MINOR PROJECT

ON

COMPUTER NETWORK

CONTENTS
1. What Is Network………………………………...8
2. Models of Network Computing.…….…….12
3. Networking Model…………………….….……16
4. Network Hardware…………………….………18
5. Topologies………………………………….…….23
6. Switching……………………………….…….…...39
7. Network Services…………………………….….46
8. OSI Model…………………………………...…..48
9. TCP/IP……………………………………………..62
10. UDP………………………………………………65
11. Subnetting……………………………………….68
12. Supernetting…………………………………….72
13. Protocol Suit……………………..…………….76
14. Internet Protocols………………..…………..80
15. Media Connectivity………………..…………87
16. Connectivity Devices………………………...96
17. Network Printing………………………………107
18. Cryptography……………………………………117
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19. Bluetooth…………………………………………121
20. Broadband……………………………………….125
21. Wi-Fi………………………………..…………….126
22. Network Troubleshooting……..…………..130
23. LAN Setup……………………………………….134

About the Project

A computer network allows sharing of resources and
information among interconnected devices. In the 1960s, the
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) started funding
the design of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
ARPANET for the United States Department of Defense. It
was the first computer network in the world. Development of
the network began in 1969, based on designs developed during
the 1960s

Purpose
Computer networks can be used for several purposes:
 Facilitating communications: Using a network, people can
communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant
messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls,
and video conferencing.
 Sharing hardware: In a networked environment, each
computer on a network may access and use hardware
resources on the network, such as printing a document on
a shared network printer.
 Sharing files, data, and information: In a network
environment, authorized user may access data and

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 information stored on other computers on the network.
The capability of providing access to data and information
on shared storage devices is an important feature of many
networks.
 Sharing software Users connected to a network may run
application program on remote computers.
 Information preservation.
 Security.
 Speed up.

What is a Network?
A network is a set of devices connected by media links.
A node can be a computer, printer or any other device
capable of sending and receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.

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 Network
The links connecting the devices are often called
communication channels.

NETWORK CRITERIA:-To be considered

effective and efficient a network must meet a number of
criteria. The most important of these are performance,
reliability and security.
1.PERFORMANCE:-Performance can be measured
in many ways, including transit time and response
time.

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 Transit time:-It is amount of time required for a
message to travel from one device to another.
Response time:-Response time is the elapsed
time between an inquiry and a response.
The performance of a network depending on a number
of factors including the number of users , the type of
transmission medium, the capability of the connected
hardware and the efficiency of the software.

 Number of users:-Having a large number of

concurrent users can slow response time in a
network not designed to coordinate heavy traffic
loads. The design of a given network is based on an
assessment of users that will be communicated at
any one time.
 Type of transmission medium:-The
medium defines the speed at which data can travel
through a connection(the data rate).Today’s
networks are moving to faster and faster
transmission media, such as fiber – optic cabling.
A medium that can carry data at 100 megabits per
second is 10 times more powerful than a medium
that can carry data at only 10 megabits per second.

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  Hardware:-The type of hardware included in a
network in a network affects both the speed and
capacity of transmission.
 Software:-The software used to process data at
the sender, receiver and intermediate modes also
affects network performance. Well designed
software can speed the process and make
transmission more effective and efficient.
Performance is often evaluated by to network matrices:-
throughput and delay. We often need more throughputs
and less delay try to send more data to the network, we
may increase the delay because of traffic congestion in
the network.
 Throughput: - It is the total output of a network is
known as the throughput.
 Delay: - The time lack behind while completing the
task is called as delay.
2.RELIABILITY: - Network reliability is measured by
the frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to
receiver from a failure and the networks robustness in
a catastrophe.
Frequency of failure: - All networks fail occasionally. A
Network that fails often however is more useful than one
that does not.
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Catastrophe: - Networks must be protected from
catastrophic events such as fire, earthquake, or theft.
One protection against unforeseen damage is a reliability
system to back up network software.
3.SECURITY: - Network security issues include
protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting
data from damage and development and
implementing policies and procedures for recovery
from breaches and data losses.
Unauthorized access:-For a network to be useful
sensitive data must be protected from unauthorized
access .Protection can be accomplished at a number of
levels .At the lowest level are user identification codes
and passwords. At the higher level are encryption
techniques. In these mechanisms, data are
systematically altered in such a way that if they are
intercepted by an unauthorized user, there will be
unintelligible.
Viruses:-Because a network is accessible from many
points, it can be susceptible to computer viruses. A
virus is illicitly introduced code that damages the
system. A good network is protected from viruses by
hardware and software designed specifically for that
purpose.

Uses of network:-
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1) Resource Sharing:-The mainly purpose of
networking is resource sharing. The resources can be
shared as many as we want and this also reduced cost
.For e.g. a printer is being shared by many computers.
2) Communication:-The other purpose of networking
is communication. We can communicate from one
device to another by networking.

Models of Network Computing:-

1) Centralized:-The centralize model uses the star
topology. At the center there is one server and called
as hub. The devices are not directly linked to each
other. If one device wants to send data to another, it
sends the data to the controller, which then relays the
data to the other connected device. This network is
totally dependent on the server.
 Advantages:-
1) Easy Backup:-Centralized network computing is
having easy backup means that all the data is secure in
the server.
2) Low cost: - The system also has low cost as compare
to another system. It requires less cabling, so it having
low cost.

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3) Security: - This system provides the security from
unauthorized person’s .We can secure our data by using
the password at server.

Centralized
 Disadvantages:-
1) Low speed:-The system has low speed for
transferring of data from one system to another. So
it is also time consuming.
2) Dependency:-If the server fails then the whole
system will fail because the system is dependent on
the server.
2) Distributed: - It uses the bus topology. All the
devices are connected through one main cable to
another. If one device wants to communicate with
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 another then it can easily communicate. There is no
server in the system and data can transfer directly
from one system to another.

Distributed
 Advantages:-
1) Direct communication: - There is no complexity in
the system so there direct communication is easily
available from one system to another.
2) Quick Access: - The data can be reach to their
destination very fast without any server so it having quick
access of data.
3) Independently working: - The systems are
independently working means that they are not
dependent on any server.
4) Multiple users can work:-This system can be
accessed by many users as wants to access the data at a
time.
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 Disadvantages:-
1) More acceptable to virus: - In this the virus can
transfer from one computer to another very easily
through data because only one main cable is
responsible for this system. So it is very prone to
virus.
2) Backup difficult:- If one system fails then the data
also will destroy but if the main cable fails then whole
system will broken as there is backup very difficult.

3) Collaborative:-It is combination of centralized and

distributed system. It uses both stars as well as bus
topologies. It is very efficient much efficient for
multiple users as many users can work together in this
system.
 Advantages:-
1) Extremely fast:-This system is very fast as
compare to centralized and distributed system.
2) Multiple users can work:-It can be accessed by
many users at a time.
 Disadvantages:-
1) More prone to virus:-This system is very much
acceptable to viruses. The viruses can be easily
defect this system.

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 2) Backup difficult:-There is very much difficulty
for backup.

NETWORKING MODELS
Network model tells us how the computer can be inter-
connected .Computer network are created by different
entities. Standard are needed so that these
heterogeneous networks can communicate with one
another. The two best known standards are the OSI
model and the internet model.
There are the two types of connection-:
1) Peer to peer
2) Client to server
Peer to peer-: In peer to peer networking each node
acts as a client as well as server. A peer to peer network
exploits diverse connectivity between nodes in the
network and the commutative band width of network
node rather than conventional centralized resources
where a relatively low no. of servers provides the
centralized resources where a relatively low no. of servers
provides the centralized management. Every person can,
in principle, communicate with one or more other
people; there is no fixed division into clients and servers.
Peer to peer communication really hit the big time

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around 2000 with a service called nester, which at its
peak had over 50 million music fans swapping music, in
what was probably the biggest copyright infringement in
all of recorded history. The idea was fairly simple.
Client to server-: It is a computing architecture which
separates the client from a server and is almost
implemented over a computer network. Each client or
server connected to a network can also be refers as a
node. This type of architect is sometime refers to as two
tier. It allows devices to show files and resources. Each
client software can sent data request to more connected
to a server in other end a server accepts their request
process them and return the requested information to
the particular client .it is widely used and forms the basis
of much network usage it is applicable when the client
and server are both in same building, but also when they
are far apart. For example when a person at home
accesses a page on the www, the same model is
employed, with the remote web server being the server
and the user’s personal computer being the client.
Undermost condition one server can handle a large
number of clients.

NETWORK HARDWARE:-
1) TRANSMISSON TECHNOLOGY

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2) SCALE

1) Transmission Technology: - There are two

types of transmission technology that are in
widespread use. They are as follows:-
1. Broadcast links: - broadcast networks have a
single communication channel that is shared
by all the machines on the network short
messages called packets sent by any machine
are received by all the others. An address
field within the packet specifies the intended
recipient. Upon receiving a packet, machine
checks the address field. If the packet is
intended for the receiving machine processor
the packet. If the packet is intended for some
other machine, it just ignored.
Multicasting: - Broadcast systems also support
transmission to a subset of the machines, known
as multicasting. One possible scheme is to reserve
one bit to indicate multicasting. The remaining
address bits can hold a group number. Each
machine can subscribe to any or all of the groups.
When a packet is sent to a certain group, it is

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 delivered to all machines subscribing to that
group.
2. Point to point links: - Point to point network
consist of many connections between individual
pairs of machines. To go from the source to the
destination a packet on this type of network may
have to first visit one or more intermediate
machines often multiple routes, of different
lengths are possible, so finding good ones is
important in point-to-point networks. Smaller,
geographically localized networks tend to use
broadcasting, whereas larger networks usually
point-to-point. Point-to-point transmission with
one sender and one receiver is sometimes called
unicasting.
2) Scale-: According to scale the network are
divided into three categories:-
LAN
WAN
MAN
1. LAN:-Local Area Network
LAN’s are privately owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
They are widely used to connect personal
computers and workstations in company offices and

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 factories to share resources and exchange
information.

LAN
LAN’s are distinguishing from other kinds of
networks by three characteristics:-
Size
Transmission Technology
Topology
LAN’s are restricted in size, which means that worst
case transmission time is bounded and known in
advance. It also simplifies network management. LAN’s
uses a transmission technology consisting of a cable to
which all the machines are attached like the telephone
company used in rural areas.
Traditional LAN’s run at speeds of 10 MBPS to 100
MPBS, have low delay and make very few errors. Newer
LAN’s operate at up to 10 GBPS. LAN uses ring
topology and ring topology.
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 2. WAN:-Wide Area Network
A WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a
country or continent. It contains a collection of
machines intended for running programs. In WAN,
the subnet consists of two distinct components:
 Transmission lines
 Switching elements
Subnet is a collection of routers and communication
lines that moved packets from the source host to the
destination. Transmission lines move bits between
machines. They can be made of copper wire, optical
fiber or even radio links. In most WAN’s, the network
contains numerous transmission lines, each one
connecting a pair of router. Nearly all WAN’s have store
and forward subnets.

Speed of WAN is around 20 GBPS.

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 WAN
3) MAN:-Metropolitan area network
A MAN covers a city .The best example of MAN is
the cable television network available in many cities.

A MAN might be operated by a single organization but it

usually will be used by many organizations to
interconnect all its branches across a city.

TOPOLOGIES:-
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The term topology refers to the way in which a network s
laid out physically. Two or more devises connect to a
link two or more links form a topology. The topology of
a network is geometric representation of the relationship
of all the links and linking devices to one another.
Network topology is the layout pattern of
interconnections of the various elements (links, nodes
etc.) of a computer network.
Classification of topology:-
 Physical Topology
 Logical Topology
 Signal Topology
Any particular network topology is determined only by
the graphical mapping of the configuration of physical
and/or logical connections between nodes. A local area
network (LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits
both a physical topology and a logical topology.
I. Physical Topology: - Physical topology means the
physical design of a network including the devices,
location and cable installation. Any given node in
the LAN has one or more links to one or more
nodes in the network and the mapping of these links
and nodes in a graph results in a geometric shape

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 that may be used to describe the physical topology
of the network.
II. Logical Topology: - Likewise, the mapping of the
data flow between the nodes in the network
determines the logical topology of the network. The
physical and logical topologies may or may not be
identical in any particular network. Logical
topologies are often closely associated with media
access control (MAC) methods and protocols. The
logical topologies are generally determined by
network protocols as opposed to being determined
by the physical layout of cables, wires, and network
devices or by the flow of the electrical signals,
although in many cases the paths that the electrical
signals take between nodes may closely match the
logical flow of data, hence the convention of using
the terms 'logical topology' and 'signal topology'
interchangeably. Logical topologies are able to be
dynamically reconfigured by special types of
equipment such as routers and switches.
III. Signal Topology: - The mapping of the actual
connections between the nodes of a network, as
evidenced by the path that the signals take when
propagating between the nodes.
Types of Topologies:-

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1) Bus Topology: - It is a multipoint point topology.
One long cable acts as a backbone to link the devices
in a network. Nodes are connected to bus cable by
drop line and taps. A drop line is a connection
running between the device and the main cable.

A tap is a connector that either splices into the main

cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create
a contact with the metallic core. There should be
limited number of taps used because signal becomes
weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther.

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  ADVANTAGES:
1. Less Cabling:-Bus uses less cabling because
devices are connected only through a single main
cable.
2. Ease of installation
3. Easy to extend
4. Simple wiring and cheaper

 DISADVANTAGES:-
1. Difficult fault recognisation or isolation.
2. If main cable fails then all the network will broke
down.
3. It is difficult to move and change since they are all
link up together.

Bus Topology
Types of bus topology:-

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 Linear bus: - The type of network topology in which
all of the nodes of the network are connected to a
common transmission medium which has exactly
two endpoints (this is the 'bus', which is also
commonly referred to as the backbone) all data that
is transmitted between nodes in the network is
transmitted over this common transmission medium
and is able to be received by all nodes in the
network virtually simultaneously.
 Distributed bus: - The type of network topology in
which all of the nodes of the network are connected
to a common transmission medium which has more
than two endpoints that are created by adding

Distributed Star
branches to the main section of the transmission
medium – the physical distributed bus topology
functions in exactly the same fashion as the physical
linear bus topology?
2) Star Topology: - Each device has a dedicated
point to point link only to the central controller,
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usually called a hub. The devices are not directly
linked to each other.

Star Topology
If one device wants to send data to anther it sends
the data to the controller, which then relays the data
to the other connected device. In a Star Network the
entire network is dependent on the hub so if the
entire network is not working then there could be a
problem with the hub.

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This feature makes it easy to troubleshoot by offering a
single point for error connection ad at the same time the
dependency is also very high on that single point.
 ADVANTAGES:-
1. A Star Network Topology is very easy to
manage because of its simplicity in functionality.
2. The problems can be easily located logically in a
Star Topology and therefore is easy to
troubleshoot also.
3. The Star Topology is very simple in format so it
is very easy to expand on the Star Topology.

 DISADVANTAGES:-
1. The Star Topology is fully dependant on the hub
and the entire working of the network depends on
the hub.
2. If there are many nodes and the cable is long then
the network may slow down and also it is difficult
to expand.

Types of star topology:-

 Extended Star:- A type of network topology in
which a network that is based upon the physical star
topology has one or more repeaters between the
central node (the 'hub' of the star) and the
peripheral or 'spoke' nodes, the repeaters being used
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 to extend the maximum transmission distance of the
point-to-point links

Extended Star
Between the central node and the peripheral nodes
beyond that this is supported by the transmitter power of
the central node or beyond that which is supported by
the standard upon which the physical layer of the
physical star network is based. If the repeaters in a
network that is based upon the physical extended star
topology is replaced with hubs or switches, then a hybrid
network topology is created that is referred to as a
physical hierarchical star topology, although some texts
make no distinction between the two topologies.

 Distributed Star: - A type of network topology

that is composed of individual networks that are
based upon the physical star topology. Connected
together in a linear fashion – i.e., 'daisy-chained' –
with no central or top level connection point (e.g.,
two or more 'stacked' hubs, along with their
associated star connected nodes or 'spokes').

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 Distributed Star

3) Ring Topology: - In ring topology, each device

has a dedicated point to point line configuration only
with the two devices on either side of it.
A signal is passed along the ring in one direction,
from device, until it reaches its destination. Each
machine or computer has a unique address that is
used for identification purposes. The signal passes
through each machine or computer connected to the
ring in one direction.

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 Ring topologies typically utilize a token passing
scheme, used to control access to the network. By
utilizing this scheme, only one machine can transmit
on the network at a time. A token is used for
addressing which is a kind of value, address or
identification.

The device which has the token can transmit the data
and token can be one system at one time. A signal is
circulate at all time. If one device does not receive a
signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm.
The alarm alerts the network operator to the
problem and its location.
Dual ring: - It is bidirectional that it can transmit
the data in both the directions. But at a time it can
transmit data only in one direction either clockwise
or anticlockwise.
Dual Ring

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 ADVANTAGES:-
1. Less cabling: - As devices are connected point to
point line configuration so less cabling is required.
2. Easy to install and reconfigure: - Each device is
linked only to its immediate neighbors. To add or
delete a device require moving only two
connections.
 DISADVANTAGES:-
1. Time consuming: - It takes time to transmit data
from one computer to another because each
device has to wait for token to transfer the data.
2. Difficult to diagnose fault: - A break in the
network can break the entire network.
4) Mesh Topology: - In a mesh topology, every
device as a dedicated point to point link to every
other device. The term dedicated means that the link
carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects.

Mesh Topology

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The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to
the exponent of the number of subscribers, assuming
that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to
and including all the endpoints, is approximated.

Types of mesh topology:-

 Fully mesh: - The physical fully connected mesh
topology is generally too costly and complex for
practical networks, although the topology is used
when there are only a small number of nodes to be
interconnected. No nodes are separated.
 Partially mesh: - The type of network topology in
which some of the nodes of the network are
connected to more than one other node in the
network with a point-to-point link – this makes it
possible to take advantage of some of the
redundancy that is provided by a physical fully
connected mesh topology without the expense and
complexity required for a connection between every
node in the network. The partially connected mesh
topology, all of the data that is transmitted between
nodes in the network takes the shortest path (or an
approximation of the shortest path) between nodes,
except in the case of a failure or break in one of the
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 links, in which case the data takes an alternative path
to the destination.
 ADVANTAGES:-
1. Use of dedicated links guarantees that each
connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when
links must be shared by the multiple devices.
2. It is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does
not incapacitate the entire system.
3. Point to point links makes fault isolation or
identification easy.
4. Physical boundaries prevent other users from going
access to messages.
 DISADVANTAGES:-
1. There are more cables used.
2. The cables are overloaded data to transfer so; there
are more chances of traffic conjunction.
3. The hardware required to connect each link can be
prohibitively expensive.
4. Installation and reconfiguration is difficult because
every device must be connected to other device.
5) Tree Topology: - A tree is a variation of a star. As
in star, nodes in tree are linked to a control hub that
controls the traffic to the network. The central hub
in tree is an active hub.

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 The type of network topology in which a central
'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is
connected to one or more other nodes that are one
level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level)
with a point-to-point link between each of the second
level nodes and the top level the central 'root' node,
while each of the second level nodes that are
connected to the top level central 'root' node will also
have one or more other nodes that are one level
lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected
to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level
central 'root' node being the only node that has no
other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy
of the tree is symmetrical.)

Tree Topology
Each node in the network having a specific fixed
number, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level
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in the hierarchy, the number, being referred to as the
'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.
An example of tree topology is in cable TV technology
where the main cable from the main office is divided
into main branches and each branch is divided into
smaller branches and so on.

 ADVANTAGES:-
1. It allows mare devices to be attached to a single
central hub and can therefore increase the
distance a signal can travel through the devices.
2. It allows the network to isolate and priories
communication from different computers
3. It is easy to expand as many nodes can be
connected.
 DISADVANTAGES:-
1. If the root fails than the entire network will broke
down.
2. It requires more cables.

6) Hybrid Topology: - Hybrid networks use a

combination of any two or more topologies in such a
way that the resulting network does not exhibit one
of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.).
For example, a tree network connected to a tree
network is still a tree network, but two star networks
connected together exhibit a hybrid network
topology.

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 A hybrid topology is always produced when two
different basic network topologies are connected.
Two common examples for Hybrid network are: star
Ring network and star bus network

Hybrid Topology
 A Star Ring network consists of two or more star
topologies connected using a multi-station access
unit (MAU) as a centralized hub.
 A Star Bus network consists of two or more star
topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus
trunk serves as the network's backbone).
 ADVANTAGES:-
1. It can expand easily.
2. Provides more paths to transmit the data.
 DISADVANTAGES:-
1. Requires more cabling.
2. Fault isolation is difficult.

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SWITCHING
Switching is a method of joining various computers and
other networking components with each other without
having wires links from every one component to each
other.

Switching
A switched network consists of a series of interlinked
nodes called switches. Switches are hardware and
software device capable of creating temporary
connections between two or more devices link to the
switch but not to each other. In a switch network, some
of the nodes are connected to the communicating
devices. Others are used only for routing. There are
three methods for switching:-
1) Circuit switching:-Circuit switching creates a physical
connection between two devices such as phones or
computers. When one computer places a telephone
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 call, the switching equipment within the telephone
system seeks our physical path all the way from
telephone to receiver’s telephone. This technique is
called circuit switching. A circuit switching switch is a
device with n inputs and m inputs that creates a
temporary connection between as input link and an
output link. The no. of inputs does not have to
match the number of outputs.

Circuit switching is of two types:-

Space division switches:-in this the path in the circuit are
separated from each other spatially. This technology was
originally designed for use in analog networks but in used
currently in both analog and digital networks.
Time division switches:-it uses time division multiplexing
to achieve switching. Two popular methods used in time
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division multiplexing are the time slot inter-change and
the TDM bus.
There are three phases for circuit switching:-
Connection establish: - In this phase the physical path is
to be established. To establish the connection it is the
second phase.
Data transfer: - In this phase data have to transfer
between the source and destination.
Connection release: - After transferring the whole data
connection has to release and for another data to transfer
again connection needs to be established. First all the
data will be sending from the first path then after
terminating this path, new path will be formed for next
data to be transmitted.
 ADVANTAGES:-
1. There is no delaying so any wastage of time for the
transmission of data.
2. This is very useful for low speed transmission.
 DISADVANTAGES:-
1. It is having very low speed.
2. In this switching where the path is not needed, then
there is the wastage of channel or media.
2) Message switching: - In this a node receives a
message, stores it until the appropriate route is free,
37
Then sends it along. Store and forward is considered a
switching technique. Because there is no direct link
between the sender and receiver of a transmission. a
message is delivered to the node along one path then
routed along another to its destination. In this message
switching, messages are stored and relayed from
secondary storage while in packet switching the packets
are stored and forwarded from primary storage (RAM).

Message Switching
Two types of message switching:-
1) Store and forward: - In this path is established
dynamic (it can change) there can be many
receivers but there need only the sender to send
the data.

38
 2) Broadcasting: - In broadcasting there is one
address field and it checks the address and
accepted by that which having data address.
 ADVANTAGES:-
1. There is no physical connection between then so
there will be no wastage of time to establish
connection between then.
2. Connection are dynamic means path for
communication can change, it is not fixed.
 DISADVANTAGES:-
1. The buffer has the limited length and the message
can be large or small so for small message the space
for storage will be wasted.
2. The buffer has to wait for the entire data to
transmit, so it is time consuming.
3) Packet switching: - In a packet switched
network, data are transmitted in discrete units of
potentially variable length blocks called packets.
Packet Switching

39
The maximum length of the packet is established by the
network. Larger transmissions are broken up into
multiple packets. Each packet contains not only data but
also has a header with control information. The packets
are sending over node to node. At each node, the packet
is stored briefly then routed according to the information
in its header.
Two types:-
1) Datagram protocol:-in this each packet is treated
indecently from all others. Even when one packet
represents just as piece of multiple packet
transmission the network treats it as through it
existed alone. Packets in this technology are
referred to as datagram.
 In this approach dynamic path is established. It is
connectionless. It also contain routing table which
having destination addressed port address. In this
there is a routing table which contains the
destination address and the port address.
2) Virtual circuit approach:-in this the relationship
between all packets belonging to a message or
session is preserved. A single route is chosen
between sender and receiver at the beginning of the
session. When the data are sent all packets of the

40
 transmission travel one after another along that
route.
Three phases: -
1) Connection establish: - Need of user to establish
connection.
2) Data transfer: - Whether the data transferring is
through routing table.
3) Connection release: - After transferring the data
connection is release.
Two types of virtual circuit approach:-
1 ) Switched virtual circuit:-it is comparable
conceptually to dialup lines in circuit switching. In
this method a virtual circuit is created whenever it is
needed and exists only for the duration of the
specific exchange.
2 Permanent virtual circuit:-these are comparable to
leased lines in circuit switching. In this method, the
same virtual circuit is provided between two users on
a continuo’s basis.
 Advantages:-
1) There are small sizes of packets and it is very fast.
2) It follows the dynamic path.
3) There are no chances of data loss.
 Disadvantages:-
41
 1) Data can be out of order when the source sends
the data to destination.
2) At destination the data has to reassemble to
create whole data.

NETWORK SERVICES:-
The network services can be services provided by the
network. Computer networking provides by the network
computer networking provides several important
services, both to organization and individual used. These
services can be provided in two ways:-

42
1) Connection Oriented: To use a connection
oriented network service, the service user first
establishes a connection, uses the connection and
then release the connection. The essential aspect of
a connection .The essential aspect of a connection is
that it acts like a tube, the sender pushes objects in
at one end and the receiver takes them one to the
other end.

2) Connectionless Service: - It is moderated after

the postal system. Each message carries the full
destination address and each one is routed through
the system independent of all the others. Normally,
when two messages are send to the same destination
the first one to arrive.

43
OSI MODEL
OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION
It was established in 1947, the international standard
organization (ISO) is a multinational dedicated to over
wide. The purpose of OSI model is to show how to
facility communication between different systems without
requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware
and software. The OSI model it is not a protocol it is a
model for understanding and designed network
architecture that is flexible.
LAYERED ARCHITECTURE:-
The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layer
Physical, Data link, Network, Transport, Session,
Presentation, and Application. As the message travels, it
may pass through many intermediate nodes. These
intermediate nodes usually involve only the first
three layers of OSI model. This communication is
governed by an agreed-upon series of rules and
conventions called protocols. The process on each
machine that communicates at a given layer is peer to
peer process.

44
 Layered Architecture of OSI Model
Interfaces between Layers:-
The passing of the data and networks information down
through the layers of the sending device and back up
through the layers of the receiving devices mode possible
by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers.

45
1) PHYSICAL LAYER: - It defines the
procedures and functions that physical devices and
interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.
FUNCTIONS:
1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and
medium: - It defines the characteristics of the
interface between the device and transmission
medium, also defines type of transmission media.
2. Representation of bits: - It consists of stream of
bits with no interpretation. To be transmitted bits
must be encoded into signals electrical or optical,
and defines type of encoding.

46
3. Data Rate: - The transmission rate i.e. the number
of bits sent in each second is also defined by the
physical layer.
4. Synchronization of bits: - The sender and receiver
not only must use the same bit rate but also must be
synchronized at bit level.
5. Line Configuration: - It is concerned with the
connecting of devices in the media in a point- to –
point configuration two devices are connected
through a dedicated link.
6. Physical Topology: - It defines how devices are
connected to make a network by using any topology.
7. Transmission Mode: - It defines direction of
transmission between two devices as simplex, half-
duplex or full-duplex.
8. Signals: - Data is transmitted from one computer to
another computer in the form of signals. These
signals can be analog signals or digital signals.
9. Switching: - It defines how a link will be created
from sender to receiver and how data would be
transferred through this link. It used circuit
switching.
10. Frequency Spectrum: - The frequency
spectrum of a signal refers to its range of frequencies
from the lowest to the highest frequency carried by
the signal.
47
 2) DATA LINK LAYER: - It transforms the
physical layer, a raw transmission facility to a reliable
link and is responsible for node to node delivery. It
makes the physical layer appear error free to the
upper layer.
Functions:
1. Framing: - It divides the stream of bits received
from the network layer into manageable data units
called frames.
2. Physical Addressing: - It adds header to a frame to
define the physical address of the sender or receiver
of the frame.
3. Flow- Control: - The data link layer imposes of
flow control mechanism to prevent overwhelming to
the receiver.
4. Error Control: - The data link layer adds the
reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanism
to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.
5. Access Control: - When two or more devices are
connected to a same link the data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device
has control over the link at any given time.

48
Data Link Layer is divided into two parts:-
i. MAC (Media Access Control):- The MAC sub layer
defines the methods by which multiple devices share
the same media channel. It includes the contention
methods and other media details. The MAC
address is the unique hardware address that is
burned into the hardware device.
Protocols used in MAC Layer:
I. Channel allocation problem
Two Types:
1. Static Channel Allocation method: It uses FDM
(Frequency Division Multiplexing). Channels are
divided into groups. In this more number of users
cannot access the channel so there can be wastage of
channels.
2. Dynamic Allocation method: In this channel is
allocated randomly according to the requirement of
the user. For e.g. 10 users can use 1 channel.
Terms Used:
Station Model: - It can be sender.
Single Channel assumption: - In this only one channel is
assumed and that is divided into multiple servers.

49
Collision Assumption:-
Continuous Time and Slotted Time: - Data can be
sending continuously or is divided into slots.
Carrier Sense: - Station model before sending the data,
sends a false signal and checked if channel is free then
only it will send data.
Protocols used in Dynamic allocation methods are:
Random Access Protocol:
ALOHA: - It was designed for radio LAN but it is used
on shares medium. It is based on contiguous data. When
the station sends data to another station, it may attempt
to do so at same time. So, the data from two stations
having collisions.
Slotted ALOHA: - In this time is divided into slots and
force the station to send only at the beginning of the time
slot. If station misses this movement, it must wait until
the beginning of next time slot. It is mainly used to
overcome the disadvantage of ALOHA.
Disadvantage: There is a possibility of collision if two
stations try to send at the beginning of the same time slot.
ii. CSMA (Carrier sense media access): - In the CSMA
false signals are send to check whether the station is
empty or not. It can reduce the possibility of
50
 collision but it cannot eliminate it because of
propagation delay. When a station sends a frame, it
still takes time for the first bit to reach every station
and for every station to sense it.
There are two methods for CSMA:-
 CAMA/AD:- Collision Avoided
 CSMA/CD: - Collision Detected
i. LLC (Logical Link Control):- The LLC sub
layers establish and maintain links between
communicating devices.
Protocols Used in LLC:-
Noisy Channel: - The noisy channel is the error creating
protocols.
a. Stop and Wait ARQ: - Stop and Wait Automatic
Repeat Request add a simple error control
mechanism to the stop and wait protocol. Error
correction is done by keeping a copy of the sent
frames and retransmitting of the frame when timer
expires. Since the protocol uses the stop and wait
mechanism there is only one specific frame that needs
an ACK, even through several copies of the same
frame can be in the network.
b. Go back N ARQ: - In this protocol we can send
several frames before receiving acknowledgement. We

51
 keep a copy of these frames until the
acknowledgement arrives. If acknowledgement is not
received than all the frames have to send.
c. Selective repeat ARQ: - In a noisy link of a frame has
a higher probability of damage, which means the
resending of multiple frames. In this mechanism it
does not resend N frames, when just one frame is
damaged. Only then the damaged is resend.
Noiseless Channel: - It is the error free channel in which
no frames are lost, duplicated or corrupted.
a) Simplest Protocol: - It is a unidirectional protocol in
which data frames are travelling in only one direction-
from the sender to receiver. The receiver can
immediately handle any frames it receives with a
processing time that is small enough to be negligible.
The data link layer of the receiver immediately removes
the header from the frame and hands the data packet to
its network layer, which can also accept the packet
immediately. And the receiver can never be overloaded
with incoming frames.
b ) Stop and Wait:- In this the sender sends one frame,
stops until it receives confirmation from the receiver and
then sends the next frame it is also unidirectional
communication for data frames.

52
 3) NETWORK LAYER: - It is responsible for
source to destination delivery of a packet possibly
across multiple networks. It ensures that each packet
gets from its point of arise in to its final destination.
Functions:-
Logical Addressing: - The physical addressing
implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the
network boundary we need another addressing system to
help distinguish the source and destination systems. The
network layer adds a header to the packet coming from
the upper layer that among the other thongs includes the
logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
Routing: - When independent networks or links are
connected together to create an internetwork or a large
network. The connecting devices route the packets to
there their final destination.
Protocols in Network Layer:-
ARP: - Address Resolution Protocol
It finds the physical address from logical address.
RARP:-Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
It finds the logical address from the physical address.

53
IP: - Internet Protocol
It is of 32 bits used TCP and from TCP/IP to provide
communication between two devices.
ICMP: - Internet Control Message Protocol
It deals with the message that is datagram. If any error
occurs in datagram while sending data from source to
destination using IP then it is used to detect the errors.
IGMP: - Internet Group Management Protocol
It is used to handle the group membership.
4) TRANSPORT LAYER: - It is responsible for
source to destination delivery of the entire message.
It treats each one independently as though each
piece belonged to a separate message, weather or it
does.
Functions:
1. Service Point Addressing: - The transport layer
header interface must include a type of address called
as service-point address.
2. Segmentation and reassemble: - A message is
divided into segment and each segment contains a
sequence number. These numbers enables the
transport layer to reassemble the message correctly in
the destination end.
54
3. Connection- Control: - The transport layer can
either connectionless or connection oriented. The
connectionless transport layer treats each segment as
an independent packet and delivers it to the transport
layer at the destination machine.
4. Flow Control: - It performs end to end link rather
than across the single link.
5. Error Control: - The sending transport layers make
sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving
transport layer without errors, it usually achieved
through retransmission.
Protocols used in Transport Layer:
a) TCP/IP Protocol suit: - In this the IP is not used
but UDP and TCP is used.
b) IPX/SPX Protocol: - Internet Protocol Exchange-
It is a connectionless Protocol.
Sequenced Packet Exchanged- It is connection
oriented Protocol.

55
 5) SESSION LAYER: - It is the network dialog
controller established maintained and synchronizes
the interaction between communication systems.
Functions:
1. Dialog Control: - It allows communication between
two processes to take either in half -duplex or full-
duplex mode.
2. Synchronization: - It allows process to add check
points into a stream of bits. It sends the data
sequentially and provides sequence of all data.
3. Token- Management: - It manages the token for
transferring data.
6) PRESENTATION LAYER: - It is concerns
with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.
Functions:-
1. Translation: - The processes in two systems are
usually exchanging information in the forms of
character strings number and source.
2. Encryption: - It means that the sender transforms the
original information to another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
3. Compression: - Data compression reduce the number
of bits that be transmitted.

56
 7) APPLICATION LAYER: - It enables the
user weather human or software to access the
network. It provides user interfaces and support for
services such as electronic mail, remote file access
and other type of services.
Functions:-
1. Network Virtual Terminal: - It is software version of
physical terminal and allows a user to log-on to
remote host.
2. File Transfer and Management: - It allows a user to
access files in a remote computer to retrieve file
from a remote computer and to manage or control
files in a remote computer.
3. Mail Services: - It provides basis for E-mail
forwarding and storage.
Protocols used in application layer:
1. FTP: File Transfer Protocol
2. HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

57
TCP/IP
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was developed
before the OSI Model.TCP/IP protocol is made of five
layers: Physical Layer. Data link Layer, Network,
Transport and Application. The application layer in
TCP/IP can be equated with the combination of session,
presentation and application layer of the OSI model. At
the transport layer, TCP/IP two protocols TCP and user
datagram protocol. At the network layer the main
protocol defined by TCP/IP is internetworking protocol
(IP), although there are some other protocols that
support data movement in this layer. At this physical and
data link layer TCP/IP does not defines any specific
protocol. A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be
LAN, MAN, WAN.
TELNET FTP SMTP DNS
TCP UDP
IP
ARPANET SATNET LAN
TCP is a connection oriented end to end protocol. The
protocol works in collaboration with IP and adds security
and reliability to the features of IP.
TCP SEGMENT:-
TCP segment is the unit of data transfer between any two
devices that use TCP. The segment is divided into two
58
parts. The part is called as header part and other one is
called is data part.
TCP header format:

1) Source Port Address: - It defines the application

program in the source computer and is 16 bit wide.
2) Destination Port Address: - The destination port
address defines the application program in the
destination computer. It is also 16 bit wide.
3) Sequence Number: - A stream of data from the
application program may be divided into two or more
TCP segment.
4) Acknowledgement number: - The 32 bit
acknowledgement number is used acknowledge the
receipt of data from the other communicating device.
5) Header Length: - The 4- bit header length field
indicates the number of 32 bit (4 byte) words in the
TCP header.
59
6) Unused: - The 6 bit field is reserved for future use.
7) Control: - Each bit of the 6 bit control field functions
individually and independently. A bit can either
define the use of a segment.
Control Field:
URG ACK PSH RST SYN FIN

i. URG: - Urgent pointer is valid.

ii. ACK:-Acknowledgement is valid.
iii. PSH: - Push the data.
iv. RST:-Reset the connection.
v. SYN:-Synchronize sequence numbers during
the connection FIN.
vi. FIN:-Terminate the connection.
8) Window size: - The field defines the size of the
window in bytes. The length of this field is 16 bits,
which means the maximum size of the window is
65,535 bytes.
9) Checksum: - The 16 bit contains the checksum. It is
generally used in error detection.
10) Urgent pointer: - The 16 bit field, which is valid only
if the urgent flag is set. In this the pointer defines the
end of the urgent data and the start of the normal
data.
11) Options:-There can be up to 40 bytes of optional
information in the TCP header. They are used to

60
 conventional additional information to the receiver or
for alignment purpose.
UDP
User Datagram Protocol
The user datagram protocol is the simpler of the
two standards TCP/IP protocols. It is an end to end
transport protocol that adds only port addresses,
checksum error control and length information to
the data from the upper layer. UDP is called
connectionless, unreliable transport protocol.
UDP Packet Format:

1) Source Port Address:-This is the port number used by

the process running on the source host. It is 16 bit
long.
2) Destination Port Number: - Destination port number
used by the process running on the destination host. It
is also 16 bits long.
61
3) Length: - This is a 16- bit field that defines the total
length of the user datagram, header plus data.
4) Checksum: - This is used to detect errors over the
entire user datagram, and is 16-bit field.
CONCEPT OF PHISICALLY ADDRESSINIG AND
LOGICAL ADDRESSING:-
Physical Addressing: - It mainly exists in the MAC layer
(Media Access Control) of the data link layer. The data
link layer is divided into two parts-
MAC and Logical layer Control
It contains the hardware address or the machine address.
It is held by the company and it is permanent. It is the
address the node defined by its LAN and WAN. There
is no concept of classes and therefore no octets are used.
Logical Addressing: - It exits in the network layer. It is 32
bits and having 4-octats. It is known as the IP address
and can be changed by user and depending upon the
server. It uses the concept of classes and called as class
full addressing. It contains each octet of 8-bits, separated
by dot (.).
Class full Addressing: - It is called as class full addressing
because classes exist here. The IP address is divided into
two parts into host address and the network address.

62
Host Address:-It is the address of each computer and
separate address of each host computer.
Network Address: - It is the address of whole network.
The total number of networks in a class can be
calculated by n*n where n is the number of bits used to
identify the network number.
Types of Classes:-
Class A: - It is designed for large organization with the
large number of attached hosts. In this first octet of the
address is used to identify the network number and next
three octets are used to identify the host. The range of
class A is from 0 to 127.
Class B:-This is designed for mid size organizations with
tens of thousands of attached hosts. In this first two
octets are used to identify the network and next two for
host address. The range of class B varies from 128 to
191.
Class C: - It is designed for small organization with a
small number of attached hosts. The first three octets are
used to identify the network identification and last one
octet is used to identify the host address. The range of
class C is from 192 to 233.
Class D: - It is used for multicasting. Multicasting allows
copies of a datagram to be passed to a select group of
63
host rather than to individual host. The range of class D
is from 224 to 239.

Classes with their ranges

Class E: - It is reserved for the future use. The range of
class E is from 240 to 255.

Subnetting
The sub netting procedure divides a network into several
sub networks in such a way that each of these subnets has
its own address. The subnet address is created by
dividing the host address into network address.
There are five steps in subnetting:-
1. Requirement Analysis
2. Partitioning network address and host address
3. Determining the subnetting mask

64
 4. Determining subnet address
5. Determining the host address for each subnet
For e.g. IP address is 211.71.9.0
And subnets that have to create are 8 subnets by
following the five steps:
1 Requirement analysis: In this step which class has to
do subnetting and how many subnets will be there?
The class A and class B avoid creating subnetting
because there are many host computers, and class C
has the minimum number of hosts. Subnets are always
created in the power of 2. Therefore 2*2*2=8 subnets
Convert the address into binary format i.e.
11011011.01000111.00001001.00000000
2 Partitioning network address and host address: -
000.00000:- In this first three bits are assigned for
subnet bits and last five bits are assigned for host bits.
So, 2*2*2*2*2-2=30 host computers.
3 Determining the subnet mask
000 0000
111 0000 -224
Convert the subnet bits into 1’s:
255.255.255.0

65
255.255.255.224
4 Determine the address of subnet
211.71.9.0
000:00000-0
001:00000-32
010:00000-64
011:00000-96
100:00000-128
101:00000-160
110:00000-192
111:00000-224
Subnet Address:
211.71.9.0
211.71.9.32
211.71.9.64
211.71.9.96
211.71.9.128
211.71.9.160
211.71.9.192

66
211.71.9.224
5 Determining the host address:-
211.71.9.0
000 0000
000 11110-30
211.71.9.32
001 00001

001 11110-62
211.71.9.64
010 00001

010 11110-94
211.71.9.96
011 00001

011 11110-126
211.71.9.128
100 00001

67
 
100 11110-158
211.71.9.160
101 00001

101 11110-190
211.71.9.192
110 00001

110 11110-222
211.71.9.224
111 00001

111 11110-255

Supernetting: -
Most of the class A and class B address were depleted
how ever there was still a huge demand for mid size
blocks. In this super netting decrease the number of
ones in the mask. But the main disadvantages of super
netting is, there is wastage of host computers, so to
68
overcome use CIDR (classless inter domain outing)
notation. To overcome address depletion to give more
organization access to the internet, classless addressing
was designed and implemented. Here are no classes, but
the addresses are still granted in blocks.
IPV4:-Internet protocol version 4
The network layer protocol in TCP/IP protocol suite is
currently IPV4.it provides host to host communication
between systems in the internet. It is connectionless and
data is divided into packets.
IPV4 PACKET FORMAT:-

1) Version:-It indicates which version is used. And it is of

4bits.
2) Internet header length:-it tells about the word. There
are minimum 5 words and maximum 15 words.

69
3) Type of services: - It is 8bit field and it provides 8 type
of service.
In this field 8th, 9th, 10th are precedence field.
11th bit is for delay.
12th bit is for throughput.
13th bit is for reliability.
14th and 15th are reserved for future use.
4) Total length:-It determines the total length of data.
5) Identification: - Identify the packet from the source. It
identifies the source and used in destination.
6) Flags:-Two types of flag
1. Don’t fragment:-Cannot either packet further
2. More fragments:-It is used at destination, it check
destination have received data not
7) Fragment offset:-it fragment address.
8) Time to live:-It indicates that till how much time
packet alive in the protocol. It is used for checking status
that page can displayed.
9) Protocol:-whether to use TCP/IP or UDP.
10) Checksum:-for detecting the errors.

70
11) Source address:-It having the sender addresses and it
is of 32 bits.
12) Destination address:-Receiver address it is of 32 bits.
13) Optional:-It can be used or not.
Three types of connections:-
1) Security:-the security can be used or not.
2) Stick management:-if it is set path is used or one
prescribing path can be used.
3) Loose source routing:-It can go to any path as the
user wants.
14) Data:-The actual data is to be transmitted.

NEEDS OF USING IPV6

It consists of 16 bytes (octets), it is 128 bits long. To
overcome the defenses of IPV6 (internetworking
protocol, version 6) also known as IPNG
(internetworking protocol next generation) was
proposed.

71
Protocol Suite
Every layer has different protocols:
 Lower Layer Protocol-MLID
 Middle Layer Protocols-IPX,SPX,RIP & NLSP
 Upper Layer Protocols-NCP,SAP

Protocol Suit
Lower Layer Protocol:-
 MLID: - It stands for multiple inter face driver.
It deals with media. It is a LAN driver which
works on media access and data link layer. It
may be different at each station.
72
It uses two mechanisms for passing data:-
1. Random Access or Contention Method: - In this
there is no static allocation of channels. In this
sender can check the channel by sending dummy
signal that the channel is empty or not. If channel
found to be empty then the sender can send data
otherwise it has to wait. The channels are not fixed,
when a channel is used by one sender than it can be
used by the other sender when it will be free.
2. Token Passing: - Token is a unique identification
number. Which is having the token can only send
the data.
MLID work as software. It provides the interface
between user and NIC. Its main purpose is to
communicate with NIC.
Middle Layer Protocol:-
 IPX: - Internet Packet Exchange or Internetwork
Packet Exchange.
It works on network layer of OSI model and works
on Internet Layer of IPX/SPX model.
It has two functions: -
1. Logical Addressing
2. Routing

73
 It is used to route the packets in an internet work which
is called routing. Routing is the shortest and efficient path
from source to destination. It performs dynamic route
selection i.e. data can pass through any path and uses
RIP protocol for dynamic route selection.
It is a connection less datagram approach and also
unreliable protocol and not suitable for various types of
services.
It deals with the IP addresses and responsible for source
to destination delivery of packets.
 SPX: - Sequenced Packet Exchange
It works on transport layer of OSI model and
provides reliability, segmentation of data and
reassembles data at destination. It received
acknowledge after receiving the data.
 RIP: - Routing Information Protocol
It contains a routing table which contains the
address and information of different ports.
It uses a technique called as distance vector routing
to check how many hop counts a data packet can go
through.
Hop Count: - It is the number of intermediate
nodes between the sender and the receiver.
 NLSP : - Network Link Service Protocol

74
 It works on Internet layer of IPX/SPX but also on
network layer of OSI model. When any change
occurs on the network then NLSP broadcast the
information i.e. adding of node, deletion of node,
insertion of node. It can also work as routing.
Upper Layer Protocols:-
 NCP: - Network Core Protocol.
This protocol is used to share the devices on the
network. For e.g. if a printer is connected in the
network then the number of computers or nodes
can share it.
It is also responsible for sending and receiving the E-
mail.
Services provided by NCP include the file access,
printer access, accounting, security and file
synchronization.
 SAP:- Service Advertisement Protocol
It is used by file and print servers to announce their
services and addresses.
SAP advertisement is sent via SAP after 60 seconds.
These services are identified by hexadecimal number
called SAP identifier.

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INTERNET PROTOCOLS
IP is also known as ARPANET (Advanced Research
Project Agency of Networks).IP works in collaboration
with TCP because it is connectionless and unreliable
protocol.
IP protocols divided into two parts:-
 Middle layer protocol-IP, ARP, ICMP,
RIP,IGMP,OSPF, DNS, RARP
 Upper Layer Protocol-FTP, TELNET, SMTP
Middle Layer Protocols
 IP: - Internet Protocol
It is unreliable protocol because it is a connectionless
protocol. IP assumes that the reliability of underlying
layers and its best to transmission through to its
destination but with no guarantees. If the reliability is
important then it must be paired with protocol like TCP.
Two versions are used:
IPV4
IPV6
 ARP:- Address Resolution Protocol
It is used to find the physical address from the logical
address. When sender wants to send data then both

76
physical and logical address are needed but if sender
does know the receivers physical address then it generate
an ARP request which contains sender logical and
physical address and receiver’s logical address, only. The
ARP packet is broadcasting then only those node
responses which have the physical address.
PROTOCOL STACK OF ARP:-
Hardware Type (16- Protocol Type (16-
bits) bits)
Hardware Protocol Operation
Length (8- Length (8- Request
bit) bit) Reply (16-
bit)
Sender Physical Address
Sender logical Address
Destination Physical Address
Destination Logical Address

1) Header type: - It is of 16 bit field. It defines the type

of network on which ARP is running.
2) Protocol type: - It is also of 16 bit long. It defines
the type of IP
3) Hardware Length: - It is of 8 bit field defines the
length of physical address in byte.
4) Protocol length: - It defines the length o the logical
address in bytes.
5) Operation: - It defines the type of packet.
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 ICMP: - Internet Control Message Protocol.
The IP protocol has no error- reporting or no error
correcting mechanism. The datagram can be
discarded at the destination because receiver did not
receive it at predetermined time limit.
 So, the error can occurred and IP protocol has
no built in mechanism to identify the original
host.
ICMP has been designed to compensate for these
deficiencies or it is companion to IP Protocol.
Protocol stack for ICMP:-
Type (8-bit) Code (8-bit) Checksum
(16-bit)
Reset of Header
Data

1) Type: - It defines the type of message, versions

type of message can be sending.
2) Code: - It specifies reason due to which most
send. The code specifies the reason for particular
type. The reset of the header is specific for message.
Types of messages:-
1) Destination unreachable: - In this the route cannot
locate the destination.

78
 2) Time exceeded: - in this the time to live expire
then message come time exceeded.
3) Redirection: - If message is transferred to wrong
direction then message come to redirect.
4) Echo request reply: - Echo request is used to
check whether the destination is present or not
and the reply is to corresponding request.
5) Source quench: - To slow down the speed from
sender side (because sender send it very fast and
receiver cannot receive it.
 IGMP: - The IGMP gives the multicasting routers
information about the membership. A multicast router
receives thousands of packets everyday for different
groups. If a router has no knowledge about the
membership status of the hosts. It must broadcast all
the packets. It helps to create or update the list.
Packet format of IGMP:-
Type (8-bit) Maximum Checksum
Response (16-bit)
Time (8-bit)
Rest of Data
Group Address

 Type: - type of messages

1) General query: - It is the query for the entire host
group.
2) Special Query: - It is for particular Group.
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 3) Maximum Response Time:-This is 8-bit field
defines the amount of time in which a query must
be answered.
4) Group Address: - All the information about the
new group if added.
Leave the Network: - If any wants to leave the
network.
 DNS: - The domain name system is a supporting
program that is used by other program such as e-mail.
A user of one e-mail program may know as the
address of the recipient; however the IP protocol
needs the IP address. It maps the e-mail address.
 RARP:- Reverse address resolution protocol
It finds the logical address for a machine that knows
only its physical address. Each host or router is
assigned one or more logical address, which are
unique and independent of the physical address of
the machine. There is one problem occur in RARP
that the broadcasting is done at data link layer.
Upper Layer Protocols:-
1) FTP: - File transfer protocol.
It is the standard mechanism provided by the TCP/IP
for copying a file from one host to another.

80
 FTP Connection
Although transferring files from one to system to another
seems simple and straight forward. For e.g. two systems
may be different filename conventions. Two systems may
have different way to represent text and data. Two
systems may be different directory structure.
2) TELNET:- TELNET stands for terminal networks.

TELNET
It is the standard TCP/IP protocol for virtual terminal
service. TELNET enables the establishment of a
connection to create a remote system in such a way

81
 that the logical terminal appear to be a terminal at the
remote system.
3) SMTP: - Simple mail transfer protocol. The actual
transfer mail transfer is done through message transfer
agents.

SMTP
To send mail a system must have the client MTA
(message transfer agent) and to receive mail, a system
must have a system must have a server MTA. SMTP is
used three times b/w the sender and the sender’s mail,
server and b/w two mail servers and unauthorized
protocol is needed b/w the mail server and the receiver.

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MEDIA CONNECTIVITY:
It is defined as how connections are establishing in
voice, video, text and simple comprise media.
Techniques:
1) Leased Lines: - Leased line is a permanent
telephone connection between two points setup by the
telecommunication carrier. A leased line is also
sometime referring to as a dedicated line. They can be
used for telephone data or Internet services. A leased
line is a telephone line that has been leased for private
use.

Leased Line
Benefits:-
1. Faster download and upload speed
2. Wide choice of bandwidth
3. Guaranteed bandwidth for business usage

83
Typically leased lines are used by business to connect
geographically distant offices. Unlike, normal dialup
connection a leased line is always active. The fee for the
connection is fixed monthly rate.
Types:-
i. T-1: - It is a type of leased line that provides a
maximum transmission speed of 1.544 mbps and
channel supported by leased line are 24-channels
each of 64-kbps.T-1 support full-duplex
transmission mode.
 Disadvantages:-
It uses 24- channels if there are less than 24
channels than other channels will be wasted so
to overcome this, fractional T-1 line is used.
Fractional T-1:- In this according to the
requirement of user the channels are granted.
ii. T-3: - It support maximum transmission speed
44.736 mbps.
Optical fiber is used and supports high data rate so.
It is useful to
Transfer movies and also cost effective.
2) VSAT: - It stands for very small aperture terminal. It
is a satellite communication device that allows reliable
data transmission via a satellite uses small antennas of
0.9 to 1.9 meters which is about 3.7 feet. VSAT has
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 got terminal arranged in a star configuration into the
central hub station that is connected to the host
computer. VSAT configuration is made of two
segments where one segment is known as the earth
segment this segment

VSAT
Has equipment both at the central hub and at
remote location. The other segment is known as
space segment.
Frequencies:-
 C-band
 Extended C-band
 Ku-band

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VSAT Architecture:-
1. Single channel per carrier: - Permanent channel
is establishes between user and VSAT and flexibility
of adding new devices and cost increases.
2. Multi-Channel per carrier: - Multi channel
between user and VSAT, data send with higher
speed.
3. Time- Division Multiplexing: - In this links are
shared.
VSAT Access Technology: -
 PAMA: - Pre assigned multiple accesses.
Permanent VSAT connection exists between user
and VSAT and user need to pay entire link.
 DAMA: - Demand assigned Multiple Access.
According to the demand channel are allocated to
the user and connection is not permanently setup.
 Disadvantages:-
1. Heavy wind and rain can degrade the quality of
connection.
2. It is less fast than digital subscriber line but faster
than dialup.
3) PSTN: - Public Switch Telephone Network
When two computers owned by the same company
and located close to each other need to
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 communicate it is easy to run a cable between them.
However when the distance are large or there are
many computers or the cable have to pass through a
public
Road the cost of running private cables are usually
prohibited
Major Components: -
1. Local loops: - Twisted pair cables that connects
the subscriber telephone to the nearest end office or
local central office. One number is associated with
the local loops. First three numbers define the
office and next digit defines the local loops number.
2. Trunks: - Digital fiber optics connects to switching
offices.

PSTN
3. Switching Offices: - Where calls are moved from
one trunk to another.

87
Working: - If a subscriber connected to a given end
office calls another subscriber attached to same end
office the switching mechanism with in the office setup a
direct electrical connection between two local loops. This
connection remains instant for duration of call.
If the caller and cally do not have a toll offices common
then the calls are made via a regional offices called inter
toll trunk. Regional offices are at the top hierarchy of
offices being used in telephone network.
4) ICDN: - Integrated content delivery Network
It is a system of computers network together across the
Internet that cooperate transparently to deliver content to
end user.
Content Network Technique: -
Web Cashing: - Popular content sore in server when
request comes than send the content.
Server Load Balancing: - It uses switches, web content
and multilayer switch used to share the traffic among
different stations.
Request Routing: - Request only where the contents are
available.
Content Services: - Load balance
Protocols:
88
 Internet Content Adaptation protocol:- Used to
connect server only open pluggable edge service.
 P2P:- Peer to peer, low cost and efficient distribution
of content.
5) IPLC: - International Private leased circuit
Dedicated links that offers point-to –point
transmission. Capacity to connect office to other
location allows secure and reliable transfer of
information in the form of text and data.

IPLC
Features:
 High speed large volume application requiring mbps
speed.
 Dedicated point to point linkage, security and privacy
for an exclusive corporate network.
 High Quality, high availability and extreme reliability.
89
6) RF:- Radio Frequency
Radio frequency (RF) is a rate of oscillation in the
range of about 30 kHz to 300 GHz, which
corresponds to the frequency of electrical signals
normally used to produce and detect radio waves. RF
usually refers to electrical rather than mechanical
oscillations, although mechanical RF systems do exist.

Radio communication: In order to receive radio signals

an antenna must be used. However, since the antenna
will pick up thousands of radio signals at a time, a radio
tuner is necessary to tune in to a particular frequency (or
frequency range). This is typically done via a resonator –
in its simplest form, a circuit with a capacitor and a
inductor forming a tuned circuit. The resonator amplifies
oscillations within a particular frequency while reducing
oscillations at other frequencies outside the band. Often
the inductor or the capacitor of the tuned circuit is
adjustable allowing the user to change the frequencies at
which it resonates.
Radio frequency (RF) energy has been used in medical
treatments for over 75 years, generally for minimally
invasive surgeries, using radio frequency. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) uses radio frequency waves to
generate images of the human body.

90
The frequency of an RF link usually expressed in hertz.
1 Hz=1cycle/second
1 MHz=1million cycle/second

Frequencies that make part of electromagnetic spectrum:

1. Ultra –low –frequency: 0-3 Hz
2. Extremely –low –frequency: 3 Hz-3 kHz
3. very-low-frequency: 3 kHz-30 kHz
4. Low-frequency: 30 kHz-300 kHz
5. Medium-frequency: 300 kHz-3 MHz
6. High-frequency: 3 MHz-30 MHz
7. Very-high –frequency: 30 MHz-300 Hz
8. Ultra-high-frequency: 300 MHz-3 GHz
9. Super-high-frequency: 3 GHz-30 GHz
10. Extremely-high-frequency: 30 GHz-300 GHz

91
CONNECTIVITY DEVICES
1 NIC: - Network Interface Card
Network Interface Card or Network Adaptor Card
works in physical and data link. Used to transmit data
from one computer to another.NIC address called as
physical address and it is unique for all devices. Now it
is inbuilt in the motherboard.
Working: When computer send data from one
computer to another it is divided into frames and it
will deliver data through cable in the form of signal.
Functions:
1 Host-To-Card communication
2 Buffering
3 Frame Creation
4 Parallel to Serial conversion
5 Encoding

NIC

92
Factors that effects the performance of NIC:
 Bus speed
 PCI slots are best for performance
 Memory
 DMA
 I/O main memory
Hardware Configuration: Jumper, DIP Switches
Software Configuration: CD
2 HUB: - It is a central concentrating point for
computer networks. It provides a central data point
for network cabling only co-axial cable Ethernet
does not uses hub at all. Most of the LAN used hub
to interconnect computers and other device.

HUB
Classification:
1. Passive Hub: They are only used to combine the
signal from several network cable segments.
93
 All devices attached to a passive hub receive all
packets that pass through the hub. The distance
between the computer and the hub can be no more
than half the maximum permissible distance
between two computers on the network. It do not
amplify the signal and provide interface.
2. Active Hub: It regenerate the signal distance
between two network components can be increased.
In this electrical power is required.
3. Intelligent Hub: It is similar to active hub but having
additional features.

3 REPEATER: - It works in physical layer of OSI

model. It does not connect two LAN’s but connect
different segment of same LAN. It extends the
length of the LAN and also known as regenerator.
The main disadvantage of repeaters is that they
cannot connect two dissimilar networks.

Repeater
Even though repeaters enable signals to travel further
the maximum propagation delay still sets a limit to the
maximum size of the network.

94
 4 ROUTER: It finds the shortest path then forwards
the massage. It is used to connect subnets. Two
planes should be there:
Control Plane: Only determine possible path to send the
data.
Forward Plane: Send the data through actual path.

Router
Types:
1. Provide edge router: These are placed on the
Internet side or provider side.
2. Subscriber Router: It is placed at the subscriber side.
3. Inter Provider Border Router: When different ISP is
needed then it is used.
4. Core Router: Router that is lie in the middle of the
LAN.
5 MULTIPLEXER/DEMULTIPLEXER:
This device is used for multiplexing and for de-
multiplexing.

95
Multiplexing: It is a technique of transmitting signals
from several sources over a single communication
channel for maximum utilization and to save the cost of
the channel.

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

Types of multiplexing:
1. Frequency-Division Multiplexing
2. Time-Division-Multiplexing
3. Wave-Division-multiplexing
De-multiplexing: When the signal reaches at the
receiver in composite form it has to be separated into
individual signals. Through this signal input is
converted into N outputs.

96
 6 MODEM: It is a modulator and demodulator that
are used for modulation and demodulation. It
converts digital to analog called modulation. Modem
is used for Internet purpose.
DCE (Data Circuit Equipment): Used to connect
DTE (Data Terminal Equipment)

Modem
Features:
Speed at which data is send
Auto Dial and Redial
Types:
1. External Modem: Connected with serial port
2. Internal Modem: Inbuilt in motherboard

97
 7 SWITCHES: It works on data link layer and it is
used to connect two different segment of same
network. When data reach to switch than divided
into frame and that frame contain the MAC address
of destination. Switch contains the list of address
MAC.
Methods for transmitting data:
1. Cut-Through Switch: Simply transmit the data
through switch. It is fast to transmit data but error
prone.
2. Sore and Forward: First data is stored and then
forward, until the data becomes error free. It is error
free but slow speed.
7 Bridges: They exist in data link layer and physical
layer. They are used in same LAN but different
protocols. It contains MAC and port Address.
Local Bridge: They are used in small networks.
Remote Bridge: They are used to connect far
networks.

Switch

98
Types:
1. Transparent Bridge: It is used for filtering. In filtering
packets are discarded which are part of same
network.
2. Forwarding: It forwards the packets.
3. Source Bridge: It sends dump packet to multiple
paths and then selects one path.
8 GATEWAY: It connects heterogeneous network
works on seven layers.
Three Types:
1. Network Gateway: It connects different network
that uses same network layer protocol.
2. Protocol Gateway: It connects different network
used different protocol.
3. Tunnel Gateway: In this source adds the
header of the receiver so that data can reach at
destination.

9 FIREWALL: Firewall is used for Internet

Security. It is device usually a router or a computer
installed between the internal networks of an
organization. Its main purpose is to select error free
authorized data packet and forward to destination.

99
 Firewall

Types:
1. Packet Filter: In this according to IP or
destination port packet is to be sending or
discard.

Interfac Source Sourc Destinatio Destinatio

e IP e Port n IP n Port
1 131.34.0 * * *
0
1 * * * 23
1 * * 194.78.20 *
8
2 * 80 * *
*Packets are allowed
100
 Packets contain address are not allowed
2. Proxy Firewall: It is also called application
gateway. It is allocated between user and
corporation computer. Proxy server check that
user belong to organization or not. User will send
request to the proxy server then it will check user
is authorized or not.
If user is authorized than forward otherwise it
will discard.

11 VOIP: Voice over Internet Protocol for conducting

voice chat used VOIP .It is also called Internet telephony
or net to net telephony. It uses Internet with a telephone
network or used two protocols.

VOIP
SIP: Session Initiated Protocol
It is the protocol which used to establish communication
link.

101
Types of messages:
 Invite: Caller initialize the request to the cally through
invite message.
 Ack: Cally will send ok to caller and caller will
recognize acknowledgement.
 Bye: Caller will terminate the connection by bye
message.
 Cancel: Used to cancel the message.
 Register: If person is not available on system than the
message will send through register message.
Address mechanism in SIP:

It can be achieved through IP address, e-mail address,

and phone number.
For e.g. [email protected]
[email protected]
SIP.bob@343543
H.323 Protocol: In this gateways are used to connect to
computer. Gateway will convert telephone message to
Internet message.
Protocols:
 G.71
 G.7231-Used for data compression
 H.245-Used to negotiate or exchange data.
 Q.931- It is responsible for establishing and
terminates the connection.
 H.225 or RAS-Used for registration with gatekeeper.
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NETWORK PRINTING
Network printing enable users in location geographically
separate from each other and from there print devices to
produce documents for themselves and others. Print
severs enable multiple clients to share one or more
printed devices.
The following three terms are data types associated with
network printing:-
1. RAW: - data types used in page description language
that is ready to be sent to a print device; for example
PCL or PostScript. This is the default data type for print
jobs on computers that are not running windows XP
Professional or windows 2000.
These RAW files are device dependent.
2. EMF: - Enhanced metafile
It is used between print clients and print servers. With an
EMF, the graphics device interface (GDI) releases consol
control after generating the EMF.
 The EMF data is then interpreted in the
background on a spooler thread and sent to printer
driver.
 EMF spool files are encoded to provide greater
printer independence.

103
 3. TEXT: - It is used to send a simple text print job
to a printer that cannot interprets simple text.
The spooler creates a new print job, embedding
the text in print instructions that are derived from
the printer’s defaults for font, form and
orientation.
The TEXT data type uses the ANSI character set.
Network Printing Architecture:-
Network printing components include a server
spooler on a print server running a product in the
Windows server 2003 family and a client spooler
running on a client computer. Because print job
usually originate on a client computer, this section
first describes the architecture of the client spooler.
 Client Spooler:-The client spooler
(Winspool.drb) is the component on windows
operating systems that delivers print jobs from
applications on the client computer to print server.
On client computers running Windows XP
Professional or Windows 2000 operating system,
prints jobs are delivered directory to client spooler;
on other Windows operating systems, a redirector is
necessary to deliver print jobs to the client spooler.

104
Windows clients and non Windows clients include the
following operating system:-

Client Spooler
Windows clients: - Client computer run Windows 95,
Windows 98, Windows Millennium edition, Windows
2000, Windows XP or Windows server 2003.
Non-Windows clients: - Clients computers run UNIX,
Apple Macintosh or MA-DOS.

105
Components of client computers that generate and send
print jobs:-
Components Description
Windows Application Any program that creates
printable data.
Non-Windows Application Any programs that creates
printable data.
Client Spooler Processes and sends print
jobs from the client to print
serve.
GDI(Graphics device Provides services to the
interface) printer driver,
Including caching, client-
server communication and
character conversion.
Printer Driver Communicates with print
devices to generate output
from data supplied by the
GDI.
LPR(Line printer remote ) Protocol that sends print
jobs to a server running the
server side protocol,
LPD(Line printer daemon)
AppleTalk Protocol used by
Macintosh clients and
Windows server.

106
Netware Protocol used by NetWare
clients for file and print
services.

Local Print Devices Prints device-specific data.

The device ids attached to a
local port on the server.

Remote Print Device Prints device-specific data.

This device is directly
connected to the network
and managed by this print
server.

Remote Print Server Accepts print jobs to print

devices it manages.

 Server Spooler:-Windows server 2003 accepts

and delivers print jobs using a variety of protocol to
serve a diversity of client computers and print
devices. The server spooler and its components are
consolidated into a single architecture, providing
107
 smooth background printing by using background
thread processing. Because the thread processing for
one print job must complete before the processing
begins for the next print job, spooler passes data to
the printer only when the printer is ready to receive
more data.

Server Spooler
Components of network printing on Windows server
2003:-
Component Description
Print Spooler service Manages the printing
process, Which includes
retrieving the location of
the correct printer driver,
loading the driver, spooling
high level function calls into
a print job, scheduling the
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 print job for printing.
Print Router Routes print jobs.
Local Print Provider Provides job control and
printer management
capabilities.
Print Monitor Directs print jobs to the
language monitor and port
monitor.
Language Monitor Provides by directional
communication between
the print device and the
client.
Local and remote port Sends print jobs to print
Monitors devices that are attached to
local and
Remote ports.
GDI(Graphics Device Provides services to the
Interface) printer driver, including
caching, client-server.
Communication and
character conversion.
Printer driver Communicate with print
devices to generate output
from supplied by the GDI.
Remote print provider Directs print jobs to remote
print servers.
Local print devices Prints device-specific data.
This device is attached to a
local port on the server.
Remote print device Prints device-specific data.
109
 This device directly
connected to the network
and managed by this print
server.
Remote print server Accepts print job for print
devices it manages.

Network Printing Protocol: - The following protocols

are used by Windows server 2003 when providing print
services.
1) SMB:- Server Message block
It used allow access files that resides on remote system.
The SMB protocol defines a series of commands that
pass information between computers.
2) LPR:- Line Printer Remote
It is used to print files to a computer running a line
printer daemon (LPD) Server.
3) LPD:-Line Printer Daemon
It receives print jobs from LPR tools that are running on
client computers.
4) RPC:- Remote Procedure Call
It provides message passing facility.
5) IPX:-Internetwork Packet Exchange
110
It used to controls addressing and routing of packets
within and between LAN’s.
Setting up Network Printing:
Now on your wireless (or direct wired) laptop, you will
need to visit the Control Panel, click Printers and Other
Hardware, then Add a printer. This will define the
connection between your laptop and the printer on the
network.

111
Press next and the necessary printer software will be
copied from the desktop to your laptop. In some cases,
you may need to insert the CDROM with the printer
driver, but usually not. The Printers and Faxes window
should show your newly configured printer. If you have
more than one printer defined, take note of which is the
default printer. When you print from the laptop, the
print job will go to whatever printer you have defined as
your default printer. To change the default printer, right-
click on the desired printer and select the Set as default
option, or just select the printer you want to use from the
application that you're working in.

112
CRYPTOGRAPHY
It is used to kept secret data from the competitor in the
organization. Two techniques are used in cryptography
.One is called ENCRYPTION and other is called
DECRYPTION.
Encryption-: It is a process of changing the data into
some other form that looks meaningless to other person
.This form of data is called cipher text.
Decryption-: it is a process to transferring cipher text into
plain text.

Encryption and Decryption

Encryption and Decryption is classified into two classes-
1) Conventional method
2) Public key method

113
1) Conventional Method-: This method is used same
encryption and decryption key and keeps it as secret
.This method is further divided into two categories.
a) Character Level -: In this method encryption is done
at character level.
In this mainly two method are used-
1) Substitution-: It is the simplest form of encryption. In
this each character is replaced by some other valid
character set. This type of encryption is called mono
alphabetic encryption. The logic of this encryption is just
add a no in ASCI code of each character .For example –
if the encryption key is 4 then and language is used en
gilt then each character is represented by the character
that is located 4 digits ahead of the character . This
means the word HEMANT is encrypted as LIQERX.
Other type of substitution encryption is:
Poly alphabetic: In this different occurrence of same
character is represented by different codes .For example
–the string DEAR DEAR will be encrypted as EGDV
JLIA.
b) Transposition encryption-: In this type of encryption
the original plaintext form is retained but their position is
changed to create cipher text. Text is organized into rows

114
and columns and columns are interchanged with each
other.
2) Bit level encryption-: This type of encryption is used
with text, graphics, audio and video formats.
In this data first divided into blocks and then different
encryption technique used on data.
a) Encoding and decoding-: In this technique encoder
and decoder are used to change the no of bits of data. A
decoder change n bits input into 2n bits output.
b) Permutation-: Transposition at bit level is called as
permutation. In this process the no of bits in input and
output remain the same but the position of bits is
changed to create cipher text.
c) Substitution-: Encoder, decoder and P boxes can be
combined to substitute n bits in the input n bits in the
cipher text
d) Product-: P box and s box are combined to form a
combined structure called as product. There may be
several stages of P box and S box in a product.
e) Exclusive-OR-: This operation is same as used in logic
gates. The output of the operation is 1 if both the bits are
same. In this process a secret key is taken and it’s
exclusive OR operation is done with the input and
creates cipher text.
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f) Rotation-: In this method the individual bits are shifted
either from left to right or from right to left. The no. of
bits rotated is used as the key for encryption.

2 Public Key Method-: In this method different key

used for encryption and decryption. Each user has a
encrypt key to encrypt the data but not aware with the
key to decrypt the cipher text. This way it becomes
more secure to transfer data.

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BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology. It is designed to
connect devices of different functions such as telephone,
notebooks, computers, cameras. A Bluetooth LAN is an
adhoc network which means that n/w is formed
simultaneously. IEEE standard for Bluetooth is
802.15.this standard defines a wireless personal area
network (PAN) operable in an area the size of room or
hall.
Applications:-
1) Peripheral devices such as a wireless mouse or
keyboard can communicate with the computer
through this technology.
2) Mounting devices can communicate with sensor
devices in a small health care center.
ARCHITECTURE OF BLUETOOTH:-
1) PICONET: - Bluetooth network is called piconet.
A piconet can have up to 8 stations, one of which is
called primary and the other is called secondary.

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 Piconet
2) SCATTERNET: - Piconet can be combined to
form a scatter net.

Scatternet
A secondary station in one piconet can be primary of
other station. The station can receive messages from
primary in the first piconet.
BLUETOOTH DEVICES: - It has a build in short
range radio transmitter. The current data rate is
1mbps.this means that there is possibility of interference
between the IEEE 802.11b wireless LANs and
Bluetooth LANs.
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BLUETOOTH LAYERS:-
1) Radio layer: - it is the physical layer of internet
model. Bluetooth devices are low-power and have a
range of 10m.
2) Baseband layer: - MAC sub layer in LAN. It uses
TDMA which divides the time is into sots.

3) L2CAP layer: - logical link control& adaptation

protocol is equivalent to LAN. It is used for data
exchange on an ACC link.
Packet format:-
LENGTH CHANNEL DATA AND
(2-BYTES) ID (2- CONTROL
BYTES) (0 -65535
BYTES)

Length: - Size of data containing in bytes coming from

upper layer.

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Channel ID: - Defines a unique identifier to the virtual
channel created.
Data & control: - Original data that has to be send. Data
can be up to 0 to 65,535 bytes.
FRAME FORMAT:-
THREE TYPES OF FRAMES:-
One slot:-625ms
Three slot:-3*625ms
Five slots:-5*625ms
Access Code Header (54- Data (0 To
(72-Bits) Bits) N Bits)

Access code:-72bit field normally contains

synchronization bits and the identifier distinguishes the
frame from one piconet to another.
Header: - It contains the header part.
Payload data: - it contains the data or control information
coming from upper layer.

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BROADBAND
WIRELESS MAN or WI-MAX.
The IEEE standard of wi-max is IEEE 802.16. Provide
the interconnectivity if several kilometers.
Protocol stack of broadband:-
Upper Layer
Service Specific Convergence Layer
Mac Sub layer
Security Sub layer
Transmission Convergence Sub layer
QPSK (2-Bit) QAM-16 QAM-64

 PHYSICAL LAYER: - It is used for transmission

of data. In broadband there is a different station.
Each station has a base station and that provide
that have multiple users.
Techniques for transmitted data:-
 QPSK: - Qudrature phase shift key. For large
distance or area, 2bit per bound.
 QAM-16:- Qudrature amplitude modulation. For
medium distances. 4 bits per bound.
Transmission convergence sub layer: - decides the
transmission media.

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 2) DLL: - consists of three sub layer-
 Security sub layer: - deals with security like
encryption or decryption.
 Mac sub layer: - used for actual data transmission.
Deals with channel management.

WI-FI
The standard of Wi-Fi is 802.11b. It stands for wireless
fidelity. It is the technique of sending OFDM. Invent by
integrand cooperation. Connections are peer to peer.
Speed is high providing more provide VOIP.
 Advantages:-
1) No wires.
2) Inbuilt in laptops.
3) Compatible with other Wi-Fi standard.
 Disadvantages:-
1) Limited range.
2) As a distance will increase the performance
will degrade.
3) Radio waves are use to transmit the data.
Wireless Network: -
Wireless network refers to any type of computer network
that is wireless, and is commonly associated with a
telecommunications network whose interconnections
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between nodes are implemented without the use of
wires. Wireless telecommunications networks are
generally implemented with some type of remote
information transmission system that uses
electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, for the
carrier and this implementation usually takes place at the
physical level or "layer" of the network.

Wireless Network

Types of wireless connections:

Wireless PAN
Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs)
interconnect devices within a relatively small area,
generally within reach of a person. For example-
Bluetooth provides a WPAN for interconnecting a
headset to a laptop. Wi-Fi PANs are also getting popular
as vendors have started integrating Wi-Fi in variety of
consumer electronic devices.

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Wireless LAN
A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or
more devices using a wireless distribution method
(typically spread-spectrum or OFDM radio), and usually
providing a connection through an access point to the
wider internet. This gives users the mobility to move
around within a local coverage area and still be
connected to the network.
Fixed Wireless Network: This implements point to
point links between computers or networks at two
locations, often using dedicated laser beams. It is often
used in cities to connect networks in two or more
buildings without physically wiring the buildings together.
Wireless MAN
Wireless metropolitan Area Network is a type of wireless
network that connects several Wireless LANs. WIMAX
is the term used to refer to wireless MANs and is
covered in IEEE 802.16d/802.16e.
Wireless WAN
Wireless Wide Area Network is wireless networks that
typically cover large outdoor areas. These networks can
be used to connect branch offices of business or as a
public internet access system. They are usually deployed
on the 2.4 GHz band. A typical system contains base
station gateways, access points and wireless bridging
relays.

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Mobile devices network
Mobile Telecommunication
With the development of cellular telephone network
routinely carry data in addition to telephone
conversations:
Global system for mobile communication (GSM): The
GSM network is divided into three major systems: the
switching system, the base station system, and the
operation and support system. The cell phone connects
to the base system station which then connects to the
operation and support station; it then connects to the
switching station where the call is transferred to where it
needs to go. GSM is the most common standard and is
used for a majority of cell phones.
Personal communication service (PCS): PCS is a radio
band that can be used by mobile phones in North
America and South Asia. Sprint happened to be the first
service to set up a PCS.
D-AMPS: Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service, an
upgraded version of AMPS, is being phased out due to
advancement in technology. The newer GSM networks
are replacing the older system.

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Network Troubleshooting
It is defines as to recognizing and diagnosing networking
problems with the goal of keeping your network running
optimally.
Type of problems that occur in network:-
1) Connectivity problem: - It occurs when stations
cannot communicate with area of your LANs or
WANs. It include:-
Connectivity problem: - User not able to access the
network.
Intermittent problem: - It comes when system not
properly works there is hang problem.
Time out problem: - When your time finishes before
delivery of packet.
2) Performance problem: - It comes due to slow
speed, slow response time. Throughput is very
inefficient.
Troubleshooting Strategies: - It specify the how various
steps troubleshoot that where is any problem occur or
not. If you notice change your n/w asks following
question:-
1) Is the change expected or unusual?
2) Has the event occurred or not?

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 3) Does the change involve the device or n/w
path?

Troubleshooting
Network troubleshooting framework:

Application Protocol . LAN entry

Presentation information and manager
Session other remote . Traffic
monitoring manager
Network Routing .Status watch
information .LAN entry
manager
.Traffic
manager
Data link Traffic control .Status watch
.LAN entry
manager
Physical Error counts .status watch

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 1) Status watch: - It stores the information of sending
or discard packet.
2) LANs entry manager: - in this there is
3) Traffic manager: - it controls the traffic and
routing.
Various steps involving troubleshooting:-
1) Recognizing the problem: - the first step is to identify
and interpret the symptoms.
2) Understanding the problem: - in this step is to
determine the physical connection.
Following steps for the understanding the problem:-
Valid service:-in this check the device service
configuration.
Restricted access: - in this step station supposed to
able to connect with specific device.
Correct configuration: - check the configuration of IP
address, subnet mask, gateway or broadcast address.
3) Identify And Testing the cause of the problem
4) Solve the problem
Troubleshooting Tools:-
1 Protocol analyzer: - It can be hardware or software so
which is used to measure monitor or your traffic.

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2 Digital voltmeter: - Electronic measure tool to check
the measure voltage of multimeter also used to find the
break.
3 Time domain reflect meter: - It uses the sound waves.
Signal send to the n/w cable.
4 Oscilloscope: - We see the functions in the signal
voltage. And helps to find fault in the cable.
5 Send and receive package: - It is software tool. It is
used to connect two computers through NIC card.
Some commands are used in n/w tool:-
1) Ping: - It tells that we are connected to server or
not.
2) IP config: - Display current status of n/w used in
Windows 95.
3) ARP: - It is used to deal with duplication of IP
address.
4) SNOOP: - It is used to write files on your systems.
5) NDD: - It is used to correct the syntax. It is used
to set the particular syntax.
6) NETSAT: - It is used to check the n/w status.
7) Trace out: - It is used to check the root of
network.

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LAN-SETUP
Setting up a local area network (LAN) today is easier
than ever before with plenty of low-cost networking
technology options available. Further, for internal LANs,
security devices and software are more accessible and
also less expensive. Whether you want to connect users
internally within an organization or at home, setup
internal LAN for easy Internet and Intranet access.
Difficulty: Moderately Challenging

LAN Setup

Instructions
Things that Needed:
 Server
 Routers
 Security software
 Connection wires
1 Know that internal LANs allow related and
authorized users to share information on a local
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 network. Connect multiple computers within
your home or organization. Allow users to
easily share important information, programs
and the Internet.
2 Designate one computer within your LAN area
as your server. Use a computer that won't likely
be moved since it will be the focal point of your
internal LAN. Keep it in a safe and secure
location.
3 Purchase and install a router. Attach either a
wireless or another type of router to your
server. Run the software that comes with the
router. Follow the directions and hook up
appropriate wires between your Internet
connection, the router and your server.
4 Make sure you have a connection to the
Internet. Check other computers to setup
internal LAN. See if you can connect to the
network from each computer in your LAN.
Realize if you set up a wired LAN, you need to
run wires throughout your organization or
home to connect computers to the server. Run
wires through air conditioning vents to avoid
drilling into walls, hanging wires against walls or
running them along the floor.
5 Add a firewall to your server and to computers
on your network to setup internal LAN. See
that some routers come with security features,
including firewall protection. Use password
protection also when installing your router to
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 keep outsiders from accessing your internal
LAN.
6 Understand that some LANs include
computers located around the world, but users
on those computers are authorized to enter and
utilize the LAN. Find also that many LANs are
connected in multiple ways (e.g., satellite,
wireless and Ethernet).

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 LIMITATIONS

1. Cables are not mentioned

2. ATM, Ethernet

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 CONCLUSION
A network is a set of devices connected by media links.
A node can be a computer, printer or any other device
capable of sending and receiving data generated by other
nodes on the network.
From computer network project we conclude that we can
share many devices through networking. So networking
is time saving and less costly. We can access the
information from anywhere through computer
networking or it is fastest source for accessing the
information.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Data communication and networking

(2ND and 4th edition)

ONLINE RESOURCES:
http://www.google.com
http://www.wikipedia.org

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