UNIT II

METEOROLOGY
Effects of meteorology on Air Pollution - Fundamentals, Atmospheric stability, Inversion, Wind
profiles and stack plume patterns- Atmospheric Diffusion Theories – Dispersion models, Plume
rise.

METEOROLOGY
Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere.
(Or)
Study of the local weather patterns.
Aristotle is the founder of Meteorology.
Atmosphere: The mixture of gases around the earth.
Weather: day to day changes in the atmosphere caused by shifts in temperature, air pressure and
humidity.
• Climatology: the study of climate.
• Atmospheric chemistry: the study of chemical in the air
• Atmospheric Physics: the study of how air behaves
• Hydrometeorology: the study of how oceans interact with weather.
• Air temperature- thermometer
• Air Pressure-Barometer
• Humidity – Hydrometer
• Wind speed- anemometer

Effects of meteorology on Air Pollution

Air pollution problem involves three parts
1. The pollution source
2. The movement or dispersion of the pollutant
3. The recipient
METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS

The factors which changes the concentration of air pollutants in a particular area are called
Meteorological Factors of air pollution.
Meteorological data is very essential for air pollution studies.
objectives
1) To identify the source of pollutants
2) To predict pollution events such as high pollutant concentration days
3) To simulate and to predict the air quality
4) To determine stack height
5) To evaluate the intensity of air pollution etc.

IMPORTANT PARAMETERS

(a) Primary Parameters

• Wind speed and direction
• Temperature
• Atmospheric Stability
• Mixing Height
(b) Secondary Parameters
• Rainfall and Precipitation
• Humidity
• Solar Radiation
• Visibility
The meteorological factors highly depends on the latitude, season & the topography of
the area.
(i)Wind speed and direction

• When high pollutant concentrations occurs at a monitoring station, wind data records
can determine the general direction and area of the emissions.
• Identifying the sources means planning to reduce the impacts on air quality can take
place.
• Anemometer is used to measure wind speed. In our monitoring station sonic
anemometer is used.
• Sonic anemometers can measure both wind speed and direction.
• The principle of sonic anemometer is the speed of wind affect the time taken by sound to
travel from one point to another.
• Sound travelling with wind will take less time than sound travelling into wind
• By measuring the sound wave speeds in 2 different directions at the same time, sonic
anemometers can measure both wind speed and direction

(ii)Temperature
• Measuring temperature supports air quality assessment, air quality modelling and
forecasting activities.
• Temperature and sunlight (solar radiation) play an important role in the chemical
reactions that occur in the atmosphere to form photochemical smog from other pollutants.
• Favourable conditions can lead to increased concentrations of smog.
• The temperature is measured by a material with a resistance that changes with
temperature, such as platinum wire.
• A sensor measures this change and converts it into a temperature reading.

(iii)Humidity
• Like temperature and solar radiation, humidity plays an important role in many thermal
and photochemical reactions in the atmosphere.
• As water molecules are small and highly polar, they can bind strongly to many
substances.
• If attached to particles suspended in the air they can significantly increase the amount of
light scattered by the particles (measuring visibility).
• If the water molecules attach to corrosive gases, such as SO2, the gas will dissolve in the
water and form an acid solution that can damage health and property.
• Water vapour content of air is reported as a percentage of the saturation vapour pressure
of water at a given temperature.
• The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is highly variable—it depends on
geographic location, how close water bodies are, wind direction and air temperature.
• Humidity is generally higher during summer when temperature and rainfall are also at
their highest.
 • Humidity is Measured by absorption properties using a polymer film
• A sensor measures these changes and converts them into a humidity reading.

(ivRainfall
• Rain has a 'scavenging' effect when it washes particulate matter out of the atmosphere
and dissolves gaseous pollutants.
• Removing particles improves visibility. Where there is frequent high rainfall, air quality
is generally better.
• If the rain dissolves gaseous pollutants, such as SO2, it can form acid rain resulting in
potential damage to materials or vegetation.
• A common method to measure rainfall is to use a tipping bucket rain gauge.
• The gauge registers rainfall by counting small amounts of rain collected.
• When rain falls into the funnel, it runs into a container (the tipping bucket) divided into 2
equal compartments by a partition.

• The design of the tipping bucket makes one compartment tilt downward and rest against a
stop when it is empty, positioning the other compartment under the funnel ready to
receive rain water.
• When a set amount of rain has drained from the funnel into the upper compartment the
bucket tilts the opposite way so that the compartment containing the rain comes to rest
against the stop on the opposite side.
• The collected water then empties out and the other compartment starts to fill.
• The instrument calculates the quantity and intensity of rainfall using with the area of the
funnel and the number and rate of bucket movements.
(v)Solar radiation
• For photochemical smog formation, solar radiation is essential.
• The cloudiness of the sky, time of day and geographic location all affect sunlight
intensity.
• Pyranometer is used to measure solar radiation from the output of a type of silicon cell
sensor.

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

Ability of atmosphere to maintain the equilibrium state is said to be atmospheric stability.

 Due to application of various forces, a disturbance is caused in the atmosphere.
Three possible conditions are there
 Neutral air
 Stable air
 Unstable air
(a)Neutral

If an air parcel is in the same temperature as its surrounding environment, then the parcel will
not move on its own record. This is neutral air.

(b)Stable air

If the air parcel is cooler than its surrounding environment, then it will be denser than the
environment, it will sink just like a pebble sinks in water. This is stable air which leads to clear
sky.

(c)Unstable air
The air parcel is warmer than the surrounding environment will be less dense than surrounding
and rise like a hot balloon. This is unstable air.

Importance of atmospheric stability

1. Stable atmosphere provides an equilibrium state of motion to flying objects.

2. An unstable atmospheric condition will cause disturbed flight which may lead to a
flying object to an accident.

3. Before every flight, atmosphere stability is analyzed to have a safe journey.

LAPSE RATE

 The temperature of the ambient air decreases with increase in the altitude.
 Rate of change of temperature with height(altitude) is called lapse rate.
 The lapse rate changes with respect to time and place.
 In a well mixed dry air, for every 1000 feet(300m) increase in altitude the temperature
decreases by 3.3°F(1.8°C). This vertical temperature gradient is called as lapse rate and
this is called normal lapse rate.
 If the displaced air does not exchange heat from its boundary then it is called adiabatic
lapse rate.
 For a particular place at a particular time, the lapse rate can be determined by raising a
balloon (attached with Thermometer),by digital self–recording mechanism and it is called
Prevailing or Ambient or Environmental Lapse Rate(ELR)
 The Lapse rate of a parcel of dry air, when it lifts upwards in a hydrostatically stable
environment and expands slowly to the lower environment pressure without exchange
of heat is called Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Types of Adiabatic Lapse Rate

1. Dry air, expanding and cooling adiabatically cools at the rate of 9.80C is called Dry-
Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
2. In wet air, the expanding and cooling is called to be 60C/Km and is called Wet Adiabatic
Lapse Rate.
3. When Environmental Lapse Rate(ELR) is more than the Adiabatic lapse rate(ALR) is
called Super Adiabatic Lapse Rate/strong lapse rate, and the environment is unstable.

ELR>ALR, environment is unstable=Super Adiabatic Lapse Rate

 4. When Adiabatic Lapse Rate(ALR) is greater than Environmental Lapse Rate(ELR),the
environment is said to be stable and it is called Sub–Adiabatic Lapse Rate/Weak lapse
rate
ALR>ELR, environment is stable=Sub–Adiabatic Lapse Rate
5. When ALR is equal to the ELR, the environment is a neutral one and this is called
Neutral Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
ALR=ELR, environment is neutral =Netural Adiabatic Lapse Rate
6. When the temperature of the environment increases with altitude, then the lapse rate
becomes inverted and it is called Negative Lapse Rate.
Negative lapse rate is called Inversion

INVERSION

If the cold layer of air at ground level is covered by warmer air at higher level. This phenomenon
is called inversion.

During inversion, vertical air movement is stopped and pollution concentrates under the
inversion layer. As a result during inversion atmosphere is stable and very little mixing occurs.

Types of inversion

1. Radiation inversion

2. Subsistence inversion

Radiation inversion

 This type occurs at night.

 when the earth loses heat by radiation and cools the air.

 If air is moist and the temperature is below dew point, then fog will be formed.

 The cool air stratum is surrounded by warm air and vertical movement is stopped,
until the sun warms the lower air in the next morning.

 It is common in winter due to long nights.

Subsistence inversion

 This type of inversion occurs at moderate altitudes and remains for several days.
  As the air sinks, it is compressed and gets heated to form a warm layer. This act as a
lid and prevent the upward movement of contaminants.

 The air circulating around the area descends slowly at a rate of about 1000m/day.

 Inversion height varies from ground surface to a height of 1600m.

 At inversion height of 200m,extreme pollution occurs.

Double inversion

Sometimes both radiation and subsistence inversion occurs simultaneously which is

called double inversion.

WIND PROFILES AND STACK PLUME PATTERNS

WIND ROSE

Wind rose is a graphic tool to give a short view of how wind speed & direction are typically
distributed at a particular location .

 To create wind rose, average wind direction and wind speed values are collected at a site,
at a short intervals over a period of time.
o Eg.,1 week/1 month/1 year.
 Presented in a circular format, the wind rose shows the frequency of winds blowing from
particular directions over a particular period.
 Each ―spoke‖ around the circle is related to the frequency that the wind blows from a
particular direction per unit time.
 16 cardinal directions (N,NNE,,NE),although they may be subdivided into as many as 32
directions
 Concentric circles represent percentage of time

 In terms of angular measurement in degrees, North corresponds to 00/3600, East to

900,south to 1800 and west to 2700.
 Compiling a wind rose is one of the preliminary steps taken in constructing airport
runways, as aircraft typically perform their best take offs and landings pointing into the
wind.
Features of wind rose
1. The orientation of each segment, which shows the direction from which the wind came.
2. The width of each segment ,which is proportional to the wind speed.
3. The length of each segment, which is proportional to the percent of time that wind at that
particular speed was coming from that particular motion.

Uses of wind rose

1. Sailors use wind rose.
2. Architects –use wind rose information for the siting of building and stadiums.
3. It is also used for siting of industries in order to minimize impact of air pollution on
neighbouring cities.

PLUME RISE

Plume Rise is defined as the distance of the hot plume from the stack into the atmosphere, due to
the buoyancy and Momentum.
Plume stack

• The dispersion of emitted gases from the source of their production is known as plume.

• The source is known as stack (chimney).

 • The behavior of a plume emitted from any stack depends on localized air stability.

• The geometric forms of stack plumes are the function of the vertical temperature and
wind profiles or vice versa.

• The behavior and dispersion of a plume entirely depend on the environmental lapse
rate influencing the plume behavior are the diurnal (seasonal) variations in the
atmospheric stability and the long term variations which occur with change in seasons.

Types of Stack plume Patterns

• Fanning plumes

• Looping plumes

• Coning plumes

• Fumigating plumes

• Lofting plumes

• Trapping plume

(a)Fanning plume

 Fanning plume requires stable air and slow vertical movement of the emission.

 It is common after calm clear nights.

 The temperature inversion limits the rise of the plume into the upper atmosphere.
  Creates a higher concentration of polluted air at lower levels.

 It exists for several hours.

 It is a type of plume emitted under these extreme inversion conditions.

 The plume under those conditions will spread horizontally, but little it at all vertically.

 Therefore the prediction of ground level concentration is difficult here.

(b) Looping plume

 Looping plume requires windy conditions which cause the plume can swirl up and
down.

 It is common in the afternoon.Moderate and strong winds are formed on sunny days
creating unstable conditions.

 It is a type of plume which has a wavy character.

 It occurs in a highly unstable atmosphere because of rapid mixing.

 The high degree of turbulence helps in dispersing the plume rapidly but high
concentrations may occur close to the stack if the plume touches the ground.

 It exists for several hours.

(c ) Coning plume

 Cone shaped plume.

 Occurs in neutral atmosphere conditions, when the wind velocity is greater than 32
km/hr.

 However the plume reaches the ground at greater distances than with looping.

 it requires moderate winds and overcast days.

 It is wider than it is deep, and is elliptical in shape.

 Coning plume exists for several hours.

(d)Fumigating plume
  Fumigating plume is short-lived (fraction of an hour), but reaches the earth’s surface.

 It occurs when the conditions more from stable to unstable.

 A fanning plume develops overnight under stable conditions but as the day heats up,
unstable air is produced.

 the unstable air caused the plume to move up and down and it can cause localized
pollution.

 It becomes looping or coning plumes as the air conditions stabilize.

(e)Lofting plume

 When plume is above the inversion layer it becomes a lofting plume.

 Normal wind direction and speed will disperse the plume into the atmosphere without
effect from ground warming or cooling.

 Lofting occurs when there is a strong lapse rate above a surface inversion.

 Under this condition diffusion does not penetrate the inversion layer under these
conditions, emission will not reach surface.
(f)Trapping plumes

 Inversion layer exist above and below stack.

 So the plume neither goes up or down.

 Plume gets trapped between the inversion layers. So it is called trapping plume.

 This plume is not ideal for dispersion of pollutants as it can’t go above a certain height.

Dispersion Models

Dispersion
Dispersion is the process by which contaminants move through the air and plume
spreads over a large area, thus reducing the concentration of the pollutants it contains.
The plume spreads both horizontally and vertically.
Atmospheric dispersion Model

 Atmospheric dispersion modeling is the mathematical simulation of how air

pollutants disperse in the ambient atmosphere.
 It is a mathematical simulation of the physics and chemistry governing the transport,
dispersion and transformation of pollutants in the atmosphere.
 It is a means of estimating downward air pollution concentrations, given information
about the pollutant emissions and nature of the atmosphere.
 It is generally used to assess the impact of point source emissions.

Air Quality Modeling (AQM)

Mathematical and numerical techniques are used in AQM to simulate the dispersion of
air pollutants.

Modelling of the dispersion of pollutants

 Toxic and odorous substances
 Single or multiple points
 Point, Area, or Volume sources
Input data required for Air Quality Modelling
• Source characteristics
 • Meteorological conditions
• Site and surrounding conditions

Areas Surrounding the Site of Release

Ambient Air Concentration Modelling

Types of Pollutant Sources

Point Sources
e.g., stacks or vents
Area Sources
e.g., landfills, ponds, storage piles
Volume Sources
e.g., conveyors, structures with multiple vents

Types of dispersion models

• Box model
• Gaussian model
• Lagrangian model
• Eulerian model
• Dense gas model

Box Model

• The model is simplest of all model type

 • It assume the air shed is box shaped.
• The air shed (a given volume of atmospheric air in a geographical region)is in the shape
of Box.
• The air pollution inside the box are homogeneously distributed and that assumption is
used to estimate the average pollutant concentrations any where with in the air shed.
• It has very limited ability to accurately predict dispersion of air pollutant over an air
shed.

• The city is a rectangle with dimension w and L and one side is parallel with wind
direction.
• Complete atmospheric turbulence is produced and total mixing of pollutants up to H and
no mixing above the height.
• The turbulence is strong enough in the upward direction that the pollutant conc.is uniform
in the whole volume of air over the city and not higher at downward side than upward
side.
• The wind blows in x direction with velocity ’u’. This velocity is constant and is
independent of time. The concentration of pollutant entering the city (at x=0) is constant
and is equal to background concentration.
• The air pollution rate of the city is Q. This is usually given as emission rate per unit area.
Q= qA (Where A is the area (W x L))

• No pollutant enters or leaves through the top or side of the box.

• The pollutant is long lived in the atm.
• The emission rate is constant and unchanging with time.

Gaussian Model

 Oldest and most commonly used model type.

  Also called as Diffusion Model/dispersion model.
 It is a mathematical model-applied to point source emitters(coal burning electricity)
to determine pollution..
 Used for predicting the dispersion of non continuous air pollution plumes.
 The primary algorithm used in Gaussian Modelling is the Generalized Dispersion
Equation for a Continuous Point source plume.

Assumptions
• Steady State Condition, which imply that the rate of emission from the point source is
constant.
• Homogenous flow, which implies that the wind speed is constant both in time and with
height.
• Pollutant is conservative and no gravity fallout.
• Perfect reflection of the plume at the underlying surface, i.e no ground absorption
• The terrain underlying the plume is flat
Advantages

• Produce results that match closely with experimental data

• Simple in their mathematics
• Quicker than numerical models
• Do not require super computers

Disadvantages
• Not suitable if the pollutant is reactive in nature
• Fails to incorporate turbulence in comprehensive sense
• Unable to predict concentrations beyond radius of approximately 20 Km.
• For greater distances, wind variations, mixing depths and temporal variations become
predominant