Linear Algebra 1
Linear Algebra 1
UNIT - I
LINEAR ALGEBRA - I
Vector Spaces:
Let F be a field, V be a non-empty set. For every ordered pair α, β ∈ V , let there be defined
uniquely a sum α + β and for every α ∈ V , and c in F a scalar product c · α ∈ V . The
set V is called a vector space over the field F , if the following axioms are satisfied for every
α, β, γ ∈ V and for every c, c0 ∈ F .
(i) α + β ∈ V ,
(ii) (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ),
(iii) Identity element w.r.t addition exists.
i.e, ∃ e ∈ V s.t. α + e = e + α = α,
(iv) Inverse element w.r.t addition exists.
i.e, ∃ α−1 ∈ V s.t. α + α−1 = e = α−1 + α,
(v) α + β = β + α,
(vi) c · (α + β) = c · α + c · β,
(vii) (c + c0 ) · α = c · α + c0 · α,
(viii) (c · c0 ) · α = c · (c0 · α)
(ix) 1 · α = α, ∀α ∈ V , where 1 is the unit element of F .
Examples:
1. Let F be a field and n be a positive integer. Let Vn (F ) be the set of all ordered n tupples
of the elements of the field F . i.e, Vn (F ) = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )|xi ∈ F }.
Define addition and scalar multiplication as below:
(a) α + β = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn )
(b) c.α = c.(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = (c.x1 , c.x2 , . . . , c.xn ), ∀c ∈ F .
Solution:
(i) α + β = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ) ∈ Vn (F )
(ii) (α + β) + γ
= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , . . . , xn + yn ) + (z1 , z2 , . . . , zn )
Note:
(i) With F = R, V1 (R), V2 (R), V3 (R) are all vector spaces. They are also denoted as R1 , R2 , R3
respectively. The elements of R1 , R2 , R3 are real numbers, plane vectors and space vectors
respectively.
(ii) If F = R, Vn (R) is denoted as Rn .
If F = C, Vn (C) is denoted as Cn .
√
2. Show that V = {a + b 2|a, b ∈ Q}, where Q is the set of all rationals, is a vector
space under usual addition and scalar multiplication.
Solution: √ √ √
Let α = a1 + b1 2, √ β = a2 + b2 2,√γ = a3 + b3 2 ∈ V and c, c0 ∈ Q
(i) α + β = (a1 + b1 2) + (a √2 + b2 2) ∈ V√ √
(ii) (α + β) + γ = ((a1 + b1 2) + (a2 + b2 2)) + (a3 + b3 2) = α + (β + γ)
(iii) 0 is the additive√identity, as 0 + α = α = α + 0.
(iv) −α = −a1 − b1 √2 is the additive √ inverse of α as α + (−α) = 0 = (−α) + α.
(v) α + β = (a1 + b1 2) + (a√ 2 + b2 2) = β √ + α.
(vi) c · (α + β) = c · ((a1 + b1 2) √ + (a2 + b 2 2)) = c · α + c · β.
0 0 0
(vii) (c + c )α = (c + c )(a1 + b√ 1 2) = c · α + c α.
0 0 0
(viii) (c · c )α = (c · c )(a
√ 1 + b1 2) =√c · (c · α).
(ix)1 · α = 1 · (a1 + b1 2) = a1 + b1 2 = α.
Thus V is a vector space over Q .
3. Let V be the set of all polynomials of degree ≤ n, with coefficients in the field
F , together with zero polynomial. Then show that V is a vector space under addition
of polynomials and scalar multiplication of polynomials with the scalar c ∈ F defined by
c(a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ) = ca0 + ca1 x + · · · + can xn .
Solution:
(i) Sum of polynomials is again a polynomial
(ii) Sum of polynomials will be associative.
(iii) 0 is the additive identity.
(iv) If α = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn then −α = −a0 − a1 x − · · · − an xn is the additive inverse.
(v) Sum of polynomials is commutative.
(vi) c · (α + β) = c · α + c · β will hold.
(vii) (c + c0 ) · α = c · α + c0 · α will hold.
(viii) (c · c0 ) · α = c · (c0 · α) will hold.
(ix) 1 · α = 1 · (a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ) = a0 + a1 x + . . . an xn = α.
Thus V is a vector space over F .
x y
4. Let V = { |x, y ∈ C} under usual addition and scalar multiplication, with
−y x
field C of complex numbers. Show that V is a vector space.
Solution:
x1 y 1 x2 y 2 x3 y 3
Let α = ,β= ,γ= ∈V
−y1 x1 −y2 x2 −y3 x3
and c1 = a1 + b1 i, c2 = a2 + b2 i ∈ C.
(i) α + β ∈ V ,
(ii) (α + β) + γ = α + (β + γ),
0 0 0 0
(iii) α + =α= + α.
0 0 0 0
0 0
∴ is the additive identity.
0 0
−x1 −y1
(iv) −α = is the additive inverse.
y1 −x1
(v) α + β = β + α will hold.
(vi) c · (α + β) = c · α + c · β will hold.
(vii) (c + c0 ) · α = c · α + c0 · α will hold.
(viii) (c · c0 ) · α = c · (c0 · α) will hold.
x1 y 1 x1 y1
(ix) 1 · α = 1 · = = α.
−y1 x1 −y1 x1
Thus V is a vector space over C.
5. Let R+ be the set of all positive integers. Define the operations of addition and scalar
multiplication as below:
α + β = αβ, ∀ α, β ∈ R+
c · α = αc , α ∈ R+ and c ∈ R
Show that R+ is a vector space over the real field.
Solution:
(i) α + β = αβ ∈ R+ .
(ii) (α + β) + γ = (αβ) + γ = (αβ)γ = α(βγ) = α + βγ = α + (β + γ).
(iii) α + 1 = α · 1 = α = 1 · α = 1 + α.
1 1 1 1
(iv) α + = α · = 1 = · α = + α.
α α α α
1
∴ is the additive inverse of α.
α
(v) α + β = α · β = β · α = β + α.
(vi) c · (α + β) = c · (αβ) = (αβ)c = αc β c = αc + β c = c · α + c · β.
0 0
(vii) (c + c0 )α = α(c+c ) = αc αc = αc + αc0 = c · α + c0 · α.
0 0 0 0
(viii) (c · c0 ) · α = α(c·c ) = α(c ·c) = (αc )c = c(αc ) = c · (c0 α)
(ix) 1 · α = α1 = α, where 1 is the unit element of R+ .
Exercise:
1. If R is the field of real numbers and V is the set of vectors in a plane, further if addition
of vectors is the internal binary composition in V and the multiplication of elements of R
with those of V as the external composition, prove that V (R) is a vector space.
2. Let R be the field of real numbers and let P3 be the set of all polynomials of degree at
most 3, over the field R. Prove that P3 is a vector space over the field R.
Subspaces:
A non empty subset W of a vector space V over a field F is called a subspace of V , if W is
itself a vector space over F , under the same operations of addition and scalar multiplication
as defined in V .
Note:
(i) The set {0} consisting of zero vector of V is a subspace of V .
(ii) The whole vector space V , itself is a subspace of V .
These two subspaces are called trivial or improper subspaces of V .
Any subspace W of V different from {0} and V is called a proper subspace of V .
Examples:
1. Verify whether W = {f (x)|2f (0) = f (1)} over 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, is a subspace of V =
{all functions} over the field R.
Solution:
Let f1 , f2 ∈ W .
Thus 2f1 (0) = f1 (1) and 2f2 (0) = f2 (1)
Consider, 2(f1 + f2 )(0) = 2[f1 (0) + f2 (0)]
3. Show that the subset W = {(x1 , x2 , x3 )|x1 + x2 + x3 = 0} of the vector space V3 (R)
is a subspace of V3 (R).
Solution:
Let α = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), β = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) be any two elements of W .
Then, x1 + x2 + x3 = 0 and y1 + y2 + y3 = 0.
Consider, c1 α + c2 β = c1 (x1 , x2 , x3 ) + c2 (y1 , y2 , y3 )
= (c1 x1 , c1 x2 , c1 x3 ) + (c2 y1 , c2 y2 , c2 y3 )
= (c1 x1 + c2 y1 , c1 x2 + c2 y2 , c1 x3 + c2 y3 )
To show that c1 α + c2 β ∈ W , we have to show that the sum of the components of c1 α + c2 β
is zero.
∴ consider c1 x1 + c2 y1 + c1 x2 + c2 y2 + c1 x3 + c2 y3
= c1 (x1 + x2 + x3 ) + c2 (y1 + y2 + y3 )
= c1 · 0 + c2 · 0
=0
∴ c1 α + c2 β ∈ W , hence W ia a subspace of V3 (R).
5. Let V = R3 , the vector space of all ordered triplets of real numbers, over the field of
real numbers. Show that the subset W = {(x, 0, 0)|x ∈ R} is a subspace of V = R3 .
Solution:
The element 0 = (0, 0, 0) ∈ W .
Thus W is non-empty.
Let α1 = (x1 , 0, 0) and α2 + (x2 , 0, 0) be any two elements of W .
Exercise:
1. Let H = {a−3b, b−a, a, b} where a and b are arbitrary scalars. Show that H is a subspace
of R4 .
2. Let V be a vector space of all 2 x 2 matrices over reals. Determine whether W is a
sub-space of V or not, where
(i) W consists of all matrices with non-zero determinant.
2
(ii) W consists
of all
matrices A such that A = A.
a 0
(iii) W = { , where a, b ∈ R}.
0 b
Answer: (i) W is not a subspace. (ii) W is not a subspace. (iii) W is a subspace.
Linear Combination
Let V be a vector space over the field F and α1 , α2 , . . . , αn be any n vectors of V . The vector
of the form, c1 α1 + c2 α2 + · · · + cn αn , where c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ∈ F , is called a linear combination
of the vectors α1 , α2 , . . . , αn .
Linear Span of S
Let S be a non empty subset of a vector space V (F ). The set of all linear combinations of
finite number of elements of S is called the linear span of S and is denoted by L[S].
i.e, L[S] = {c1 α1 +c2 α2 +· · ·+cn αn |ci ∈ F, αi ∈ S, i = 1, 2, . . . , n and n is any positive integer}
If α ∈ L[S], then α is of the form, α = c1 α1 + c2 α2 + · · · + cn αn , for some scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cn
∈ F.
Theorem: Let S be a non-empty subset of a vector space V [F ]. Then
(i) L[S] is a subspace of V
(ii) S ⊆ L[S]
(iii) L[S] is the smallest subspace of V containing S.
Linear Dependence and Independence
A set {α1 , α2 , . . . , αn } of vectors of a vector space V [F ] is said to be linearly dependent if
there exists scalars c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ∈ F , not all zero such that c1 α1 + c2 α2 + · · · + cn αn = 0.
A set {α1 , α2 , . . . , αn } of vectors of a vector space V [F ] is said to be linearly independent if
c1 α1 + c2 α2 + · · · + cn αn = 0 =⇒ c1 = c2 = · · · = cn = 0.
Examples:
1. Show that the vectors e1 = (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . 0), . . . en = (0, 0, 0, . . . , 1) of
the vector space Vn (R) are linearly independent.
Solution:
Let c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ∈ R
Consider c1 e1 + c2 e2 + · · · + cn en = 0
=⇒ c1 (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0) + c2 (0, 1, 0, . . . 0) + · · · + cn (0, 0, 0, . . . , 1) = (0, 0, 0, . . . , 0)
=⇒ (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) = (0, 0, 0, . . . , 0)
=⇒ c1 = 0, c2 = 0, . . . , cn = 0
i.e., e1 , e2 , e3 , . . . , en are linearly independent.
2. Show that the set S = {(1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (−1, 0, −1)} is linearly dependent in V3 (R).
Solution:
Consider c1 (1, 0, 1) + c2 (1, 1, 0) + c3 (−1, 0, −1) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ (c1 + c2 − c3 , c2 , c1 − c3 ) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ c1 + c2 − c3 = 0, c2 = 0, c1 − c3 = 0
=⇒ c1 = 1, c2 = 0, c3 = 1
Thus there exists, not all zeros, scalars, such that c1 (1, 0, 1) + c2 (1, 1, 0) + c3 (−1, 0, −1) =
(0, 0, 0)
∴ S is linearly dependent.
Note:
1.The set {(x1 , x2 , x3 ), (y1 , y2 , y3 ), (z1 , z2 , z3 )} of vectors of the vector space V3 (R) is linearly
x1 x2 x3
dependent iff y1 y2 y3 = 0
z1 z2 z3
2. Two vectors α, β ∈ V2 (R) are linearly dependent iff α = kβ for some non zero k ∈ R
3. A set of vectors of V , containing the zero vector is linearly dependent.
4. The set consisting of a single vector α of V is linearly independent iff α 6= 0.
Exercise:
1. Determine
if the following
sets of vectors
are linearly
independent or linearly dependent.
1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
v1 = , v2 = , v1 = .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0
Answer: Linearly independent.
2.
Check
forthe linear
independence/dependence of the column vectors
1 2 1
2 , 6 , 3
0 2 5
Answer: Linearly independent.
3. Let V be a vector space of real valued derivable functions on (0, ∞), then show that the
set S = {x2 ex , xex , (x2 + x − 1)ex } is linearly independent.
4. In a P2 let v1 = 2t2 + t + 2; v2 = t2 − 2t; v3 = 5t2 − 5t + 2; v4 = −t2 − 3t − 2. Determine
if the vector u = t2 + t + 2 belongs to the span{v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }. (Here P2 is the vector space
of all polynomials of degree at the most n over the field of real numbers).
Answer: Yes, u = t2 + t + 2 belongs to the span{v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }.
Basis
A subset B of a vector space V [F ] is called a basis of V if
(i) B is a linearly independent set
(ii) L[B] = V
i.e., a basis of a vector space V [F ] is linearly independent subset which spans the whole space.
Note: The zero vector cannot be an element of a basis of a vector space because a set
of vectors with zero vector is always linearly dependent.
Examples:
1. Show that the vectors e1 = (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . 0), . . . en = (0, 0, 0, . . . , 1) of
the vector space Vn (R) form a basis of Vn (R).
Solution:
Consider S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }
c1 e 1 + c2 e 2 + · · · + cn e n = 0
=⇒ c1 (1, 0, . . . , 0) + c2 (0, 1, . . . , 0) + · · · + cn (0, 0, . . . , 1) = (0, 0, . . . , 0)
=⇒ (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) = (0, 0, . . . , 0)
c1 = 0, c2 = 0, . . . , cn = 0
Hence S is linearly independent.
Further, any vector (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Vn (R) can be expressed as a linear combination of the
elements of S, as (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + · · · + xn en . Hence L[S] = Vn (R)
∴ S is a basis of Vn (R).
Standard Basis
The basis S = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } of the vector space Vn (R) is called the standard basis.
example: The vectors e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1) of V3 (R) form a basis of V3 (R),
and is called the standard basis.
2. Show that the set B = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1)} is a basis of the vector space V3 (R).
Solution:
Let B = {(1, 1, 0), (1, 0, 1), (0, 1, 1)}
Consider, c1 (1, 1, 0) + c2 (1, 0, 1) + c3 (0, 1, 1) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ (c1 + c2 , c + 1 + c3 , c2 + c3 ) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ c1 + c2 = 0, c1 + c3 = 0, c2 + c3 = 0
=⇒ c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 = 0
∴ B is linearly independent.
Let (x1 , x2 , x3 ) ∈ V3 (R) be arbitrary.
Let c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ R, such that
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = c1 (1, 1, 0) + c2 (1, 0, 1) + c3 (0, 1, 1)
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (c1 + c2 , c1 + c3 , c2 + c3 )
=⇒ x1 = c1 + c2 , x2 = c1 + c3 , x3 = c2 + c3
x1 + x2 − x3 x1 − x2 + x3 −x1 + x2 + x3
=⇒ c1 = , c2 = , c3 =
2 2 2
x1 + x2 − x3 x1 − x2 + x3 −x1 + x2 + x3
∴ (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (1, 1, 0) + (1, 0, 1) + (0, 1, 1)
2 2 2
∴ L[B] = V3 (R)
Exercise:
1. Let W be a subspace of R4 spanned by the vectors α1 = (1, 2, 2, 1); α2 = (0, 2, 0, 1);
α3 = (−2, 0, −4, 3). Prove that α1 , α2 , α3 form a basis for W.
2. Find the basis for the subspace spanned by the vectors
T T T T
v1 = 1 0 0 −1 , v2 = 1 0 −1 0 , v3 = 1 −1 0 0 , v4 = 0 1 −1 0 ,
T T
v5 = 0 0 1 −1 , v6 = 0 1 0 −1 .
Answer: Basis= {v1 , v2 , v3 }.
3. Show that the vectors α1 = (1, 0, −1), α2 = (1, 2, 1), α3 = (0, −3, 2) form a basis for R3 .
Express each of the standard basis vector as a linear combination of α1 , α2 , α3 .
Answer: e1 = 0.7α1 +0.3α2 +0.2α3 , e2 = −0.2α1 +0.2α2 −0.2α3 , e1 = −0.3α1 +0.3α2 +0.2α3 .
Finite dimensional space
A vector space V [F ] is said to be a finite dimensional space if it has a basis with finite
number of elements.
The dimension of a finite dimensional vector space V over F is the number of elements in
any basis of V and is denoted by d[V ].
example: Vn (R) is a n dimensional space. V3 (R) is a 3 dimensional space.
Note:
(i) Any two bases of a finite dimensional vector space V have the same finite number of
elements.
(ii) A vector space which is not finitely generated may be called an infinite dimensional
space.
(iii) In an n dimensional vector space V (F )
(a) any n + 1 elements of V are linearly dependent.
(b) no set of n − 1 elements can span V .
(iv) In an n dimensional vector space V (F ) any set of n linearly independent vectors is a
basis.
(v) Any linearly independent set of elememts of a finite dimensional vector space V is a part
of a basis.
(vi) For n vectors of n−dimensional vector space V , to be a basis, it is sufficient that they
span V or that they are Linearly independent.
Examples:
1. Let A = {(1, −2, 5), (2, 3, 1)} be a linearly independent subset of V3 (R). Extend this to a
basis of V3 (R).
Solution:
Let α1 = (1, −2, 5), α2 = (2, 3, 1)
Let S be the subspace spanned by {α1 , α2 }
∴ S = {c1 α1 + c2 α2 |c1 , c2 ∈ R}
c1 α1 + c2 α2 = c1 (1, −2, 5) + c2 (2, 3, 1)
= (c1 + 2c2 , −2c1 + 3c2 , 5c1 + c2 )
∴ S = {(c1 + 2c2 , −2c1 + 3c2 , 5c1 + c2 )|c1 , c2 ∈ R}
Chose a vector of V3 (R), outside of S.
(1, 0, 0) 6∈ S
∴ the set A = {(1, −2, 5), (2, 3, 1), (1, 0, 0)} is a basis of V3 (R).
2. Given two linearly independent vectors (2, 1, 4, 3)&(2, 1, 2, 0), find a basis of V4 (R)
that includes these two vectors.
Solution:
α1 = (2, 1, 4, 3), α2 = (2, 1, 2, 0)
S = {c1 α1 + c2 α2 |c1 , c2 ∈ R}
Choose α3 = (1, 0, 0, 0) & α4 = (0, 1, 0, 0) 6∈ S
∴ {α1 , α2 , α3 , α4 } is a basis of V4 (R).
The non-zero rows of a row-reduced echelon form of a matrix are linearly independent.
4. Does the set S = {(1, 2, 3), (3, 1, 0), (−2, 1, 3)} form a basis of R3 .
Solution:
1 2 3
Consider A = 3 1 0
−2 1 3
|A| = 1(3 − 0) − 2(9 + 0) + 3(3 + 2) = 0.
∴ S is linearly dependent and hence is not a basis of R3 .
5. Show that the vectors (1, 1, 2, 4), (2, −1, −5, 2), (1, −1, −4, 0), (2, 1, 1, 6) are linearly
dependent in R4 and extract a linearly independent subset. Also find the dimension and a
basis of the subspace spanned by them.
Solution:
1 1 2 4
2 −1 −5 2
Consider A = 1 −1 −4 0
2 1 1 6
R2 =R2 − 2R1 ; R3 = R − R1 ; R4 = R4 − 2R1 =⇒
3
1 1 2 4
0 −3 −9 −6
A= 0 −2 −6 −4
0 −1 −3 −2
R2 =R2 ÷ (−3) =⇒
1 1 2 4
0 1 3 2
A= 0 −2 −6 −4
0 −1 −3 −2
R3 =R3 + 2R2 ; R4 = R4 + R2 =⇒
1 1 2 4
0 1 3 2
A= 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
The final matrix is in echelon form and the rank of A is 2. Therefore the given vectors are
linearly dependent.
The corresponding non-zero rows of the initial matrix are (1, 1, 2, 4) &(2, −1, −5, 2), which
are linearly independent.
The dimension of the subspace spanned by the vectors is 2. These two vectors form a basis
of the subspace.
6. Let S be the subspace of R3 defined by S = {(a, b, c)|a + b + c = 0}. Find a basis and
dimension of S.
Solution:
S 6= R3 [∵ (1, 2, 3) ∈ R3 but(1, 2, 3) 6∈ S]
α = (1, 0, −1) & β = (1, −1, 0) ∈ S and further they are independent.
∴ d[S] = 2 and hence {α, β} forms a basis of S.
7. Show that the field C of complex numbers is a vector space over the field R of reals.
8. Let V be the vector space of 2 × 2 symmetric matrices over the field F . Show that
d[V ] = 3.
Solution:
a b
Let A = ∈ V, a, b, c ∈ F .
b c
Set a = 1, b = 0, c = 0; a = 0,b = 1, c = 0; a = 0,b = 0, c = 1
1 0 0 1 0 0
We get three matrices E1 = , E2 = , E3 =
0 0 1 0 0 1
We shall showthat these elements of V form a basis.
a b
Let A = ∈ V be arbitrary.
b c
a b 1 0 0 1 0 0
Then, A = =a +b +c
b c 0 0 1 0 0 1
Thus {E1 , E2 , E3 } generates V .
Suppose c1 E1+ c2 E2 + c 3 E3 = 0, c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ F
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
=⇒ c1 + c2 + c3 =
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
c1 c2 0 0
=⇒ = =⇒ c1 = c2 = c3 = 0.
c2 c3 0 0
∴ {E1 , E2 , E3 } is linearly independent.
Hence {E1 , E2 , E3 } is a basis of V and d[V ] = 3.
9. Find thebasis
anddimension
of the subspace
spanned by the subset
1 −5 1 1 2 −4 1 −7
S={ , , , } of the vector space of all 2 × 2 matrices
−4 2 −1 5 −5 7 −5 1
over R.
Solution:
Let α, β, γ, δ are the matrices of S.
1 −7 −5 1
R2 = R2 − R1 , R3 = R3 − 2R1 , R4 = R4 − R1 =⇒
1 −5 −4 2
0 6 3 3
0 6 3 3
0 −2 −1 −1
R3 = R3 − R2 , R4 = 3R4 + R2 =⇒
1 −5 −4 2
0 6 3 3
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
The final matrix has two non-zero rows.
∴ d(subspace) = 2.
1 −5 0 6
Further the matrices corresponding to the non-zero rows in the final matrix are , .
−4 2 3 3
10. In a vector space V3 (R), let α = (1, 2, 1), β = (3, 1, 5) & γ = (−1, 3, −3). Show that
the subspace spanned by {α, β} & {α, β, γ} are the same.
Solution:
1 2 1
Consider, A = 3 1 5
−1 3 −3
1 2 1
|A| = 3 1 5 = 1(−3 − 15) − 2(−9 + 5) + 1(9 + 1) = −18 + 8 + 10 = 0
−1 3 −3
∴ {α, β, γ} is linearly dependent.
Let γ = c1 α + c2 β
(−1, 3, −3) = c1 (1, 2, 1) + c2 (3, 1, 5)
=⇒ (−1, 3, −3) = (c1 + 3c2 , 2c1 + c2 , c1 + 5c2 )
=⇒ c1 + 3c2 = −1, 2c1 + c2 = 3, c1 + 5c2 = −3
Solving these equations, we get c1 = 2, c2 = −1.
∴ γ ∈ subspace spanned by {α, β}.
∴ the subspace spanned by {α, β} & {α, β, γ} are the same.
Exercise:
1. Let V be
a space of 2 x 2 matrices
over
R and let W be the sub-space
generated
by
1 −5 1 1 2 −4 1 −7 1 −5 0 2
, , and . Show that (i) { , }
−4 2 −1 5 −5 7 −5 1 −4 2 1 1
forms a basis set. (ii) dimW = 2.
The null space of a m × n matrix A, written as Nul A, is the set of all solutions to the
homogrneous equation Ax = 0.
Theorem:
The null space of a m × n matrix A, is a subspace of Rn . Equivalently, the set of all solutions
to a system Ax = 0 of m homogeneous linear equations in n unknowns is a subspace of Rn .
Examples:
5
1 −3 −2
1. Let A = and u = 3
−5 9 1
−2
Determine if u belongs to the null space of A.
Solution:
5
1 −3 −2 5−9+4 0
Au = 3 = =
−5 9 1 −25 + 27 − 2 0
−2
∴ u is in Nul A.
−3 6 −1 1 −7
2. Find a spanning set for the null space of the matrix 1 −2 2 3 −1
2 −4 5 8 −4
Solution:
Consider Ax = 0.
Reducing
A to echelon form
−3 6 −1 1 −7
A = 1 −2 2 3 −1,
2 −4 5 8 −4
3R
2 + R 1 , 3R3 + 2R1 =⇒
−3 6 −1 1 −7
0 0 5 10 −10
0 0 13 26 −26
2 ÷ 5, R3 ÷ 13 =⇒
R
−3 6 −1 1 −7
0 0 1 2 −2
0 (0 0 0 0 (
−3x1 + 6x2 − x3 + x4 − 7x5 = 0 x1 = 2x2 − 13 x3 + 13 x4 − 73 x5
=⇒ =⇒
x3 + 2x4 − 2x5 = 0 x3 = −2x4 + 2x5
1 1 7
=⇒ x1 = 2x2 − 3 (−2x4 + 2x5 ) + 3 x4 − 3 x5
=⇒ x 2 + x4 − 3x5 , with
1 = 2x x2 ,
x4 , x5 as free
variables.
x1 2x2 + x4 − 3x5 x1 2 1 −3
x2 x x 1 0
2 2 0
∴ x3 = −2x4 + 2x5 =⇒ x3 = x2 0 + x4 −2 + x5 2
x4 x4 x4 0 1 0
x5 x5 x5 0 0 1
= x2 u + x4 v + x5 w.
Every linear combination of u, v, w is an element of Nul(A). Thus {u, v, w} is a spanning set
for Nul(A).
Column Space:
The Column space of an m × n matrix A, written as Col(A), is the set of all linear combi-
nations of the columns of A.
If A = [a1 , a2 , . . . , an ], then Col(A) = span{a1 , a2 , . . . , an }.
Theorem: The column space of a m × n matrix A is a subspace of Rm .
Examples:
1. Find a matrix
A such that W = Col(A).
6a − b
W = { a + b : a, b ∈ R}
−7a
Solution:
W can be written
as
6 −1 6 −1
W = {a 1 + b 1 : a, b ∈ R} = span { 1 , 1 }
−7 0 −7 0
6 −1
Using the vectors in the spanning set as the columns of A, we get A = 1 1 .
−7 0
Then W = Col(A) as desired.
Note: The column space of an m × n matrix A is all of Rm iff the equation Ax = b has a
solution for each b in Rm .
2 4 −2 1
2. Let A = −2 −5 7 3
3 7 −8 6
(a) If the column space of A is a subspace of Rk , what is k?
(b) If the null space of A is a subspace of Rk , what is k?
Solution:
(a) m = 3, Col(A) is a subspace of Rm , where m = 3. (b) n = 4, NullA is a subspace of Rn ,
where n = 4.
2 4 −2 1
3. Let A = −2 −5 7 3, find a non-zero vector in Col(A) and a non-zero vector in
3 7 −8 6
NullA.
Solution:
2
Any column of A belongs to Col(A). eg. −2 ∈ Col(A).
3
Consider
Ax = 0
2 4 −2 1 : 0
A = −2 −5 7 3 : 0
3 7 −8 6 : 0
2 4 −2 1 : 0
R2 + R1 ; 2R3 − 3R1 =⇒ A = 0 −1 5 4 : 0
0 2 −10 9 :0
2 4 −2 1 : 0
R3 + 2R2 =⇒ A = 0 −1 5 4 : 0
0 0 0 17 : 0
=⇒ 2x1 + 4x2 − 2x3 + x4 = 0; −x2 + 5x3 + 4x4 = 0; 17x4 = 0
=⇒ x4 = 0, x2 = 5x3 , x1 = −9x3 =⇒ x3 is a free variable.
Let x3 = 1, then x1 = −9, x2 = 5, x4 =0. The vector x = (−9, 5, 1, 0) ∈ Nul(A).
3
2 4 −2 1 −2 3
4. With A = −2 −5 7 3 , u = , v = −1,
−1
3 7 −8 6 3
0
Solution:
To find
the basis for the row space, reduce A to echelon form.
−2 −5 8 0 −17
1 3 −5 1 5
A= 3 11 −19
7 1
1 7 −13 5 − 3
R1 ←→ R2 =⇒
1 3 −5 1 5
−2 −5 8 0 −17
3 11 −19 7 1
1 7 −13 5 − 3
R
2 + 2R 1 , R3 − 3R1 ,R4 − R1 =⇒
1 3 −5 1 5
0 1 −2 2 −7
0 2 −4 4 −14
0 4 −8 4 −8
3 − 2R2 , R4 − 4R2 =⇒
R
1 3 −5 1 5
0 1 −2 2 −7
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 −4 20
R3 ←→ R4 =⇒
1 3 −5 1 5
0 1 −2 2 −7
B= 0 0 0 −4 20
0 0 0 0 0
The first three rows of B form a basis for the row space of A(as well as for the row space of
B).
Basis for RowA = {(1, 3, −5, 1, 5), (0, 1, −2, 2, −7), (0, 0, 0, −4, 20)}
3. Find
the basis for the rowspace of
2 −3 6 2 5
−2 3 −3 −3 −4
A= 4 −6 9
5 9
−2 3 3 −4 1
Solution:
R2 +R1 , R3 − 2R1 , R4 + R1 =⇒
2 −3 6 2 5
0 0 3 −1 1
A= 0 0 −3 1 −1
0 0 9 −2 6
R3 +R2 , R4 − 3R2 =⇒
2 −3 6 2 5
0 0 3 −1 1
A= 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 3
2 −3 6 2 5
0 0 3 −1 1
R3 ←→ R4 =⇒ A = 0 0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0 0
The first three rows of B form the basis for the rowspace of A.
Examples:
1 2 −3
1. Let A = and v = .
3 6 1
Determine if v belongs to the left null space of A.
Solution:
T −3 −3 −3 + 3 0
A v= = =
1 1 −6 + 6 0
T
∴ v is in Nul(A ).
1 0 0
2. Find a spanning set for the left null space of the matrix .
0 0 0
Solution:
1 0
AT = 0 0
0 0
1 0
y 0
A y = 0 0 1 =
T
y2 0
0 0
=⇒ y1 = 0, y2 is a free
variable.
y1 0 0
= = y1 = y2 u.
y2 y2 1
∴ every linear combination of u is an element of Nul(AT ). Thus {u} is a spanning set of
Nul(AT ).
Example:
1. Find the dimension
and basis for the four fundamental subspaces of the matrix A =
1 3 3 2
2 6 9 7.
−1 −3 3 4
Solution:
R2 − 2R1 , R
3 + R1 =⇒
1 3 3 2
0 0 3 3
0 0 6 6
R3 − 2R2 =⇒
1 3 3 2
0 0 3 3
0 0 0 0
R2 ÷ 3 =⇒
1 3 3 2
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
Ax = 0 =⇒ x1 + 3x2 + 3x3 + 2x4 = 0, 3x3 + 3x4 = 0
=⇒ x3 = −x4 , x1 = 3x2 + x4
x
2 , x4 are free variables.
x1 −3x2 + x4 −3 1
x2 x2 = x2 1 + x4 0
=
x3 −x4 0 −1
x4 x4 0 1
∴ {(−3, 1, 0, 0), (1, 0, −1, 1)} forms a basis of Nul(A) and dim(Nul(A)) = 2.
{(1, 2, −1), (3, 9, 3)} forms a basis of Col(A) and dim(Col(A)) = 2.
{(1, 3, 3, 2), (2, 6,
9, 7)} forms a basis of RowA and dim(Row)A = 2.
1 2 −1
3 6 −3
AT = 3 9 3
2 7 4
2 − 3R1 , R
R 3 − 3R1 , R4 − 2R1 =⇒
1 2 −1
0 0 0
0 3 6
0 0 0
2 ←→ R3=⇒
R
1 2 −1
0 3 6
0 0 0
0 0 0
1 2 −1
0 1 2
R2 ÷ 3 =⇒ 0 0 0
0 0 0
T
A
y = 0 =⇒
1 2 −1
0 1 2 y1 0
y2 = 0
0 0 0
y3 0
0 0 0
y1 + 2y2 −y3 = 0,y2 +
=⇒ 2y3 = 0 =⇒ y2 = −2y3 , y1 = −2y2 + y3 = 4y3 + y3 = 5y3
y1 5y3 5
y2 = −2y3 = y3 −2
y3 y3 1
∴ {(5, −2, 1)} forms a basis of Nul(AT ) and dimNul(AT ) = 1.
The dimension of the column space of A, is called the rank of A.
Since RowA is the same as Col(AT ), the dimension of the row space of A is the rank of AT .
The dimension of the null space is called the nullity of A.
Rank-Nullity Theorem:
For an m × n matrix A, rank A + nullity A = n.
Examples:
1. If A is a 7 × 9 matrix with two dimensional null space, what is the rank of A?
Solution:
Exercise:
1 3 −5 −3
1. Determine if u = 3 is in Nul(A), where A = 6 −2 0
−4 −8 4 1
Answer: Yes, u is inNul(A).
5 5 21 19
2. Determine if v = −3 is in Nul(A), where A = 13 23 2
2 8 14 1
Answer: Yes, v is in Nul(A).
3. Find an explicit description ofNul(A), by listingvectors that span the null space.
1 5 −4 −3 1
1 3 5 0
(i) A = , (ii) A = 0 1 −2 1 0
0 1 4 −2
0 0 0 0 0
Answer: (i) Nul(A) = {c1 u1 + c2 u2 }, where u1 = (7, −4, 1, 0), u2 = (−6, 2, 0, 1).
(ii) Nul(A) = {c1 u1 + c2 u2 + c3 u3 }, where u1 = (−6, 2, 1, 0, 0), u2 = (8, −1, 0, 1, 0), u3 =
(−1, 0, 0, 0, 1).
4. Find A such that the given set is Col(A).
2s + 3t b−c
r + s − 2t
: r, s, t real}, (ii) A = {2b + c + d : b, c, d real}.
(i) A = { 4r + s 5c − 4d
3r − s − t d
0 2 3 1 −1 0
1 1 −2 2 1 1
Answer: (i) r 4 + s 1 + t 0 , (ii) b 0 + c 5 + d −4
3 −1 −1 0 0 1
5. Find (a) k such that Nul(A) is a subspace of Rk , (b) k such that Col(A) is a subspace of
Rk
2 −6 7 −2 0
−1 3 −2 0 −5 4 5 −2 6 0
−4 12 , (ii) 0 −5 7 , (iii) 1 1 0 1 0 , (iv) 1 −3 9 0 −5
(i)
3 −9 −5 7 −2
Answer: (i) (a) k = 2, (b) k = 4, (ii) (a) k = 3, (b) k = 4, (iii) (a) k = 5, (b) k = 2, (iv)
(a) k = 5, (b) k =1.
2 −6
−1 3 1 3 5 0
6. With (i) A = , (ii) A = , find a non-zero vector in Nul(A) and
−4 12 0 1 4 −2
3 −9
a non-zero vector in Col(A).
Answer: (i) (3, 1) ∈ Nul(A), (2, −1, −4, 3) ∈ Col(A).
(ii) c1 (7, −4,1, 0) + c2 (−6, 2, 0, 1)
∈ Nul(A), c1 (1, 0) + c2 (3, 1) ∈ Col(A).
−6 12 2
7. Let A = and u = . Determine if u is in Col(A). Is u in Nul(A)?
−3 6 1
Solution: u ∈ Col(A), u ∈ Nul(A).
−8 −2 −9 2
8. Let A = 6 4 8 and v = 1 . Determine if v is in Col(A). Is v in Nul(A)?
4 0 4 −2
Answer: v ∈ Col(A), v ∈ Nul(A).
9. Find a basis for the set of vectors in R3 in the plane x + 2y + z = 0.
Answer: Basis = {(−2, 1, 0), (−1, 0, 1)}.
10. Find a basis for the set of vectors in R2 on the line y = 5x.
Answer: Basis = {(1, 5)}.
11. Find the basis for Nul(A) and Col(A). Assume that A is row equivalent to B.
−2 4 −2 −4 1 0 6 5
(i) A = 2 −6 −3 1 , B = 0 2 5 3
−3 8 2 −3 0 0 0 0
1 2 −5 11 −3 1 2 0 4 5
2 4 −5 15 2 0 0 5 −7 8
(ii) A = 1 2 0 4 5 , B = 0 0 0 0 −9
3 6 −5 19 −2 0 0 0 0 0
Answer: (i) Basis for Nul(A) = {(−6, −5/2, 1, 0), (−5, −3/2, 0, 1)} and basis for Col(A) =
{(−2, 2, −3), (4, −6, 8)}.
(ii) Basis for Nul(A) = {(−2, 1, 0, 0, 0), (−4, 0, 7/5, 1, 0)} and
basis for Col(A) = {(1, 2, 1, 3), (−5, −5, 0, −5), (−3, 2, 5, −2)}.
12. Find
the basis for therow space and column space of the matrix
1 5 −2 3 5
0 0 1 −1 0
U = 0 0 0
.
0 1
0 0 0 0 0
Answer: Basis for RowA = {(1, 5, −2, 3, 5), (0, 0, 1, −1, 0), (0, 0, 0, 0, 1)},
basis for Col(A) = {(1, 0, 0, 0), (−2, 1, 0, 0), (5, 0, 1, 0)}.
13. Determine
a basis for the nullspace and left null space of the matrix,
2 −4 1 2 −2 −3
A = −1 2 0 0 1 −1 .
10 −4 −2 4 −2 4
Answer: Basis of Nul(A) = {(−1, −1/2, −2, 1, 0, 0), (0, −1/2, 0, 0, 1, 0), (1, 1, 5, 0, 0, 1)},
basis of AT = {}.
14. Find the bases for the null spaces of the matrices
1 0 −3 2 1 0 −5 1 4
(i) A = 0 1 −5 4 , (ii) A = −2 1 6 −2 −2.
3 −2 1 −2 0 2 −8 1 9
Answer: (i) Basis of Nul(A) = {(3, 5, 1, 0), (−2, −4, 0, 1)},
(ii) Basis of Nul(A) = {(5, 4, 1, 0, 0), (−7, −6, 0, 3, 1)}
−1 2 −1 5 6
4 −4 −4 −12 −8
15. Find a bases for the four fundamental sub-spaces of A = .
2 0 −6 −2 4
−3 1 7 −2 12
Answer: Basis of Nul(A) = {(3, 2, 1, 0, 0), (0, −8, 0, 2, 1)},
Basis of RowA = {(−1, 2, −1, 5, 6), (4, −4, −4, −12, −8), (−3, 1, 7, −2, 12)},
Basis of Col(A) = {(−1, 4, 2, −3), (2, −4, 0, 1), (5, −12, −2, −2)},
Basis of Nul(AT ) = {(−2, −1, 1, 0)}.
Transformation:
Consider the matrix equation Ax = b, where A is an m × n matrix, x ia an n × 1 matrix and
b is an m × 1 matrix.
Matrix Transformations:
For each x in Rn , T (x) is computed as Ax, where A is an m × n matrix. It is also denoted
by the matrix transformation x −→ Ax. Observe that the domain of T is Rn when A has n
columns and codomain of T is Rm when each column of A has m entries.
The range of T is the set of all linear combinations of the columns of A, because each image
T (x) is of the form Ax.
Example:
1 −3 3 3
2
1. Let A = 3 5 ,u = , b = 2 , c = 2 and define a transformation
−1
−1 7 −5 5
1 −3 x1 − 3x2
x
T : R2 −→ R3 by T (x) = Ax, so that T (x) = Ax = 3 5 1 = 3x1 + 5x2 .
x2
−1 7 −x1 + 7x2
(a) Find T (u), the image of u under the transformation T .
(b) Find an x in R2 whose image under T is b.
(c) Is there more than one x whose image under T is b?
(d) Determine if c is in the range of the transformation T .
Solution:
1 −3 5
2
(a) T (u) = Au = 3 5 = −1.
−1
−1 7 9
1 −3 3
x
(b) T (x) = b =⇒ Ax = b =⇒ 3 5 1 = 2 , which can be written in the
x2
−1 7 −5
1 −3 : 3
matrix form as 3 5 : 2
−1 7 : −5
Reducing to echelon form as below:
2 = R2 − 3R1 ; R3= R3 + R1 =⇒
R
1 −3 : 3
0 14 : −7
0 4 : −2
R
3 = 14R 3 − 4R 2 =⇒
1 −3 : 3
0 14 : −7
0 0 : 0
3/2
=⇒ x1 − 3x2 = 3; 14x2 = −7 =⇒ x2 = −1/2, x1 = 3/2. Hence x = .
−1/2
(c) From (b) we can see that, the vector x is unique.
1 −3 3 1 −3 : 3
x
(d) Let T (x) = c =⇒ Ax = c =⇒ 3 5 1 = 2 =⇒ 3 5 :2
x2
−1 7 5 −1 7 : 5
R
2 = R 2 − 3R ; R
1 3 = R 3 + R 1 =⇒
1 −3 : 3
0 14 : −7
0 4 : 8
R
3 = 14R 3 − 4R 2 =⇒
1 −3 : 3
0 14 : −7
0 0 : 140
Third row shows that 0 = 140(which is invalid). Hence the system is inconsistent.
Hence c is not in the range of the transformation.
2 0
2. Let A = , define T : R2 −→ R2 by T (x) = Ax. Find the images under T of
0 2
1 a
u= and v = .
−3 b
Solution:
2 0 1 2
T (u) = =
0 2 −3
−6
2 0 a 2a
T (v) = = .
0 2 b 2b
1 3
3. Let A = . Then the transformation T (x) = Ax, transforms the square with
0 1
vertices
(0,
0),(2,0), (2, 2),
(0, 2) to
1 3 0 0 1 3 2 2 1 3 2 8 1 3 0 6
= , = , = , = .
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 2 0 1 2 2
Sketching the above transformation, we see
that the square has been transformed to a parallelogram(In other words, the square has been
stretched toa parallelogram,
keeping the base intact).
5 −2
4. Let u = ,v= .
2 4
−1 0
(i) With A = ,
0 −1
−1 0 5 −5 −1 0 −2 2
Au = = , Av = =
0 −1 2 −2 0 −1 4 −4
Reflected about
origin.
0 1
(ii) With A = ,
1
0
0 1 5 2 0 1 −2 4
Au = = , Av = =
1 0 2 5 1 0 4 −2
Linear transformation:
Let U and V be two vector spaces over the same field F . The mapping T : U −→ V is said
to be a linear transformation, if
(i) T (α + β) = T (α) + T (β) ∀ α, β ∈ U
(ii) T (c.α) = c.T (α) ∀ c ∈ F, α ∈ U.
A Linear transformation T : U −→ V is also called a linear map on U .
Note:
(i) Every matrix transformation is a linear transformation.
(ii) Linear transformations preserve the operations of vector addition and scalar multiplica-
tion.
Theorem:
A mapping T : U −→ V from the vector space U (F ) into V (F ) is a linear transformation iff
T (c1 α + c2 β) = c1 T (α) + c2 T (β) ∀ c1 , c2 ∈ F and α, β ∈ U .
Stretch:
c 0
A multiple of the identity matrix A = cI = stretches every vector by the same factor
0 c
c. The whole space expands or contracts(or goes through the origin and out the opposite
side when c is negative).
c 0 x cx
α = (x, y), then Aα = = = (cx, cy)
0 c y cy
(cx,cy)
(x,y)
Rotation:
A rotation
matrix
turns the whole space around the origin.
0 −1
A= turns all vectors through 90◦ transforming every point (x, y) to (−y, x)
1 0
(x,y)
(-y,x)
Reflection:
A reflection
matrix transforms every vector into its image on the opposite side of a mirror.
0 −1
A= gives the reflection through y = x.
1 0
(y,x)
(x,y)
1 0
A= gives the reflection through x−axis.
0 −1
(x,y)
(x,-y)
−1 0
A= gives the reflection through y−axis.
0 1
0 −1
A= gives the reflection through y = −x.
−1 0
−1 0
A= gives the reflection through the origin.
0 −1
Projection:
A projection matrix takes the whole space onto a lower-dimensional subspace(not invertible).
1 0
A = transforms each vector (x, y) in the plane to the nearest point (x, 0) on the
0 0
horizontal axis.
(x,y)
(x,0)
0 0
A= transforms each vector (x, y) in the plane to the nearest point (0, y) on the
0 1
vertical axis.
(0,y) (x,y)
Rotation
Q, Projection P, Reflection H
0 −1
Q= Rotation about 90◦
1 0
1 0
P = Projection onto the x−axis.
0 0
0 1
H= Reflection about 45◦
1 0
Rotation:
The family of rotations can be represented in matrix form as
cos θ − sin θ c −s
Qθ = =
sin θ cos θ s c
cos θ sin θ c s
Q−θ = =
− sin θ cos θ −s c
Rotation in backwards through θ, Q−θ = [Qθ ]T
c −s c s 1 0
Qθ · Q−θ = = =I
s c −s c 0 1
c −s c −s cos 2θ − sin 2θ
Qθ .Qθ = = = Q2θ
s c s c sin 2θ cos 2θ
−1 1 c s c s
Qθ = 2 = = QTθ
c + s2 −s c −s c
cos θ − sin θ cos φ − sin φ cos(θ + φ) − sin(θ + φ)
Qθ · Qφ = =
sin θ cos θ sin φ cos φ sin(θ + φ) cos(θ + φ)
Projections:
H −1 = H, H = 2P − I =⇒ 2P = H + I
.
Problems:
1. If T is a mapping from V3 (R) into V3 (R) defined by T (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (0, x2 , x3 ). Show that
T is a linear transformation.
Solution:
Let α = (x1 , x2 , x3 ), β = (y1 , y2 , y3 ) ∈ V3 (R)
Consider, T (α + β) = T ((x1 , x2 , x3 ) + (y1 , y2 , y3 ))
= T (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 )
= T (0, x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 )
= (0, x2 , x3 ) + (0, y2 , y3 )
= T (α) + T (β)
Consider, T (cα) = T (c(x1 , x2 , x3 ))
= T (cx1 , cx2 , cx3 )
= (0, cx2 , cx3 )
= c(0, x2 , x3 )
= cT (x1 , x2 , x3 )
= cT (α)
∴ T is a linear transformation.
2. Find the linear transformation T : R2 −→ R3 such that T (1, 1) = (0, 1, 2), T (−1, 1) =
(2, 1, 0).
Solution:
{(1, 1), (−1, 1)} forms a basis of R2 .
Let α = (x, y) ∈ R2
3. Is there a linear map T : R2 −→ R2 for which T (2, 2) = (4, −6) and T (5, 5) =
(2, −3)?
Solution:
5
The vectors (2, 2) and (5, 5) ∈ R2 are linearly dependent as (5, 5) = (2, 2)
2
5 5 5
If T is linear, T (5, 5) = T ( (2, 2)) = T (2, 2) = (4, −6) = (10, −15)
2 2 2
But T (5, 5) = (2, −3) 6= (10, −15).
∴ a linear map with the given data doesn’t exist.
4. Let M (R) be the vector space of all 2 × 2 matrices over R and B be a fixed
non-zero element of M (R). Show that the mapping T : M (R) −→ M (R) defined by
T (A) = AB − BA, ∀A ∈ M (R) is a linear map.
Solution:
Let A and C ∈ M (R) be arbitrary.
Consider, T (A+C) = (A+C)B −B(A+C) = AB +CB −BA−BC = AB −BA+CB −BC
= T (A) + T (C)
Let c ∈ R be any scalar.
Consider, T (c · A) = (c · A)B − B(c · A) = c · (AB − BA) = c · T (A)
∴ T is a linear transformation
10. If T is a mapping from V2 (R) into V2 (R) defined by T (x, y) = (x cos θ−y sin θ, x sin θ+
y cos θ), show that T is a linear transformation.
Solution:
Let α = (x1 , x2 ), β = (y1 , y2 ) ∈ V2 (R)
Consider, T (α + β) = T (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 )
= ((x1 + y2 ) cos θ − (x2 + y2 ) sin θ, (x1 + y2 ) sin θ − (x2 + y2 ) cos θ)
= ((x1 cos θ − x2 sin θ) + (y1 cos θ − y2 sin θ), (x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ) + (y1 sin θ + y2 cos θ))
= (x1 cos θ − x2 sin θ, x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ) + (y1 cos θ − y2 sin θ, y1 sin θ + y2 cos θ)
= T (x1 , x2 ) + T (y1 , y2 ) ∴ T (α + β) = T (α) + T (β)
Consider, T (c.α) = T (cx1 , cx2 )
= (cx1 cos θ − cx2 sin θ, cx1 sin θ + cx2 cos θ) = c(x1 cos θ − x2 sin θ, x1 sin θ + x2 cos θ)
= cT (x1 , x2 )
∴ T (c.α) = cT (α)
Note:
(i) For the identity map I : V −→ V the range is the entire space V and the kernel is the
zero subspace.
(ii) For the zero linear map T : V −→ W defined by T (α) = 0∀α ∈ V , the range
R(T ) = {0} = zero space of V and the null space N (T ) = V .
Theorem
Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation.
Then (a) R(T ) is a subspace of W .
(b) N (T ) is a subspace of V .
(c) T is one-one iff N (T ) = {0}, where 0 is the zero vector of W .
Theorem
Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation. The dimension of the range space R(T ) is
called the rank of the linear transformation T and is denoted by r(T ). The dimension of the
null space N (T ) is called the nullity of the linear transformation T and is denoted by n(T ).
Theorem
Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation. If the vectors α1 , α2 , . . . , αn generate V , then
the vectors T (α1 ), T (α2 ), . . . , T (αn ) generates R(T ).
Theorem(Rank-Nullity theorem)
Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation and V be a finite dimensional vector space.
Then r(T ) + n(T ) = d[V ](d[R(T )] + d[N (T )] = d[V ])
Problems:
1. Let T : V −→ W be a linear transformation defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x − y, 2x + z).
Find the range, null space, rank, nullity and hence verify the rank-nullity theorem.
Solution:
Let α ∈ R(T )
Then
α = c1 (α1 ) + c2 (α2 ) + c3 (α3 )
= c1 (1, 1, 2) + c2 (1, −1, 0) + c3 (0, 0, 1)
= (c1 + c2 , c1 − c2 , 2c1 + c3 )
∴ R(T ) = {(c1 + c2 , c1 − c2 , 2c1 + c3 )|c1 , c2 , c3 ∈ R}
Suppose
T (x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ (x + y, x − y, 2x + z) = (0, 0, 0)
=⇒ x + y = 0, x − y = 0, 2x + z = 0
=⇒ x = 0, y = 0, z = 0
∴ N (T ) = {(0, 0, 0)}
d[N (T )] = 0
rank + nullity = 3 + 0 = 3 = d[V3 (R)].
Exercise:
1. Find the range space, null space, rank and nullity of T and verify the rank-nullity theorem
for, T : R3 −→ R3 , defined by T (x, y, z) = (x + y, x − y, 2x + z).
Answer: Range space = {(1, 1, 2), (1, −1, 0), (0, 0, 1)}, rank = 3, Null space = {(0, 0, 0)},
nullity = 0. rank + nullity = 3 + 0 = 3 = dimension of domain.
2. Find the range space, null space, rank and nullity of T and verify the rank-nullity the-
orem for, T : V3 (R) −→ V4 (R), defined by T (e1 ) = (0, 1, 0, 2), T (e2 ) = (0, 1, 1, 0), T (e3 ) =
(0, 1, −1, 4).
Answer: Range space = {(0, 1, 0, 2), (0, 1, 1, 0)}, rank = 2, Null space = {(−2, 1, 1)}, nullity
= 1. rank + nullity = 2 + 1 = 3 = dimension of domain.