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Relation of the tectonics of eastern China

to the India-Eurasia collision:
Application of slip-line field theory
to large-scale continental tectonics
Peter Molnar
D e p a r t m e n t of Earth and Planetary Sciences
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts 0 2 1 3 9
Paul Tapponnier
Laboratoire de Géologie Structurale
U.S.T.L. Université de M o n t p e l l i e r
M o n t p e l l i e r , France
ABSTRACT
The active tectonics of northeast China is dominated by strike-slip and normal
faulting, with right-lateral motion on north-northeast-trending planes, left-lateral
motion on west-northwest-trending planes, and extension in approximately a north-
northwest direction. Southeast China, however, is relatively stable. We interpret both
the style of deformation in northeast China and the stability of southeast China as con-
sequences of the India-Eurasia collision and the presumably relatively small compres-
sive stress transmitted across the island arcs of the western Pacific. The relationship of
the stress field and deformation in eastern China to the India-Eurasia collision are
analogous to those in a laterally bounded rigid-plastic medium indented by a rigid die
(India).

INTRODUCTION
During the past ten years several destruc-
tive earthquakes have focused attention on
northeast China. The tectonics of this re-
gion contrasts markedly with central and
western China, where thrust faulting and
high mountains are common (Fig. 1).
Northeast China is dominated by strike-slip
and normal faulting, and the topography
is characterized by large grabens and de-
pressions, bounded by uplifted blocks
(Figs. 1, 2). Fault-plane solutions of seven
earthquakes, including the July 27, 1976,
Tangshan earthquake (Fig. 3), indicate pri-
marily strike-slip faulting: either right-
lateral faulting on north-northeast-
trending planes or left-lateral faulting on
west-northwest-trending planes (Fig. 3;
Table 1; Molnar and others, 1973; Molnar
and Tapponnier, 1975; Tapponnier and
Molnar, 1977). The fault-plane solution
for the largest aftershock of the Tangshan
earthquake, the only known exception to
Figure 1. Distribution of tectonic styles in Asia (After Tapponnier and Molnar, 1976). Heavy this pattern, is characterized by normal
lines = major faults; Single thrust-fault symbol = subduction zones of western Pacific; dark shaded faulting, but with its T axis poorly con-
area = region of major crustal thickening; dotted area = region of major strike-slip faulting; diagonal
rules = regions of normal faulting and crustal extension (corresponding states of stress shown for
strained (Fig. 3). The Shansi graben (Fig. 2)
each); unshaded areas = regions of little or no deformation. apparently formed in response to north-

212 G E O L O G Y , v. 5, p. 2 1 2 - 2 1 6 , A P R I L 1977
 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on April 1, 2015

northwest extension, and its formation indicate left-lateral faulting on a west- 1977), and the seismicity that has occurred
appears to include a component of right- northwest plane during the February 4, is of small magnitude (Lang and Sun, 1966;
lateral motion on the northward-trending 1975, Haicheng earthquake (Deng and Lee and others, 1976; Seismological Com-
planes (Deng and others, 1973; Tapponnier others, 1976; Wu and others, 1976). Pre- mittee, 1956; York and others, 1976).
and Molnar, 1977). North and south of the liminary epicenters of aftershocks of the Elsewhere, we interpreted the tectonic
Shansi graben, major west-northwest- 1976 Tangshan earthquake suggest right- activity in Asia as a consequence of the
trending strike-slip faults can be recognized lateral motion on the north-northeast plane. India-Eurasia collision and suggested that
clearly on LANDSAT photos, and we infer All of these observations point to a the pattern of deformation in Asia is analo-
that they are left lateral (Molnar and Tap- regional stress system dominated by north- gous to the deformation of a plane rigid-
ponnier, 1975; Tapponnier and Molnar, northwest extension. Farther north and plastic medium (Eurasia) indented by a
1977). west, the orientation of the extension may rigid die (Iadia) (Molnar and Tapponnier,
Although the Ordos Plateau is aseismic be more northwesterly, as the orientation 1975; Tapponnier and Molnar, 1976, 1977).
and surrounded by active faults, no simple of major faults and cinder cones and the Our purpose here is to compare in more
plate boundary can be recognized in most distribution of basalt flows in this region detail the analogous deformation and stress
of northeast China (Fig. 2). The strike- imply (Fig. 2; Tapponnier and Molnar, regime in eastern China to that for another
slip faulting occurs on conjugate planes; 1977; Terman, 1974). simple plane-strain plastic indentation
the aftershock distribution and geodetic Although earthquakes have occurred problem.
surveys show right-lateral faulting on a throughout southeastern China in historic
north-northeast plane during the 1966 times, this region appears to be much less
Hsingtai sequence (Cardwell and Isacks, less active than most of the rest of China SLIP-LINE FIELDS IN PLANE-STRAIN
1976; Chen and others, 1975; Geodetic (Fig. 1). Clearly defined recent tectonic RIGID-PLASTIC MEDIA
Survey Brigade, 1975), whereas the after- features are not conspicuous on the LAND- With the simplifying assumption of
shock distribution and surface faulting SAT photos (Tapponnier and Molnar, plane strain and no strain hardening,

102° 108° •H4° <20* <26"

Figure 2. Simplified tectonic map of northeast China. Heavy lines = major faults recognized on LANDSAT imagery (Tapponnier and Molnar, 1977),
hachures show downdropped side for normal faults; arrows give sense for strike-slip faults; dotted areas = sediment-filled basins, presumably due to nor-
mal faulting; diagonal ruled areas = recent basalt flows; asterisks = basalt cinder cones; solid circles = M ~ 8 and open circles = M ~ 7 earthquakes from
Chinese historic catalogue. For fault-plane solutions, dark areas = quadrants with compressional first motions, and light areas = dilatational first
motions; earthquake dates given (see Table 1). Only three of four solutions from 1966 Hsingtai sequence are shown.

GEOLOGY 213
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plastic flow occurs when the maximum

shear stress reaches a limiting value, the
yield stress (t^). In a perfectly plastic
medium, the shear stress is therefore equal
to or less than -ry and deformation is pure
shear. Maximum shear stress trajectories,
along with T = r y intersect each other at
90° and all boundaries free of shear stress
at 45°. Slip or shear strain occurs parallel
to these trajectories, which are called slip
lines. Although the magnitude of the shear
stress does not change along slip lines, the
mean (hydrostatic) stress does in a simple H
manner, when the slip lines are curved.
The complete solution to plastic-flow
problems requires the specification of the
stress and the velocity at every point. For 2 7 JULY 1976 28 JULY 1976
many problems this is very difficult, be-
cause with each increment of deformation, Figure 3. Fault-plane solutions of July 27, 1976, Tangshan earthquake and July 28, 1976, after-
the boundaries change shape and the shock. Lower-hemisphere equal-area projection. Solid circles = compressions; open circles =
boundary conditions are altered. Often dilations; crosses = weak signals, presumably near modes. P and T are axes.
solutions can be given easily only at the
onset of yielding. At the same time, at any TABLE 1 . FAULT-PLANE SOLUTIONS OF EARTHQUAKES III NORTHEAST CHINA
instant, the stress and velocity fields can Lat Long Pole Pole P axis T axis B axis
be calculated from the boundary conditions Date (°N) (°E) Az. PI. Az. PI. Az. PI. Az. PI. Az. PI.

at that instant without knowledge of the 7/31/54* 38.65 104.26 264 02 002 15 044 09 312 12 167 73
previous history of deformation. By anal- 3/7/66+ 37.35 114.96 024 00 114 00 069 00 159 00 90

ogy, in Asia we need not know the previous 3/22/66+ 37.54 115.00 020 00 110 00 065 00 155 00 90
3/22/66+ 37.49 115.06 286 05 195 10 241 10 150 04 042 79
tectonic history in order to explain the
3/27/66+ 37.70 115.12 126 00 216 10 261 07 171 07 037 80
present stress field. The plastic-flow anal-
3/27/67+ 38.56 116.61 112 10 202 03 067 07 157 07 292 80
ogy should match this stress field. 7/18/69+ 38.43 119.47 291 06 023 20 069 12 335 191 26
16
Backofen (1972), Hill (1950), Johnson 2/4/75s 40.65 122.80 202 09 192 75 274 17 338 04 081 73

and others (1970), and Kachanov (1974) 7/27/76 39.57 117.98 120 10 211 06 076 02 166 12 332 79
7/28/76 39.7 118.5 173 30 353 60 173 75 353 15 083 00
have given details on slip-line field theory
and how plane-strain rigid-plastic problems *Kuo and Cheng (1963).

can be solved. Essential properties are +Molnar and others (1973), Tapponnier and Molnar (1977).
s
Wu and others (1976).
(1) that the slip lines intersect shear-stress-
free boundaries at 45°, (2) that the shear
stress parallel to the slip lines is constant,
maximum, and equal to t^ = (<?! - o 3 )/2, the simpler problems of interest here, such The boundaries of the plates presumably
everywhere in the plastic region, and a separation is possible. represent boundaries of the rigid-plastic
(3) that the mean stress (o/, = (oj. + o 2 )/2) medium and it is on them that we apply
changes along the slip lines in a simple the boundary conditions. At island arcs,
manner given by da= 2tyd<\>, where d<t> is SLIP-LINE FIELD THEORY where one plate is subducted beneath
the change in angle along the slip line, posi- AND ASIAN TECTONICS another, large compressive stresses do not
tive when rotated clockwise for a lines We (Tapponnier and Molnar, 1976) have appear to be transmitted across most arcs.
(right-lateral sense) and counterclockwise attempted to justify the analogy between The widespread occurrence of interarc
for ft lines (left-lateral sense). Thus, if a slip- the tectonics of Asia and plane-strain plas- spreading supports this contention. Thus,
line field can be found, specification of the tic flow. We compared the deformation in we assume that the horizontal compressive
yield stress and one of the principal stresses much of Asia, including the Burman arc stress at the island arcs of the western
at the boundary of the plastic region allows and the Baikal rift zone, with several plas- Pacific is negligibly small compared with
a complete description of the stress field tic plane indentation problems with dif- the corresponding stress needed to main-
in the plastic region. Because the slip lines ferent boundary conditions. In all of these tain the elevation of Tibet (Fig. 1). Another
can be lines of discontinuous flow, specifi- examples, the rigid-plastic medium ex- type of boundary in eastern Asia, perhaps
cation of the slip-line field constrains the tended laterally to infinite distances. Here that which separates the Eurasian and
possible velocity field. Determination of we consider a problem in which the rigid- North American plates, may also affect the
which slip lines are activated and the com- plastic medium is finite in the lateral direc- tectonics of eastern China and serve as a
plete velocity field required knowledge of tion (Fig. 4). northeast limit to the plastic medium.
the velocity boundary conditions. Not all
In oceanic regions, (rigid) plate tectonics We analyze stress and velocity fields for
problems can be posed in this manner,
is a very good approximation; only in con- a simple problem, symmetrical and with
and often one cannot treat the velocity and
tinental regions does the slip-line field specially chosen geometry (Fig. 4, a), and
stress fields independently; however, for
analogy seem to apply on a large scale. then consider more general geometries

214 A P R I L 1977
 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on April 1, 2015

" T x / SOUTHEAST \
C H I N A
q( \

@ vyft
V/A W /

Figure 4. Slip-line fields for simple indentation problems analogous to tectonics of Asia. Diagonal-ruled region is indenter. Arrows show sense of
shear on slip lines. Large arrows show direction of rigid motion, a, Simple indentation width of indenter equals half-width of rigid-plastic medium,
b, Indentation by narrower block, c, Indentation of quarter space near corner, d, Indentation of medium with oblique boundaries. In c and d, diagram
of fault-plane solution and orientation of normal faults shown for analogous deformation with Earth. In c, Mohr circles show states of stress in three
regions where Oi and <73 are both compressive, where <7i and Ofl are compressive, and where is negative (tensile). Density of dots decreases from
areas of high compressive stress and associated thrust faulting and crustal thickening to areas of tensile stress and associated normal faulting and crustal
extension.

(Fig. 4, b, c, and d) and asymmetry (Fig. the boundaries and o3 is parallel to them. so that material in the regions OABC and
4, c and d). The eastern margin of Asia, Arrows show the sense of shear stress. Near O'AB'C' deform. The velocities on OA and
beneath which the Pacific and Philippine C, left-lateral shear trends northwest and O'A and on ABC and A'B'C' are discon-
Sea plates descend, is analogous to the right-lateral shear trends northeast. At B, tinuous, but there is no discontinuity in
boundary of the rigid-plastic medium (free these are east and north, respectively. At velocity on OC or O'C'. Thè velocity at OC
of shear stress) on the right-hand side of C and C', we assume negligible normal and O'C' is V / v T in the directions shown
Figure 4, a. India corresponds to the in- stress, 01 = 0. Therefore, o3 = -2xy and in Figure 4, a.
denter. The southern border of EuraSia, o^ = - t v . Moving counterclockwise through This problem is particularly simple
east of India, is also a subduction zone and an angle of rt/2 from C to A along a ft line because of the geometry—the width of
therefore corresponds to a shear-stress-free (or clockwise from C' to A along an a line), the indenter is half the width of the block.
boundary. Only at the indenter is the nor- o^ increases by 2jy(n/2). In OAO', where For a narrower indenter, the same basic
mal stress on the boundary large. the slip lines are straight, the stress field is pattern exists, but the slip lines are not
The slip-line field in Figure 4, a is iden- uniform: o^ =(n - l)ty, o t = m y and all straight lines or circles (Fig. 4, b). The
tical to that for piercing problems in which o3 = (n - 2)ty. descriptions of the stress and velocity fields
a die is pushed into a rigid container in The blocks OCD and O'C'D' do not given above are similar to those for Figure
which there is a rigid-plastic material. The deform but move rigidly. An increment of 4, a, but the ratio of o^ at the indenter
indenter moves up with velocity V. In the displacement of the indenter is accommo- to ty is less because of the greater angle
region OAO', the maximum compressive dated by an upward motion of the triangu- swept by the slip lines from the stress-free
stress (oj) is oriented parallel to V, and o3 lar block OAO' ("dead" zone). The slip margin to the dead zone. Also, the velocity
is perpendicular to it. The stress axes rotate lines parallel to ABC and AB'C' are acti- of the blocks OCD and O'C'D' is reduced
so that at C and C', Oj is perpendicular to vated, as are OA, O'A and their families, from that in Figure 4, a. (Eventually, when

GEOLOGY 215
 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on April 1, 2015

the width of the rigid-plastic block is large plained by secondary tension caused by the ground deformation observations: Acta
G e o p h y s . Sinica, v. 18, p. 1 6 4 - 1 8 2 .
enough, the indentation pressure needed to indentation of Eurasia by India. Deng Qidong, Wang Kelu, Wang Ipeng, Tang
cause plastic yielding in the area shown H a n c h u n , Wu Y u w e n , a n d T i n g M e n g l i n g ,
becomes larger than that needed for simple 1 9 7 3 , O n t h e t e n d e n c y of s e i s m i c i t y a n d t h e
YIELD STRESS g e o l o g i c s e t u p of t h e s e i s m i c b e l t o f S h a n s i
plane indentation of a semi-infinite block, G r a b e n : Sci. G e o l . S i n i c a , v. 4 , p. 3 7 - 4 7 .
OF NORTHEAST CHINA
and the slip-line field changes drastically D e n g Q i d o n g , W a n g T i n g m e i , Li J i a n g u o , X i a n g
to that of simple plane indentation of a We noted above that in the front of the H o n g d a , a n d C h e n g S h a o p i n g , 1 9 7 6 , A dis-
c u s s i o n of t h e s o u r c e m o d e l of H a i c h e n g
semi-infinite medium.) indenter, in the cases in Figure 4, a and c, e a r t h q u a k e : Sci. G e o l . S i n i c a , v. 7,
Deformation in Asia is not symmetrical °i = nTy- I n a layer 100 km thick, India p. 1 9 5 - 2 0 4 .
G e o d e t i c S u r v e y Brigade f o r E a r t h q u a k e Re-
(Fig. 1). Displacements in central Asia seem pushes against the rest of Eurasia with an search, National Seismological Bureau,
to be smaller than in China. Therefore, a average compressive stress (oj) of about 1975, Crustal d e f o r m a t i o n associated with
more appropriate boundary condition on 500 b (Tapponnier and Molnar, 1976). t h e H s i n g t a i e a r t h q u a k e in M a r c h , 1 9 6 6 :
A c t a G e o p h y s . S i n i c a , v. 18, p. 1 5 3 - 1 6 3 .
the left-hand side is that no (or little) dis- (This number would be doubled if the layer Hill, R., 1 9 5 0 , T h e m a t h e m a t i c a l t h e o r y o f
placement occurs at it. In this asymmetri- were half as thick.) If oj is equated to this p l a s t i c i t y : L o n d o n , O x f o r d Univ. Press,
cal case (Fig. 4, c) the slip-line field on the stress, the ty = 160 b. Even if the layer is 3 5 5 p.
J o h n s o n , W., S o w e r b y , R., a n d H a d d o w , J. B.,
right side will be essentially the same as only 20 km thick, where deformation is 1 9 7 0 , P l a n e s t r a i n slip-line f i e l d s : T h e o r y
in Figure 4, a, and so will the stress dis- associated primarily with earthquakes, the a n d b i o g r a p h y : N e w Y o r k , Elsevier,
tribution. The velocity field is altered yield stress is less than 1 kb. p. 6 0 - 9 6 .
K a c h a n o v , L. M., 1 9 7 4 , F u n d a m e n t a l s o f t h e
slightly. The material in the region OAO' t h e o r y of p l a s t i c i t y : M o s c o w , Mir P u b l i s h e r s ,
moves to the right rigidly and is deformed SUMMARY p. 1 4 8 - 2 4 2 .
K u o , T . C., a n d C h a n g , C., 1 9 6 3 , P r e l i m i n a r y
in the region OABC as before, but twice The tectonics of northeast China r e p o r t o f t h e seismic a c t i v i t y o f e a s t e r n Min-
as fast. The block OCD still moves to the are dominated by strike-slip and normal C h i n , K a n s u : A c t a G e o p h y s . S i n i c a , v. 1 2 ,
southeast, also twice as fast (at \/~2~V). faulting, apparently in response to north- p. 1 1 8 - 1 2 0 .
L a n g , W. J., a n d S u n , R. J., 1 9 6 6 , A t l a s o f Asia
Each of the slip-line fields in Figure northwest extension. Right-lateral strike- a n d e a s t e r n E u r o p e , III, S e i s m i c i t y : W a s h -
4, a, b, and c includes one other unneces- slip faulting occurs on north-northeast i n g t o n , D.C., U.S. G e o l . S u r v e y .
sary oversimplification, right-angle corners planes and left-lateral faulting on west- L e e , W . H . K . , W u , F. T . , a n d J a c o b s e n , C . , 1 9 7 6 ,
A c a t a l o g o f h i s t o r i c a l e a r t h q u a k e s in C h i n a
and parallel sides. More realistic boun- northwest planes. Southeast China, in compiled f r o m recent Chinese publications:
daries also present no problem. Figure 4, d contrast, is quite stable. An analogy is S e i s m o l . S o c . A m e r i c a Bull., v. 6 6 ,
drawn between the tectonics and stability p. 2 0 0 3 - 2 0 1 6 .
shows the slip-line field for an oblique
M o l n a r , P., a n d T a p p o n n i e r , P., 1 9 7 5 , C e n o z o i c
boundary. The stress and velocity fields are of these regions and the deformation and t e c t o n i c s of A s i a ; E f f e c t s o f a c o n t i n e n t a l
similar to those in Figure 4, a, b, and c. displacement in a two-dimensional rigid- c o l l i s i o n : S c i e n c e , v. 1 8 9 , p . 4 1 9 - 4 2 6 .
plastic medium bounded laterally and M o l n a r , P., F i t c h , T. J., a n d W u , F. T . , 1 9 7 3 ,
This more general case may be applicable Fault plane solutions of shallow e a r t h q u a k e s
to northeast China if the boundary between indented at one end near a corner by a a n d c o n t e m p o r a r y t e c t o n i c s in A s i a : E a r t h
Eurasia and North America is important. rigid indenter (Fig. 4). The slip-line field a n d P l a n e t a r y Sci. L e t t e r s , v. 1 9 , p. 1 0 1 - 1 1 2 .
Seismological C o m m i t t e e , Academia Sinica,
The situation in northeast China would agrees in sense and orientation with the 1956, Chronological tables of e a r t h q u a k e
then be analogous to that for the Baikal strike-slip faulting in northeast China and d a t a of C h i n a : P e k i n g , S c i e n c e Press, 2 vols.,
rift zone (Tapponnier and Molnar, 1976). therefore with the inferred orientation of 1 , 6 5 3 p. (in C h i n e s e ) .
T a p p o n n i e r , P., a n d M o l n a r , P., 1 9 7 6 , Slip-line
The pattern of deformation near point principal stresses. The orientation of the f i e l d t h e o r y a n d large scale c o n t i n e n t a l tec-
C in Figure 4, c and d is similar to that in least compressive stress agrees with the t o n i c s : N a t u r e , v. 2 6 4 , p. 3 1 9 - 3 2 4 .
direction of extension in regions of normal — 1 9 7 7 , A c t i v e f a u l t i n g a n d t e c t o n i c s in C h i n a :
northeast China. Extension is approxi- J o u r . G e o p h y s . R e s e a r c h (in press).
mately north-northwest, becoming more faulting. The stability of the region analo- T e r m a n , M. J . , 1 9 7 4 , T e c t o n i c m a p of C h i n a :
nearly northwest toward the middle of the gous to southeast China is predicted also. Boulder, Colo., Geol. Soc. America.
Thus, we associate the tectonics (or lack of W u , K. T . , Y u e , M. S., W u , H. Y., C a o , X. L . ,
plastic zone. Right- and left-lateral strike- C h e n , H. T „ H u a n g , W. Q . , T i a n , K. Y . , a n d
slip faulting occur parallel to the trends of it) in eastern China to the India-Eurasia L u , S. D., 1 9 7 6 , C e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
the a and ft lines, respectively. Moreover, collision at the Himalaya and to the lack H a i c h e n g e a r t h q u a k e (M = 7 . 3 ) s e q u e n c e :
A c t a G e o p h y s . S i n i c a , v. 19, p . 9 3 - 1 0 9 .
the rigid lower-right corner corresponds of significant horizontal compressive stress Y o r k , J. E., C a r d w e l l , R., a n d Ni, J., 1 9 7 6 ,
to the relatively stable southeast China. In transmitted across the island arcs in the S e i s m i c i t y a n d Q u a t e r n a r y f a u l t i n g in
all cases, the principal stresses rotate and western Pacific. C h i n a : S e i s m o l . S o c . A m e r i c a Bull., v. 6 6 ,
p. 1 9 8 3 - 2 0 0 2 .
decrease in magnitude from A to C (Fig.
4, c). Near A, both oj and o3 are positive
REFERENCES CITED ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
(compressive), and mountain building
B a c k o f e n , W. A., 1 9 7 2 , D e f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n g :
should occur, as it does in the western R e a d i n g , Mass., A d d i s o n - W e s l e y , p. 1 0 7 - 1 5 3 . Reviewed by B. C. Burchfiel. Supported by
Gansu. Farther east, Oj approaches zero, C a r d w e l l , R. K., a n d Isacks, B. L., 1 9 7 6 , Inves- National Science Foundation Grant NSF-74-
while o3 and then o/, become negative. t i g a t i o n o f t h e 1 9 6 6 e a r t h q u a k e s e q u e n c e in 02550 EAR and also by an Alfred P. Sloan
n o r t h e r n C h i n a using t h e m e t h o d of j o i n t Fellowship and by the Laboratoire de Geologie
Normal and strike-slip faulting prevail epicenter determination: Seismol. Soc. Structurale, Montpellier, France.
there, with the orientations shown in Figure A m e r i c a Bull., v. 6 6 , p. 1 9 6 5 - 1 9 8 2 .
4, c. Thus, we suggest that most of the C h e n , Y. T . , L i n , B. H., L i n , Z. Y . , a n d Li, Z. Y „ MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED JAN. 28, 1977
1 9 7 5 , T h e f o c a l m e c h a n i s m of t h e 1 9 6 6
tectonics of northeast China can be ex- H s i n g t a i e a r t h q u a k e as i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED FEB. 14, 1977

216 P R I N T E D IN U . S . A . A P R I L 1977
 Downloaded from geology.gsapubs.org on April 1, 2015

Geology

Relation of the tectonics of eastern China to the India-Eurasia collision:

Application of slip-line field theory to large-scale continental tectonics
Peter Molnar and Paul Tapponnier

Geology 1977;5;212-216
doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1977)5<212:ROTTOE>2.0.CO;2

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