Subject: Physics Grade:f4

Presentation

8.1 Alternating current (AC)

Lesson objectives
By the end of lesson, the learner should be able to:
 Explain the differences between direct current (DC) and (AC)
 Define and explain the concept of AC current.
 Explain characteristic features of alternating current and voltage, such as the
amplitude or peak and the frequency.
 Solve numerical problems involving Alternating current (AC)

Introduction
Studies of electricity begins with the study of what is known as direct current written in short
form as (DC), which is electricity flowing in a constant direct as shown in the figure below.
DC is the kind of electricity made by a battery definite positive and negative terminals. Some
of the sources of direct Current (DC) are dry cell, dry cell battery and car battery. As it
converts the chemical energy Inside it into electrical energy.
We will find out another source of direct current (DC) used for converting optical energy into
electrical energy.

In this chapter, we will study deeply the alternating current.

We have seen that the electricity produced by a generator alternates and is therefore known as
alternating current or written in short form as AC. Some of the sources which produce
alternating current (AC) are power house generators and car alternators. Alternating current is
produced in power stations by large generators like those shown in the figure below. The
main advantage to AC is that the voltage can be changed using transformers. That means that
the voltage can be stepped up at power stations to a very high voltage so that electrical energy
can be transmitted along power lines at low current and therefore experience low energy loss
due to heating. The voltage can then be stepped down for use in buildings and street lights.

Definition
Alternating current (AC) is a current that flows in one direction in a conductor, then changes
direction and flows in the other direction.

Frequency is the number of times current changes direction of the power supply per second.
It is measured in hertz (Hz). The frequency of electric generators which convert the kinetic
energy into electrical energy from electric generators, the presence of a magnetic field. The
symbol of AC is:
Note: Both AC and DC can be used for lighting and heating purposes. But radios and
televisions, etc., need a DC supply. The radios and televisions have a special device inside
them which converts the AC supplied to them into DC.

8.1.1 Current and Voltage of AC

The graph below shows one complete cycle of the AC-current curve. A graphed voltage is
also a sine curve. The current and voltage of AC are constantly change Instantaneous current
is the current at any instant of time. Instantaneous voltage is the voltage at any instant of
time.
We can We can write equation to represent an alternating current varying sinusoidally, this
equation tells us the value of the current I and voltage V at any time t we can write

For the current: I = I° Sinwt

For the voltage: V=V sinwt

where:
I° is the peak or maximum current.
V° is the peak or maximum voltage.
W is the angular frequency of the supply measured in rads-1 (radians per second).

Thus the angular frequency w is equal to f = 1/T

W=2pif and 0 = w =2pift and the frequency and period are related by f 1/T
Note: peak here means either maximum or minimum positive or negative, since the flow of
current has the same magnitude.
Example 8.1
The maximum voltage in an alternating current is 75 V. Find the instantaneous voltage
0=35°?
Solution
Given: V=75V where 0=wt V=?
V = V Sin 0
V = (75 V ) ( Sin 35° ) = 43V .

8.1.2 Power dissipated by an alternating current

Just as the current is changing continuously, the power dissipated is changing continuously.
In the figure below an AC supply is driving a current I, which is equal to I_{0}Sinwt through
a resistor of resistance R.
The power P dissipated by the alternating current in the resistor is:
P_{d}=I^{2}R=\{V^{*}}{R} P=(I_{o}sin\omega t)^{2}R P={I_{0}}^{2}R~sin^{2}\omega
t
The graphs below show two things (i) the alternating current through a resistor and (ii) the
power dissipated in the resistor.
If we study the power curve in the figure above it is always positive. Even though the current
goes negative, power is equal to current squared, and the square of a negative number is
positive.
The average power dissipated over a complete cycle is equal to half the peak power date the
during that cycle on the horizontal grey line on the graph. Raverage =\frac{1}{2}P_{0}=\
frac{1}{2}{I_{0}}^{2}R The direct current that would dissipate this I_{dc}=\frac{i_{0}}{\
sqrt{2}} power=\sqrt{\frac{1}{2}}I_{0}^{2}
This current is known as the root mean square current
Smilarly, the r.m.s voltage is given by:
Vrms==V /√2=0.707V
The r.m.s or effective value of the current (voltage) is the value of direct current voltage) that
would convert energy at the same rate in a resistor.
Example 8.2
Explain what is meant by the statement that a mains voltage is rated at 230V, 50Hz Calculate
the peak voltage.
Solution
230V tells us that the toms voltage is 230volts. The frequency of the mains supply| is 50Hz.
V=VX√2=230×√2=325V.
A sinusoidal, 60.0-Hz, ac voltage is read to be 120 v by an ordinary ac voltmeter.
(a) What is the maximum value the voltage takes on during a cycle?
(b) What is the equation for the voltage?
Solution
a) = x√2-120×√2-1701

b) VV sin 2nft = (170) sin 120

where:
t is in s is the maximum voltage

8.1. Electric generator

Electric generator, also called dynamo, is any machine that converts mechanical energy to
electricity. This electricity could be used for transmission and distribution over power lines to
domestic, commercial, and industrial customers. It works on the principle of Faraday's Law
of Electromagnetic Induction. Based on the output obtained, we categorize generators as:
o AC Generator
o DC Generators

In this lesson, we discuss AC Generators.

Generator (or A.C. Dynamo)

A.C Generator (or A.C Dynamo

AC generator means Alternating Current generator and also known as alternators What is an
A.C). Generators produces alternating current, which alternates (changes) y in polarity.
continuously in polarity.
For more information visit the link below:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gQyamjPrw-U Applications of A.C Generators
Some application of A.C generator include:
Electric generators
Alternators are used in modern auto mobiles to charge the battery and to power the electrical
system when its engine is running.
Diesel electric locomotive alternators
Diesel electric locomotive and diesel electric multiple units. The prime mover turns an
alternator which provides electricity for the traction motors.
The principle of AC Generator
The working of an AC generator is based on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction which states that electromotive force EMF or voltage is generated in a current
carrying conductor that cuts a uniform magnetic field. This can either be achieved by rotating
a conducting coil in a static magnetic field, or by rotating the magnetic field that contains the
stationary conductor.

The essential elements for an AC generator are therefore:

o A rotating coil
o A magnetic field
o Relative movement between the coil and the magnetic field
o suitable connection to.

Figure below shows a simple generator in which a coil is rotating clockwise. The is
completed with a lamp acting as the load.

Work of AC generator
The ac generator uses Faradays’ law of induction, it consists of a coil of wire rotating
magnetic field. As the coil rotates it cuts the magnetic flux generating an EMF, the EMF
produced is given by Faradays’ law.
The emf of a rotating coil can be calculated at a given time. If a coil of N turns has an area A,
and its normal makes an angle with the magnetic field B, then the flux- linkage is given by:
=Nx A x B cos 0.
The emf varies sinusoidally (sin and cos graphs have the same shape) with time
can be calculated using \over line{\epsilon}=-\frac{\Delta\Phi}{\Delta t}=-N\times A\times
B\times\frac{\Lambda~cos~\theta}{\Delta t}
Using calculus and differentiating cose, this relationship becomes \over line{\kappa}=N\
times A\times B\times sin~\theta\times\frac{\Delta\theta}{\Delta t}
Remember from your knowledge of rotational motion that: AB/At the angular velocity in rad
s^{\prime}=2nf
Also
0= wt =2pift
So that
E=m\times N\times A\times B\times sin(cot)
So that
E=2\pi f\times N\times A\times B\times sin(2\pi ft) When the plane of the coil is parallel to
the magnetic field, sin wt will have its maximum value as wt=90°, so in~\omega t=1.
This maximum value for the em is called the peak voltage, and is given by: \epsilon_{0}=\
omega NB Therefore: \epsilon=\epsilon_{0}sin~\omega t
Example 8.4
Calculate the peak voltage of a simple generator if the square armature has sides of 5.40 cm
and it contains 120 loops. It rotates in a magnetic field of 0.80T at the rate of 110 revolutions
per second.
Solution =wNABsin(wt) We can find that the maximum emf will occur when Sinwt =1 So
that \epsilon_{max}=\omega NAB so that But \omega=2\pi f = (2)×(110.0Hz) × (120 turns) x
E= =35.8V (5.4 x 10m²) x (0.807)
That is, the output voltage is 36V.

8.2 Simple AC circuits

The basic element in a DC circuit is a resistor which controls the direct current voltage in
A.C circuits, the basic elements are the:
o Resistor (R)
o Inductor (L)
o Capacitor (C)

The current and voltage in A.C circuits are controlled by these elements.

AC Circuit through Resistance

The figure below shows a resistor of resistance R connected with an alternating voltage
source.
Figure 8.11
At any time t , the instantaneous value V of potential difference across the terminals A and B

of resistor is given by:

V = V sinwt --------(1)
Where V is the peak value of the alternating voltage, and \theta=\omega t_{2} is the phase
angle. The instantaneous value of current I flowing the circuit at instant tis given by Ohm's
I=V/R=V_{0}sin\omega t/R=V_{0}/R sinwt ------- (2)
from the equation (2), the value of current be maximum t=90^{\circ} s0~sin~t=1 Then, the
instantaneous value of current will be,
I = I sinwt-------(3)
So by observing the equation (1) and (3), we see there is no phase difference between the
applied voltage and current flowing through the circuit. Meaning, the phase angle between
voltage and current is zero. Hence, in a pure resistive AC Circuit , the current is in phase with
the voltage. This can be expressed in a waveform as shown in the figure below.
Figure 8.12
Hence the power in the resistance is given by usual equation:
P=I^{2}R=VI=V^{2}/R
AC Circuit through Capacitor
Alternating current can flow through a capacitor. This can be explained by a simple
Experiment. A low power bulb is connected in series with 1µF capacitor to the main supply
through a switch as shown in the figure below. When the switch is closed. the bulb lights up.
Let us see how does A. C pass through the capacitor. The current flows because the plates
free on capacitor are continuously charged, discharged and again charged the other way
round - the alternating voltage source.
The alternating voltage V applied to the capacitor is represented by the equation
V = V sinwt -------(1)
The charge on the capacitor is at any instant is given by
q=CV
q=CV sinwt (2)
If we compare equation 1 and 2 we see that both V and q are proportional to sinwt Thus, q
will vary in the same way as applied voltage. V and q are in phase as show in the figure
below.
Figure 8.14
The reactance of a capacitor is represented by X and is given by: X Where V and I are the
r.m.s values of voltage and current.
X = Vr.m.s/Irams
The unit of X, is Ohm Q.
The (capacitive) reactance X, depends upon the capacitance C and the frequency of A.C is
obvious from the equation.
X =1//wc = 1/2pifc where w= 2πf

Note: Reactance is a measure of the opposition offered by a capacitor to the flow of A.C
AC Circuit through Inductor

An inductor is usually in the form of a coil or a solenoid. Consider a circuit which contains a
pure inductance only, resistance is negligible as shown in the figure below.
Figure 8.1

As we know that self-inductance opposes the change of current therefore when an alternating
voltage is applied across the inductor, it must oppose the flow of A.C which is continuously
changing. The changing current sets up a back (induced) emf in the coil and is given by:
=L ΔΙ At Where L is inductance of the inductor. ..(1)
To maintain the current, the applied voltage V must be equal to the back emf (2) ΔΙ
Comparing equation 1 and 2, we get v=L At
Since L is constant, therefore V
By using i = I sin2nft, we draw I-T graph as shown in the figure below
Figure 8.16
The Reactance of an inductor (X) is given by: X = Vr.m.s/ r.m.s Where Vr.m.s and I_ are the
r.m.s values of voltage and current. The unit of X is Ohm Ω.
The (inductive) reactance X, depends upon the inductance L and the frequency for 1. Find
A.C as it is clear from the equation.
X = wL=2nfL .Now since 2n is constant, therefore, X, is directly proportional to f and L.
Example 8.5
A 100 µF capacitor is connected to an alternating voltage of 24V and frequency 50Hz.
Calculate;
a) The reactance of the capacitor, and
b) The current in the circuit.
Solution
Given: C=100µF-100x10°F, V=24V. f=50Hz, Xc=? I=?
X_{c}=\frac{1}{2\pi fC}=\frac{1}{2\times3.14\times50\times100\times10^{-5}}=31.8\
Omega.
b)X = Vr.m.s /I or I r.m.s = Vr.m.s / X 24/3.18=0.75A..
Example 8.6
Find the value of the current and inductive reactance when A.C voltage of 220V at 50HZ is
passed through an inductor of 10H.
Solution
Given: V = 220V f=50Hz , I r.m.s = X=?
a.Vr.m.s = I r.m.s X. I r.m.s V/X = V/ Wl = V/2pi fl
I = 1/2x3.14x50x10) =220/3140 = 0.073A.
B. X = wl = 2pifl X =2x3.14x50x10 =3140 omega.
8.3.Transformers
A transformer is an electrical device used for raising or lowering the voltage in an AC circuit.
A single phase voltage transformer consists of two coils of wire wrapped on an iron core as
shown in the figure below and is used to change the voltage. It consists of a primary and a
secondary coil wound on the same iron core.
An alternating current in one coil creates a continuously changing magnetic flux through the
core. This change of flux induces an alternating emf in the other coil.
We will assume the primary side of the transformer as the side that usually takes power, and
the secondary as the side that usually delivers power. Main parameter of a single phase
transformer are shown in this diagram.
Transformer construction (Single phase)

Where:
V = is the primary voltage.
V = is the number of primary windings.
V = is the number of Secondary windings.
Phi = is the Flux linkage.
A transformer works on the following principles:
a)the alternating current in the primary coil produces an alternating magnetic flux in the soft
iron former.
b)The soft iron core strengthens the magnetic field produced by the current in the primary
coil.
C)The alternating flux in the transformer is transmitted round the core and cuts the secondary
coil.
d)the changing magnetic flux in the secondary coil induces an alternating e.m.f across the
ends of secondary coil.
The figure below shows the construction of a simple transformer. The primary coil of N turns
of wire is wound around an iron core. The secondary coil of N turns is wound on the opposite
side of the core.
a)Schematic diagram of transformer, b) a real-life transformer c) a transformer symbol.
Note: there is no electrical connection between the primary coil and the second coil. Energy
is transferred from one to the other via the magnetic field in the core.
Transformers do not create energy but instead they lose some energy during the
change of voltage. We will discuss the three types of energy losses in transformer The
efficiency of a transformer is usually very high. Thus, we may usually neglect losses and
write:
Power in primary (P_{p})= Power in secondary (P)
V_{p}I_{p}=V_{S}I,
The voltage ratio is the ratio of the numbers of turns on the two coils, the current ratio I is the
inverse ratio of the numbers of turns:
Is the inverse ratio of the number of turns:
I/I = V p / V = N p / Ns
This is known as the transformer rule. It relates the number of turns on the coils to the input
and output voltages.
Where:
V_{c} is the e.m.f induced across the secondary coil
V_{D} is the voltage across the primary coil
N_{s} is the number of turns in the secondary coil
N_p} is the number of turns in the primary coil.
1. When N_{S}>N_{p} the output voltage is greater than the input voltage. This is known as
a step-up transformer.
The terms step-up and step-down refer to changes in the alternating voltages not to the
currents.
the realm of power distribution is shown in the figure below.
Example 8.7
A 12v, 96W heater is run from a transformer connected to the 230 V mains supply. Assuming
that there are no energy losses in the transformer, calculate:
a. The current in the heater
b. The current input to the transformer.
Solution
a.P=V. I_{1}=P/V_{1}=96/12=8.0A
b. V_{A}I_{A}=V_{D}I_{B} 12\times8=230\times l
Therefore:
I=12\times8/230=0.42A
Example 8.8
A transformer steps down a mains voltage of 120V to 5V for a tablet computer .The computer
requires 1.0W of power to operate correctly. There are 2300 turns on the primary coil of the
transformer. Calculate the number of turns on the secondary coil.
Solution
PNPNVN/V=5x2300/120 = 96 turns Vs Ns
Example 8.9
The primary current in a transformer is 10.0 A. If the primary coil has turns and the
secondary has 550 turns, what current flows in the secondary coil?
Solution
IS/Ip= Np /Ns ‘ I = I N /N =( 10.0)(550)/2500 =2.20A.
Prepared by: Hassan A/wahid Mukhtar ( Dr Honest love)
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