as# the# course# progresses# an# increasing# amount# of# time# is# devoted# to# structural#
teaching.* Such* a* course* goes* some* way* to* addressing* a* number* of* concerns* that*
teachers( have( about( task$based& teaching& –! namely,( doubts( about( the( place( of(
grammar% and% fears% that% it% will% not% adequately% prepare% students$ for$ high$stake&
traditional)examinations.)However,)teachers)may)still)have)doubts)about)the)lack)of)
grammar% at% the% beginner% level.% One% way% of% addressing% this% might% be% to% set%
traditional)learning)activities)(e.g.)memorizing)new)vocabulary;)grammar)exercises)$
as#homework,#which#could#be#checked#quickly#in#class#the#next#day.#But#the#bulk#of#
class%time%should%be%devoted%to%performing%tasks%carefully%selected%to%suit%the%level%

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++88 !
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of#students.#In#this#kind#of#modular#course,#incidental#learning#is#given#primacy#but$
is# supported# by# intentional# learning.# # Students# are# encouraged# to# behave# as#
communicators+ but+ recognition+ is+ given+ to+ the+ fact+ that+ they+ may+ want+ to+ also+
behave&as&learners.&"

! !

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++89 !
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Glossary!
Accuracy" The$ extent$ to$ which$ the$ language$ produced$ in$
performing*a!task%conforms%to%target%language%norms."
Brainstorming" A" technique" designed" to" generate" ideas" related" to" a"
topic&in&order&to&prepare&students&to&perform&a&task&on&
the$same$topic."
Clarification+ An# implicit# type# of# focus# on# form# where# a# speaker#
request" indicates)failure)to)understand)what)has)been)said!(e.g.%
Pardon;(What(was(that?)+
Closed'task" A" task" that" requires" students" to" reach" a" single," correct"
solution( for( a( task( or( one( of( a( small( finite( set( of(
solutions.((+
Complexity" The$ extent$ to$ which$ the$ language$ produced$ in$
performing*a*task*is*elaborate*and*varied.+
Confirmation* An# interactional# strategy# used# by# speakers# to# confirm#
check" whether&they&have&correctly&understood&something&their&
interlocutor* has* said% (e.g.% ‘You% cancelled% the% picnic%
because'it'was'raining,'did'you?’).+
Conversational, This% involves% strategies% designed% to% address%
focus&on&form" communicative+ problems+ during+ the+ performance+ of+ a+
task.&It&can&result&in&the&negotiation(for(meaning.+
Declarative* Declarative* knowledge* is* characterised* as* ‘knowledge*
knowledge" that’.& In& the& case& of& language& it& consists& of& factual&
information) about) the) L2) that) has) not) yet) been)
proceduralized.+
Didactic'focus'on' Focus& on& form& is& didactic& when& there& is& no#
form" communicative+problem+that+needs+to+be+solved+but+the+
participants) still) choose) to) focus) attention) on) linguistic)
form.+
" "
" "

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++90 !
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TEFLIN Teacher"Development"Series"

Discrete$point& A" test" such" as" multiple" choice" or" fill$in$the$ blanks$ that$
test" measures' whether' learners' know' a' specific' linguistic)
form.+
Explicit(focus!on! This% involves% strategies% that% make% it% clear% to% students%
form" that$ they$ need$ to$ focus$ their$ attention$ on$ a$ specific$
linguistic)form)e.g.)by)directly)telling)students)they)have)
made%an%error.+
Fluency" The$ extent$ to$ which$ the# language# produced# in#
performing* a* task* is* free* of* pausing,* hesitation* or*
reformulation.+
Focused(task+ An# activity# that# has# all# the# qualities# of# a# task# but# has#
been$designed$to$induce$learners’$incidental$attention$to$
some%specific%linguistic%form%(see%also$unfocused#task).+
Focus&on&form" Various(strategies(used(to(attract(attention(to(form(while(
students' are' primarily! focused( on( meaning( as( they(
perform'tasks.+
Formative* Assessment' that' is' undertaken' as' part' of' an' instructional'
assessment" programme( for( the$ purposes$ of$ improving$ learning$ and$
teaching.+
Here$and$now$ In# the# here$and$now$ condition$ students$ are$ allowed$ to$
condition" keep$ the$ task$ materials$ and$ refer$ to$ them$ as$ they$
perform'the'task.'This'makes'the'task'easier.+
Implicit(focus(on( When%focus"on"form"is"implicit"it"is"not"directly"apparent"
form" to# students# that# they# should# attend# to# linguistic# form.#
Recasts' and$ clarification* requests! are$ implicit$ focus$ on$
form%strategies.+
Implicit( This%is%the%intuitive%knowledge%of%language%that%underlies#
knowledge" the$ability$to$communicate$fluently$and$automatically$in$
a"language.""+
Incidental* This% refers% to% the% learning% that% takes% place% without% any%
learning" deliberate) attention.) Students) can) pick) up) language)
through' performing' tasks' without' making' any' special'
effort."
+

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++91 !
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Information*gap* A" task" where" one" participant" holds" information" which"

task" the$other$participant(s)$does$not$have$and$which$has$to$
be#exchanged#to#complete#the#task.+
Input$based&task" A" task" that" requires" learners" to" just" listen" or" read" in"
order% to" achieve" the" outcome." It" contrasts" with" an"
output$ based&task.+

Input$providing) Input$providing) focus) on) form) provides) students! with!

focus&on$form" the$ correct$ linguistic$ form$ as$ it$ occurs,$ e.g.$ when$ the$
teacher' recasts! an# erroneous# student’s# utterance# or#
corrects'explicitly+
Intentional) This%is%the%learning%that%takes%place%when%students%make%
learning" a" deliberate" attempt" to" learn" a" linguistic" feature."
Presentation$ practice$ production* (PPP)$ caters' to'
intentional(learning.+

Interactional+ A" task" achieves" interactional" authenticity" when" the"

authenticity" language' use' that' occurs' corresponds' to# the$ kinds$ of$
natural'language'use'found'in'the'real'world.+

Interactional+ The$ability$to$interact$appropriately$in$specific$situations$
competence" –! for$ example,$ in$ a" restaurant," in" a" coffee" shop" with"
friends,)or)in)a)formal)meeting.+

Main%task" The$main$task$of$a$lesson$is$the$central$task$that$all$other$
activities( lead( up( to( or( derive( from.( There( is( always( at(
least&one&main&task&in&a&task$based&lesson." +

Main%task%phase" This% is% the% part% of% a% lesson% where% the% main% task% is%
performed.)It)can)be)preceded)by)a) pre$ task%phase!and$
followed'by'a'post$ task%phase.+
Mind%mapping" This% involves% constructing% a% diagram% to% show% how% the%
ideas/concepts, that, emerge, during, brainstorming! are$
inter$connected.! It# is# a# useful# strategy# in# the# pre$ task%
stage!of#a#lesson."

"

"
+

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++92 !
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Needs%analysis" When%designing%a%specific%purpose%task$based&course,&it&
is# necessary# to# carry# out# an# analysis# of# the# students’#
language'needs.'This'involves'identifying'the' target&tasks!
they%will%have%to%be%able%to%carry%out.+
Negotiation)for) The$process$by$which$two$or$more$interlocutors$identify$
meaning" and$ then$ attempt$ to$ resolve$ a$ communication$
breakdown.+It+can+lead+to+focus&on&form.+
Negotiation)of) The$process$by$which$two$or$more$interlocutors$identify$
form" and$ then$ attempt$ to$ resolve$ a$ linguistic$ problem.$ In$
contrast( to( the( negotiation( of( meaning," it" does" not"
involve' any' communication' breakdown' and' invariably'
involves(focus&on&form.+
Open%task" A" task" where% the% participants% know% there% is% no%
predetermined) solution.! Opinion$ gap$ tasks! are$ typically$
open%tasks.+
Opinion$gap$task" A" task" that" requires" the" participants" to" exchange"
opinions& on& some& issue& (e.g.& in& a& balloon& debate).& Such&
tasks% typically% involve% controversial, issues, about, which,
the$participants$are$likely$to$hold$different$views.+
Output$based& A" task" that" requires" students" to" speak" or" write" in" order"
task" to# complete# the# task.# It# contrasts# with# an# input$ based&
task.+

Participatory* The$ participatory) structure) of) a) lesson) refers) to) the)

structure" procedures)that)govern)how)the)teacher’s)and)students’)
contributions* to* the* performance* of* the* task* are*
organized* (e.g.* in* terms* of* teacher$class% or% small% group%
interactions).+
Pedagogic)task+ Tasks% designed% to% elicit% communicative% language% use% in%
the$ classroom$ (e.g.$ Spot0the0Difference).# Such# tasks# do#
not$necessarily$bear$any$resemblance$to$real$world&tasks&
although( they( are( intended( to( achieve( interactional*
authenticity."

"
+

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++93 !
 a!
TEFLIN Teacher"Development"Series"

Post$task%phase" The! final& stage& of& a& task$based& lesson.& It& follows& the&
main$ task% stage." In" this" stage" direct" instruction" catering"
to#intentional(learning!can$occur."
Practice$ This" " refers" " to" " an" " approach" " to" " teaching!involving!
presentation$! presentation* of# a# specific# grammatical! structure,(
production*(PPP)" controlled)practice!(in$exercises)$and$free$production$(by$
performing*tasks).+
Pre$emptive'focus' In# pre$emptive' focus' on' form' either' the' students' or' a'
on#form+ teacher' elects' to' draw' explicit' attention' to' a' specific'
form% even% though& no# student# error# has# occurred.# Its#
purpose'is'to'prevent'rather'than'correct'errors."

Pre$task%phase+ The$ first$ phase$ of$ a$ task$based$ lesson$ during$ which$

various( activities( can( be( used( to( help( the( students(
prepare%to%do%the%task%in%the%main%task%phase."

Procedural* Knowledge)derived)from)declarative)knowledge)through)
knowledge))+ practice.)It)is)automatized)so)that)it)is)easily)and)rapidly%
accessible(during(the(performance(of(a(task."

Reactive(focus(on( Focus&on&form&is&reactive&when&it&occurs&in&response&to&
form+ an#error#a#student#has#made.#It#can#be#input$providing)or)
output$prompting)and)also)implicit)or)explicit."

Reasoning)gap) A" task" that" requires" participants" to" engage" in" reasoning"
task+ (e.g.%synthesising%the%information%provided%and%deducing%
new$facts)$in$order$to$perform$it$successfully."
Recast+ An# utterance# that# rephrases# a# preceding# utterance#
including(correcting(an(error(while(focusing)primarily)on)
meaning."
Scaffolding+ Scaffolding+ involves+ the+ interactive+ work+ participants+
engage%in%to%accomplish%a%task%collaboratively%by%assisting%
with%any%linguistic%problems%that%arise."
Self$assessment''+ An# assessment# that# a# learner# provides! of# his/her# own#
performance*of*a*task."

"
"

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++94 !
 a!
TEFLIN Teacher"Development"Series"

Situational) A" task" has" situational" authenticity" when" it" corresponds"

authenticity+ closely'to'a'target'task'that'students'will'have'to'perform'
in#the#real#world.##It#is#therefore#a#real$ world&task."
Skill%learning% This% theory% views% learning% as% commencing% with%
theory+ declarative*knowledge*which*is*then*proceduralized*and*
automatized$ through$ intensive$ practice.! It# supports'
presentation$ practice$ production*(PPP)."

Specific'purpose' A" course" designed" for" learners" who$ have$ clearly$

course+ identifiable*linguistic*needs*(e.g.*trainee*waiters*planning*
to#work#in#a#restaurant#in#an#international#hotel)."
Strategic)planning+ The$process$by$which$learners$plan$what$they$are$going$
to# say# or# write# before# commencing# a# task.# On# pre$task#
planning' students' can' attend' to' propositional) content,)
to# the# organization# of# information# or# to# the# choice# of#
language."
Strategy(training+ Training' designed' to' help' students' to' use' the' target'
language' and' to' learn' more' efficiently.' For' example,'
students! can$ be$ trained$ how$ to$ request' clarification! in#
order%to%negotiate%for%meaning%more%effectively." "
Summative) Summative) assessment) is) carried) out) at) the) end) of) a)
assessment" term% or% course% and% is% intended% to% provide% information%
about& what& students& have& achieved( over( the(
instructional+period."
Target'task+ A" task" found" in" the" real$world& (e.g.& making& a& theatre&
booking'or'filling'in'a'cheque).'Target'tasks'serve'as'the'
basis%for%a"specific'purpose'task$based&course."
Task$based& Teaching) based# entirely# on# tasks.# That# is,# the# course#
language'teaching+ syllabus'consists'solely'of'a'list'of'the'tasks'for'a'course'
(i.e.%there%is%no%linguistic%syllabus).%%"
Task$based&test+ A" test" that" utilizes" the" same" kind" of" task" as" used" in"
teaching"

"
"

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++95 !
 a!
TEFLIN Teacher"Development"Series"

Task$supported) Teaching)that)utilises)tasks)to)provide)free)practice)in!the$
language'teaching+ use$ of$ specific$ linguistic$ features$ that$ have$ been$
previously+ presented+ and+ practised+ in+ exercises.+ See+
Presentation$ Practice$ Production*(PPP)."

Teacher$talk+ The$ special$ way$ that$ teachers( talk( to( students.( It( is(
characterised* by* input* that* is* simplified* to* make* it*
comprehensible- and- by- scaffolding- to- assist- learners’-
production."
There$and$then% This% condition% applies% when% the% task% materials% are%
condition+ removed'from'students'before"they"start"to"perform"the"
task%so%they%have%to%rely%on%their%memory%of%the%content%
of#the#materials.#It#increases#the#difficulty#of#a#task#and#
contrasts(with(the(here$ and$ now$condition."
Unfocused*task+ A"task"that"is"designed"to"encourage"the"comprehension"
and$ production$ of$ language$ for$ purposes$ of$
communication)(i.e.)it)is)not)designed)to)elicit)attention)
to# any# specific# linguistic# feature).# It# contrasts# with#
focused(task."

"

" "

" "

" !"

" "

" "
" "

" "
" "

" "

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++96 !
 a!
TEFLIN Teacher"Development"Series"

Appendix:!!The$Heart$Transplant$Task!
"

Chart

Name !

Age !

Sex !

Family commitments/ !
responsibilities

Financial situation/ insurance !

Quality of life now !

Possibilities elsewhere for a new !

heart

Any other relevant factors !

Good reason for giving him/ her !

a new heart

Reasons against giving him/her a !

new heart

!
!

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++97 !
 a!
TEFLIN Teacher"Development"Series"

Learner 1
Instructions:

Read the situation and then read about your patient. Make notes under the
headings in your chart and then ask the other people in your group about their
patients, using the headings to help you ask the questions. Fill in the chart with the
information you get and once you have completed the chart, discuss in your group
of four the reasons for and against each patient getting the new heart. You will all
need to agree and finally choose one of the patients.

The situation:

The local public hospital is in a difficult financial position. The need for
operations is very high, but the hospital cannot afford to carry out all the operations
that are necessary. People who cannot pay for operations themselves must go on
waiting lists and wait for their turn. The hospital has formed a committee whose job
is to select the patients from the waiting list who will receive new organs such as
hearts, kidneys, livers etc. You are a member of that committee. Today you must
decide which patient should receive a new heart. There is currently only one heart
available and money for one operation only.

Your patient:
Leila

Leila is a 13-year-old girl who was in a car accident a year ago. She has been in
the hospital since the accident because she cannot live without medical assistance
24 hours a day. Her heart was damaged and her life expectancy is low if she does
not receive a new heart soon. She is an only child and her parents visit her daily.
She was a champion ice skater before she had the accident and a very popular girl at
school, where she was a bright student. She has schooling in the hospital but has
found it very difficult to keep up. She suffers from depression and the doctors are
worried about her. Her family has started a national campaign to raise money to
send her to Australia to get a new heart there and they have raised more than two
thirds of the money so far. They have been told that a large drug company wants to
pay the rest, but in return, Leila must advertise the drug company's products. They
are not happy about this.

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++98 !
 a!
TEFLIN Teacher"Development"Series"

Learner 2
Instructions:

Read the situation and then read about your patient. Make notes under the
headings in your chart and then ask the other people in your group about their
patients, 'using the headings to help you ask the questions. Fill in the chart with the
information you get and once you have completed the chart, discuss in your group
of four the reasons for and against each patient getting the new heart. You will all
need to agree and finally choose one of the patients.

The situation:

The local public hospital is in a difficult financial position. The need for
operations is very high, but the hospital cannot afford to carry out all the operations
that are necessary. People who cannot pay for operations themselves must go on
waiting lists and wait for their turn. The hospital has formed a committee whose job
is to select the patients from the waiting list who will receive new organs such as
hearts, kidneys, livers etc. You are a member of that committee. Today you must
decide which patient should receive a new heart. There is currently only one heart
available and money for one operation only.

Your patient:
Max

Max is a 62-year-old father and grandfather. He had to retire early because of his
heart disease. He has been a smoker all his life and had never thought about his diet.
He is overweight, but has been on a strict diet for the past 3 months and has lost
some weight. He has trouble keeping to the diet and often goes to McDonald's
secretly. He has given up smoking, however. He is married and his wife is very
worried about him. They have no insurance and only manage on a low income.
They help their son and daughter-in-law, who are struggling with a new business, by
looking after their two young grandchildren each day after school, but now his wife
can no longer manage on her own because her health is not so good either. There is
a lot of stress in the family and Max's health is getting worse. He could suffer
another heart attack at any time.

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++99 !
 a!
TEFLIN Teacher"Development"Series"

Learner 3
Instructions:

Read the situation and then read about your patient. Make notes under the
headings in. your chart and then ask the other people in your group about their
patients, using the headings to help you ask the questions. Fill in the chart with the
information you get and once you have completed the chart, discuss in your group
of four the reasons for and against each patient getting the new heart. You will all
need to agree and finally choose one of the patients.

The situation:

The local public hospital is in a difficult financial position. The need for
operations is very high, but the hospital cannot afford to carry out all the operations
that are necessary. People who cannot pay for operations themselves must go on
waiting lists and wait for their turn. The hospital has formed a committee whose job
is to select the patients from the waiting list who will receive new organs such as
hearts, kidneys, livers etc. You are a member of that committee. Today you must
decide which patient should receive a new heart. There is currently only one heart
available and money for one operation only.

Your patient:
Margaret

Margaret is a 42-year-old professional woman who has her own public relations
company. She started the company 10 years ago and has worked very hard to make
it successful. She was married but has recently got divorced. She has no children.
Margaret lived such a stressful, busy life that she did not notice her health problems
until it was too late. After her heart attack she had to stop working and she now
cannot do anything at all until she gets a new heart. She never took out insurance
because she didn't believe she would get sick and now she can't get insurance cover.
She would have to sell her business to pay for a private operation overseas, but she
is not happy about doing this because she doesn't want to have to start a new
business again once she has recovered from the operation.

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++100 !
 a!
TEFLIN Teacher"Development"Series"

Learner 4
Instructions:

Read the situation and then read about your patient. Make notes under the
headings in your chart and then ask the other people in your group about their
patients, using the headings to help you ask the questions. Fill in the chart with the
information you get and once you have completed the chart, discuss in your group
of four the reasons for and against each patient getting the new heart. You will all
need to agree and finally choose one of the patients.

The situation:

The local public hospital is in a difficult financial position. The need for
operations is very high, but the hospital cannot afford to carry out all the operations
that are necessary. People who cannot pay for operations themselves must go on
waiting lists and wait for their turn. The hospital has formed a committee whose job
is to select the patients from the waiting list who will receive new organs such as
hearts, kidneys, livers etc. You are a member of that committee. Today you must
decide which patient should receive a new heart. There is currently only one heart
available and money for one operation only.

Your patient:
Sandy

Sandy is the mother of two daughters aged 4 and 6. She is divorced and cares for
the girls without financial help from her ex-husband, who has left the country. She
works full-time and she pays a woman to take care of the girls after school until she
comes home. She has recently discovered that she has heart disease and the only
thing that can help her is a new heart. She is an only child and her parents are both
old and sick. She has to visit them each day and cook for them and clean their
house. The parents of her ex-husband, who have given her no support since he left,
want to take the girls to live with them until she gets a new heart. The girls do not
want to go and live with their grandparents and, although Sandy knows that they
would suffer and she is very unhappy about it, she feels she has no choice.

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++101 !
 a!
TEFLIN Teacher"Development"Series"

Suggested(Further(Reading!
Bygate,(M.,(Skehan,!P.,$!&"Swain,"M."(Eds.).!(2001).'Researching+pedagogic+tasks:!
Second&language'learning,'teaching'and'testing."Harlow:"Longman."
Candlin,(C.,(&(Murphy,"D."(1987)."Language'learning'tasks."Englewood"Cliffs"N.J.:"
Prentice(Hall(International."
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" "

! Introducing+Task0based+Language+Teaching++++103 !
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