Breeding Fruit and Plant.
Breeding Fruit and Plant.
Breeding Fruit and Plant.
Lecture.1
History, Development and Importance of Fruit Breeding
India is bestowed with a wide range of agro climatic and soil conditions.
Therefore, almost all types of fruits can be grown in one or the other parts of the country.
India is the second largest producer of fruits next to China. In India, horticultural crops
occupy about 6.7% of gross area,contribute about 18% of gross value of agricultural
output and 52% of export earnings in agriculture.
More focus on search for desired genes, critical study of inheritance pattern and
use of biotechnological tools are needed in combining ideal characteristics in varietal
improvement programme of fruit crops.
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fruit crops from UK, France and East Indies etc. A pomological Station was established
at Coonoor near Ooty in 1920 to study the adaptability of temperate fruit varieties.
Fruit Breeding
Most of the fruit crops have long generation cycle of 2-10 years depending upon
species and cultivars and hence more recombinations are not possible.
Fruit crops have long juvenile period and making it difficult for early assessment
of strains e.g. mango, Madhuka latifolia, jack fruit etc.
Madhuka latifolia
Majority of the fruit species are highly heterozygous, requiring large populations
for an effective selection
Most fruit species are polyploidy in nature e.g. ber, banana etc.
Polyembryony nature of fruit species e.g. citrus, mango
Presence of parthenocarpy and seedlessness e.g. banana, pineapple etc.
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The objectives of fruit breeding depends on the fruit crops, location and
requirements of the consumers. The main objectives of fruit breeding is to get
maximum quality production per unit area with low cost, besides tolerance to biotic
and abiotic stresses, the objectives are distinct and variable in respect of breeding for
rootstocks and scions.
For rootstock
Wide geographical adaptability
Easily propagated, preferably through asexual means
Compatibility with most of the scion cultivars having strong scion stock
union and more longevity
Resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses
Induction of dwarfing without affecting the productivity of scion cultivars
Should possess strong root system with out brittleness e.g. EM 9 root stock
of apple
It should be free from suckering habit
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Selection of ideal
Ideotype (elite plants)
Mutation Somaclonal
Created variability
variation Polyploidy
Hybridization
Intervarietal
Interspecific Performance evaluation
Intergeneric
Mass multiplication
and distribution
Questions
Ans: True
Ans: Fruit breeding is the manipulation of a biological system that requires many
generations to achieve result. It is also a dynamic, exciting and challenging profession,
operating under continually changing conditions
Ans: True
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Lecture.2
Centers Of Diversity, Distribution And Domestication
Domestication Of Fruit Species
The concept of centre of origin was conceived by N.I. Vavilov based on his
studies of a vast collection of plants at the Institute of Plant Industry, Leningrad during his
tenure as Director from 1916 to 1936. According to Vavilov, crop plants evolved from wild
species in the areas showing great diversity and termed them as primary centers of origin.
But in some areas, certain crop species show considerable diversity of forms although, they
have not originated from such areas which are known as secondary centers.
cen ters. Eight main
centers of origin are recognized as proposed by Vavilov.
China
This is one of the largest and oldest center of origin. It includes mountainous parts
of Central and Western China besides, neighboring lowlands.
Examples
Pear (Pyrus
(Pyrus communis)
co
Peach (Prunus
(Prunus persica)
persica
Apricot (Prunus
(Prunus armeniaca)
armeniaca
Plum (Prunus
(Prunus salicina)
Mandarin (Citrus
(Citrus reticulata)
reticulata
Hindustan
This centre includes Burma, Assam, Malayan Archipelago, Java, Borneo, Sumatra
and Philippines. But, this centre does not include North West India, Punjab and North
Western Frontier Provinces. Later on, this center of origin is divided into Indo-Burma
Indo Burma and
Siam-Malaya
Malaya-Java
Java centre of origin.
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Examples
Mango (Mangifera
(Mangifera indica)
indica
Mandarin (Citrus
(Citrus reticulata)
reticulata
Coconut (Cocos
(Cocos nucifera)
nucifera)
Banana (Musa
(Musa sapientum)
sapientum
Central Asia
It is also known as the Afghanistan centre of origin. It includes North West India
(Punjab, North-West
North West Frontier Provinces and Kashmir), all Afghanistan, Soviet Republics of
Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and Tian-Shan;
Tian
Examples
Almond (Prunus
(Prunus amygdalis)
amygdalis
Grape (Vitis
(Vitis vinifera)
vinifera
Apple (Malus
(Malus sp.)
sp
Asia Minor
It includes the interior of Asia Minor, the whole of Transcaucasia, Iran, and high
lands of Turkmenistan. This centre is also known as the Near East or Persian centre of origin.
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Fig (Ficus
(Ficus carica)
carica
Pomegranate (Punica
(Punica granatum)
granatum
Abyssinian
Central America
This includes region of South Mexico and Central America. It is also known as
Mexican centre of origin.
Examples
Papaya (Carica
(Carica papaya)
papaya
Guava (Psidium
(Psidium guajava)
guajava)
Avocado(Persia americana)
Avocado(Persia americana
South America
This centre includes the high mount regions of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia,
parts of Chile and Brazil and whole of Paraguay. Further, this centre was sub-divided
sub divided into
three centres i.e. Peru, Chile and Brazil-Paraguay
Brazil Paraguay centre of origin.
Examples: Pineapple and a few species of guava.
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(Emblica officinalis), papaya (Carica papaya), Jack fruit (Artocarpus hetrophyllus), custard-
apple (Annona sp), Karonda (Carissa sp), cordia or (cordia myxa) and phalsa (Grewia
asiatica).
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Acclimatization
When a plant material is introduced into a new area, it has to adapt itself to the new
environment. Thus, the process of adaptation of an individual to a changed climate, or the
adjustment of a species or a population to a changed environment over a number of
generations is called “acclimatization” or acclimation. A naturally cross-pollinated crop will
adapt itself to the new environment more quickly than a self-pollinated crop. In gene
recombinations, some of the genes be well adapted to the new environment, will be present
very often in the cross pollinated crops due to frequent cross pollination. Similarly, the
chances of a genetically variable population of a self-pollinated crop to become adapted to its
new environment are greater than those of a pure-line. Newly introduced materials of
unselected bulk may be promising in the initial phases of introduction but should prove very
well in later years. This is because nature selects from the heterogeneous population superior
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genotypes that are better suited to the new environment from among the heterogenous
population and multiplies them in the course of a few years. A pure-line, on the other hand,
has practically no genetic variability and hence it does not offer much scope for making
selection adaptable to the newer place in which it has been introduced. A pure-line thus very
rarely succeeds as an introduction.
Some of the most important commercial crops cultivated extensively in India today
are introductions from other countries. Para rubber (Hevea sp), was first introduced from
Brazil in 1873. One or two attempts of introduction of this crop did not prove to be
successful, but now, India particularly Kerala has extensive plantations of rubber. Tapioca
(Manihot esculenta) has been introduced into India by the Portuguese and the Dutch. It is
now grown extensively in Kerala where, it is a staple food. Cinchona was first introduced
into the Nilgiris from Peru in 1860. Later it was introduced into Darjeeling. Coffee (Coffea
arabica) was first introduced into India in 1700 by a Muslim who returned from a pilgrimage
to Mecca. Today, coffee is grown extensively in South India and is an important commercial
crop both for internal consumption and for export.
Questions
2. Which one of the following has Mediterranean centre as origin Pippermint (Mentha sp.)
Ans: True
Ans:
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Ans: True
5. Which one of the following crops has Central American as centre of origin?
Ans:
Apple (Malus sp.)
Mandarin (Citrus reticulata)
Plum (Prunus divaricata)
Papaya (Carica papaya)
Ans: True
9. Give examples for introduced crop commercially cultivated extensively in India Rubber
(Hevea brasiliensis)
Ans: True
10. Coffee (Coffea arabica) was first introduced into India in 1700 by a Muslim.
Ans: True
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Lecture.3
Problems in fruit breeding - poly ploidy and heterozygosity
Polyploidy
An organism having more than two sets of homologous chromosomes is known as
a polyploid. Polyploidy is of general occurrence in plants while it is rare amongst
animals. If the somatic chromosome sets in a diploid be represented by AA BB CC then
the genome, i.e., the number in the genomes will be A B C. If this is represented by ‘n’
then the simple polyploid series would be:
2n – diploid
3n – triploid
4n – tetraploid
5n – pentaploid
6n – hexaploid
7n – heptaploid
8n – octaploid
9n – Nonaploid
10n – decaploid
decaploid and so on
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Some crops are found in a variety of ploidy. Apples, tulips and lilies are
commonly found as both diploid and triploid. Bananas are available as diploid, triploid,
tetraploid, and pentaploid. Daylilies (Hemerocallis spp) cultivars are available as either
diploid or tetraploid. Kinnows can be tetraploid, diploid, or triploid.
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Types
Autopolyploidy
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Allopolyploidy
Fruit crops such as mango, banana and citrus pose the problem of polyploidy, and
crops such as mango, papaya and citrus are highly heterozygous. Choosing of polyploid
varieties with desirable qualities may have the hindrance in developing hybrids as
sometimes they exhibit sterility and obtaining a good hybrid may be questionable. In
banana, when tetraploid is crossed with a diploid or triploid the genome of the
segregating population will be unpredictable because of the restitution or unreduced
chromosomes arising from the female parent. Heterozgosity on the other hand, create
more complexity in breeding of mango, papaya and citrus because of wide segregations
in the progenies. Hence, the breeding cycle is extended when compared to self pollinated
crops because in every generation careful selection of progenies is required and high
level of purity has to be maintained in each generation.
Questions
1. Organism having more than two sets of homologous chromosomes is known as a
Polyploid.
Ans: True
2. Give examples for Octaploid crops
Ans:
Strawberry,
Dahlia,
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Pansies,
Sugar Cane
Ans: True
Ans: True
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Lecture.4
Problems in Fruit Breeding – Polyembryony, Parthenocarpy and Seedlessness
Polyembryony
The phenomenon in which more embryos are present within a single seed is
called polyembryony. It may result due to (a) nucellar embryony e.g., Citrus (b)
development of more than one nucleus within the embryo sac (in addition to the egg
embryo during the early stages of development) leading to multiple embryos (e.g.
conifers).
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Vegetative parthenocarpy
Stimulative parthenocarpy
If a fruit develops from the mere stimulus of the pollination (but without
fertilization), the phenomenon is known as stimulative parthenocarpy. The female
flowers of triploid watermelon require the pollen grains of diploid varieties to develop
into a seedless fruit. Diploid pollen grain gives a stimulus to the ovary of guava when
self pollinated, which result in the development of parthenocarpic fruit due to the
stimulation provided by pollen hormones. E.g) Thompson Seedless variety of Grapes
and papaya
Steno-spermocarpy
In “Black Corinth” variety of grapes, pollination and fertilization take place
but the embryo gets aborted subsequently resulting in seedlessness. This phenomenon
of development of seedless fruits is referred to as ‘steno-spermocarpy’.
Application of GA at 8000 ppm in lanolin paste on the cut end of the style of
the emasculated flowers of guava resulted in the development of seedless fruits.
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Similarly, seedlessness in loquat was induced by spraying GA 100 to 200 ppm on the
emasculated flowers.
Parthenogenesis
In some plants, fruits develop parthenocarpically, still they produce viable
seeds. (e.g. Mangosteen and Strawberry). This phenomenon is referred to as
parthenogenesis. The seedlings of such fruits are genetically uniform. In certain cases,
seeds develop partenogentically but they are non-viable (e.g. Apple) When female
flowers of jack are pollinated with the pollen grains of bread fruit, seeds do form in
jack but they did not germinate as they are non-viable.
Questions
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C. True or False
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Lecture.5
Incompatibility and Sterility Systems
Self incompatibility
The barrier between pollination and fertilization in angiosperms is because of the
self-incompatibility, a genetically controlled phenomenon. Self incompatibility is the
inability of functional male and female gametes of the hermaphrodite flowers to set seeds
on self pollination.
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B. Sporophytic incompatibility
1) Pollen-stigma interaction
This interaction occurs just after the pollen grains reach the stigma and generally
it prevents pollen germination. In the gametophytic system, stigma surface is plumose
having elongated receptive cells and is commonly known as wet stigma. Incompatibility
reaction occurs at a later stage. There are clear cut serological differences among the
pollen grains with different S genotypes and such differences have not been observed in
sporophytic system.
In sporophytic system, stigma is papillate and dry covered with a hydrated layer
of proteins known as pellicle. There is evidence that the pellicle is involved in
incompatibility reaction. There are striking differences in the stigma antigens related to
the S allele composition. Within few minutes of reaching the stigmatic surface, the pollen
releases exine exudates which are either protein or glycoprotein in nature. This exudate
induces immediate callose formation in papillae (which are in direct contact with the
pollen) of incompatible stigma. Often callose is also deposited on the young protruding
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pollen tubes preventing any further germination of the pollen. Thus, in the sporophytic
system, stigma is the site of incompatibility reaction. The incompatibility reaction of
pollen is probably due to the deposition of some compounds from anther tapetum on to
the pollen exine.
In most of the gametophytic system, pollen grains germinate and pollen tubes
penetrate the stigmatic surface. But, in the incompatible combinations, the growth of
pollen tube is retarded within the stigma.
In some cases, pollen tube reaches the ovule and affects fertilization. However, in
incompatible combinations, embryo degenerates at early stage of development.
One of the following methods can be used for bringing partial fertility by
temporarily suppressing the incompatibility reaction:
> Bud pollination – Application of mature pollens to immature non-receptive stigma
i.e. 1-2 days prior to anthesis.
> Surgical technique – Removal of stigmatic surface.
> High temperature – Exposure of pistils to temperature up to 60oC
> Irradiation – With x rays or rays for single locus gametophytic incompatibility.
> Double pollination – Incompatible pollen is applied as mixture with compatible
pollen.
> Pollination at the end of season
Arora and Singh (1988) observed that in low chilling plum and peach cultivars,
methanol killed the mentor pollen and not helpful in overcoming incompatibility barriers,
however, frozen and thawed mentor pollen (one which, if alive, would be fully
compatible with style receiving it) improved fruit set in both intra and inter specific
incompatibility.
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Aonla
In aonla, male flowers appear in clusters in the axil of leaf all over the branchlet
while female flowers are on the upper end of a few of these branches. Bajpai (1968)
reported male to female ratio of 307.9:1 and 197:1 in two successive years indicating
marked variation in the expression of sex. The maximum number of male flowers opens
between 6 and 7 PM and dehiscence of anthers starts soon thereafter. The female flowers
open in stages and take 72 hours to open completely and the stigma becomes receptive on
the third day of anthesis. Bajpai (1968) reported that aonla pollen are light and thus the
pollination occurs through wind. There is no self-incompatibility in aonla. The cause of
poor fruit set may be attributed to a high percentage of staminate flowers.
Apple
Lal et al., (1972) found 9 apple cultivars completely and 4 partially self-
incompatible. For Early Shanburry cultivar, Fanny (54-5%), Winter Banana (60.4%) and
Rome Beauty (54.25%) were better pollinizers. In Red Delicious, highest fruit set
occurred with Jonathan (87.5%) cultivars Mclntosh, Rymer, Jonathan and Rome Beauty
set satisfactory crop with self pollen.
Ber
The majority of flowers are borne axillary on current season growth in clusters.
The time of flowering varies in different parts of India. Godara (1981) found that
cultivars Banarsi, Karaka, Mundia, Murhara, Reshmi, Sandhura, Narnaul, Safeda,
Umran, Ilaichi and kakrola were self- incompatible and Umran was found to be the best
pollen recipient as well as pollen donor. Being sticky, the pollen is transferred mainly by
honey bees. Many flowers do not get pollinated at critical stages of gynoecium
receptivity and drop off because of a short receptivity period.
Citrus
Pollen development is normal in citrus except in a few cultivars like Navel
oranges, Satsuma mandarin and lime which have no viable pollen. In cultivars with
abundant pollen, self-pollination occurs but in mixed plantings of different cultivars,
cross pollination is not uncommon. The stigma remains receptive for 6-8 days. Honey
bees are the known pollinating agents. Self-incompatibility has been reported in
pummelo, sweet lime and lemon.
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Fig
It is a gynodioecious species. The Capri fig is monoecious while common fig is
pistillate. The figs commonly grown in India are parthenocarpic and do not require
pollination. In other countries, generally Capri figs (wild figs) are planted as pollinizers
with the commercial cultivars. The cultivars Pune, Black Ischia and Brown Turkey were
reported to be Parthenocarpic from Kodur while Turkish White failed to set fruits without
caprification.
Grape
Most vinifera cultivars have perfect flowers that have both functional pistil and
stamens. Some species of grapes (V.rotundifolia) are dioecious. Berry set results from
pollination, fertilization and seed development. Some cultivars like Black Corianth set
by stimulative parthenocarpy and in others like Perlette, Beauty Seedless, Pusa Seedless,
Delight, and Thompson Seedless stenospermocarpy occurs.
Self pollination is the rule in vinifera grapes. However, cross pollination is also
possible and is desirable under certain conditions.
Guava
Cross pollination is the rule in guava. However, Singh Sehgal (1968) found that
self pollination was also predominant and that the possibility of open pollination cannot
be ruled out. Under open pollination, Allahabad Safeda had the highest fruit set of 85.5
per cent in spring and 84.4 per cent in rainy seasons, while cultivar Sardar reorded 83.3
and 82.2 per cent fruit set respectively. Under self pollination, Allahabad Safeda
recorded 67.7 per cent fruit set in spring and 66.6 per cent in rainy seasons.
Jackfruit
In the tropics, flowering and fruiting are continuous throughout the year in the
terminal leaf axil of leader and lateral shoots. There appears to be no regular sequence in
the incidence of male and female inflorescences. Although they are similar during early
development, the female is later distinguished by a thicker peduncle and a large annular
disc at the anthesis, but later emerged males are smaller. Sharma (1964) reported a high
degree of sterility with some fruits having 12,000 flowers producing only five fully
developed segments surrounded by 448 aborted flowers. They also noted partial seed
development, suggesting that some might have occurred after fertilization.
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Mango
The panicles bear male and perfect flowers and the cross pollination is mainly
done by the house fly. The number of perfect flowers per panicle varies between 1000
and 6000. Uniform cross pollination of cultivars Dashehari, Langra and Bombay Green
with the pollen of Totapari and of Bombay Green with that of Langra and Chausa,
Dashehari and Totapari and of Bombay Green indicated that in nature about 50 per cent
of perfect flowers remain unpollinated, stigma remains receptive from one day prior to
anthesis with a maximum on the day of anthesis and that fruit set is generally improved
by mixed pollination.
Male sterility
Like any other morphological traits, particularly mono and oligogenic, this type of
male sterility occurs in plant due to mutation of the fertility locus, situated on
chromosomes within the nucleus. In this case, cytoplasm is not involved in bringing the
sterility. There could be three possible genotypes for this locus and only one of them is
male sterile.
Fertile (R-line) = RR
Fertile (B-line) = Rr
Sterile (A-line) = rr
Sterility maintenance
By crossing AxB lines, sterile and fertile progenies are produced in equal
proportions. For the maintenance of sterile line, the fertile plants need to be quickly
removed before the shedding of the pollen grains. The fertile plants can be removed in
early stage of plant growth by using marker gene.
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Fertility restoration
Fertile lines can be obtained by crossing A-line with R-line. It can be used in
hybrid seed production and genetical studies or for the preservation of variability.
Sterility maintenance
Fertility restoration
Since there is no third type of genotype which can act as R-line, as such
restoration of fertility is not feasible. However, this does not exhaust all the possibilities
of use of cytoplasmic sterile lines.
Uses
As restoration is not possible, this type of sterility is useful only in crops where
the seed is not the desired end product. This is important for horticultural crops where
vegetative parts are of economic value.
Such sterility arises from the interaction of nuclear gene(s) and conditioning
sterility with sterile cytoplasm. The cytoplasmi-geneic sterility is essentially a
cytoplasmic sterility with a provision for restoration of fertility. The fertility is restored
by (R) gene present in the nucleus. The combination of both nuclear gene(s) and
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cytoplasmic factors determine the fertility or sterility in such plants. Based on these
combinations, there can be maximum of six types of genotypes and only one of them is
sterile.
Sterility maintenance
Fertility restoration
This is achieved by suitable restorer lines which can give rise to all fertile
progenies on crossing with A-line. Among the possible six genotypes, only [(RR) F] and
[(RR) r] are such restorer or R-line. They produce all fertile progenies.
Uses
Questions
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Lecture.6
Apomixis – merits and demerits, types
Apomixis
Apomixis is widely distributed among higher plants. More than 300 species
belonging to 35 families are apomictic. It is most common in Gramineae, Compositae,
Rosaceae and Rutaceae.
Classification of Apomixis
Recurrent apomixis
The embryo sac (female gametophyte) develops from the megaspore mother cell
whether meiosis is disturbed (sporogenesis failed) or from adjoining cell (megaspore
mother cell disintegrates). The egg cell is diploid and embryo develops directly from the
diploid egg cell without fertilization. Generally, somatic apospory, diploid
parthernogenesis and diploid apogamy fall under recurrent apomixis.
Example: Rubus sp. (Raspberry), Malus hupehensis, Malus sikkimensis, Malus sargenti
and Malus toringoides (Mitra (1991), Vashishtha et al., (2004))
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Non-recurrent apomixis
The development of embryo takes place from haploid egg cell without
fertilization. Such type of apomixis rarely occurs. Generative apospory, haploid
parthenogenesis, haploid apogamy and androgamy fall under this category.
Adventive embryony
This is also known as nucellar embryony or polyembryony. In this case more than
one embryo develops in a single seed. In the seed both types of embryo develops i.e.
nucellar embryo from nucellar cell and zygotic embryo from egg cell with the result of
syngamy.
Vegetative apomixis
This is not common in fruit crops. However, in some cases like Poa bulbosa and
some Allium, Agave and grass species vegetative buds or bulbils are produced instead
of flower in the inflorescence.
Apospory
It involves the development of embryo sac either from the archesporial cell or
from the nucellus, or from other cell. It is of two types:
(i) Generative or haploid apospory: If the embryo sac develops from one of the
megaspores (n), the process is called generative or haploid apospory. Since it
cannot regenerate, as it is haploid and fertilization fails, the process gives rise
to non-recurrent apomicts.
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(ii) Somatic or diploid apospory: When diploid embryo sac is formed from nucellus
or other cells, the process is termed as somatic or diploid apospory. Since it
regenerates without fertilization, it is recurrent.
Parthenogenesis
Apogamy
Development of embryo from synergids or antipodal cells within the embryo sac
with or without pollination but without fertilization is termed as apogamy. This type
of apomixis is also grouped into haploid and diploid apogamy depending upon the
ploidy level of cell. Diploid apogamy is recurrent type whereas, haploid aopgamy is
non-recurrent type.
Androgamy
Development of the embryo from male gametes inside or outside the embryo sac
is known as androgamy. Since the cells are haploid in nature they, come under non
recurrent type.
Genetics of apomixis
embryony and vegetative reproduction that simple genetic behavior can be expected.
Recently, Vardy et al. (1989) recorded three recessive genes with additive effects
which are responsible for parthenocarpy.
Apomicts tend to conserve the genetic structure of their carrier and are also
capable of maintaining the advantages of heterozygote generation after generation.
Therefore, such a mechanism might offer a great advantage in plant breeding where
genetic uniformity maintained over generation for homozygosity (in varieties of selfers),
and heterozygosity (in hybrids of both selfers and out breeders) is the choicest goal.
Additionally, apomixes may also affect an efficient exploitation of maternal influence, if
any, reflecting in the resultant progenies, early or delayed because it causes perpetuation
of the only maternal properties due to prohibition of fertilization. Maternal effects are
most common in horticultural crops, particularly fruit trees and ornamental plants.
For exploiting the apomixes in sexual crops, the apomictic phenomenon occurring
spontaneously in any plant needs to be detected or identified. The artificial incorporation
could be perhaps through hybridization between apomixes and amphimicts.
Detection of apomixis
Positive evidence for the presence or absence of apomixis are obtained only from
an intensive screening of a large number of plant varieties / hybrids. The screening
involves a careful and systematic tracing of steps for the development of embryosac and
embryo, through microtomy of ovule, right from megaspores to embryonic development.
Therefore, it is the most tedious job requiring patience and persistence.
It should however, be noted that it is only the recurrent apomixis, namely diploid
forms of apospory/parthenogenesis/apogamy/adventitive embryony and the vegetative
propagation which are beneficial for plant breeding purposes. The simple reason being
that it is these diploid forms, which produce viable diploids without fertilization and thus
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Once an apomict plant is detected, its inheritance pattern may be studied through
crossing a few sample flowers with the pollen obtained from normal plants and observing
the segregation pattern in F2 and subsequent generations. The remaining flowers may
thoroughly be checked and seeds collected on maturity. The true apomictic plant will
automatically produce mother apomictic progenies, which can be maintained without
difficulty.
Questions
Ans: True
Ans: True
3. The development of embryo takes place from haploid egg cell without fertilization is
known as Non-recurrent apomixes.
Ans: True
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4. Development of the embryo from male gametes inside or outside of embryo sac is
known as Androgamy.
Ans: True
5. More than one embryo develops in a single seed is known as Adventive embryony.
Ans:True
6.Development of embryo from synergids or antipodal cells within the embryo sac
is known as Apogamy.
Ans: True
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Lecture.7
Variability, Germplasm and Its Significances
India is the home for important fruit species Artocarpus heterophyllus, Citrus
indica, c.latipes, Feronia limonia, Garcinia indica, Manilkara hexandra. Mangifera
indica, Musa species (AB, AAB group), Syzygium cumini and Zizyphus mauritiana
(Arora, 1987). The Hindustan centre is one of the 8 to 12 regions of genetic diversity
(Vavilov, 1949/1950) having linkage/contiguity with Central Asian, Indo-Chinese-
Indonesian and Chinese – Japanese regions. As many as 190 species of economic
importance are indigenous to the Indian gene centre of which 109 are fruits (Arora
and Nayar, 1984).
Variability
Variability in regions
South Kerala and Tamil Nadu, (ii) Idduki-Sulahsiri forests, (iii) Anamalais, (iv)
Nilgiris, (v) Agumbe-Phonde, (vi) Mahabaleshwar, (vii) Ratnagiri and Colaba, (viii)
Saurashtra- Kutch, (ix) Tirupati-Cuddappa, (x) Nallamalais, (xi)Vizagapatnam hills,
(xii) Bastar and Koraput hills, (xiiii) Similipal and Jeypore hill forests, (xiv)
Chotangpur plateau, (xv) Panchmarhi-Satpura ranges, (xvi) Marathwada, (xvii)
Bundelkhand, (xviiii) Aravalli, (xix) Ladakh, (xx) Valley of Flowers and Kedarnath,
(xxi) The Nandaevi, (xxii) Sikkim Himalayas, (xxiiii) Lalichopri, (xxiv) Namdapha,
(xxv) Tura-Khasia range, (xxvi) Nagaland-Manipur-Mizoram (Lushai hills),
(xxvii)North Andamans, (xxviiii) South Andamans and (xxix) the Great Nicobar
Islands. These centres fall into four broad regions of genetic diversity, i.e., North-
Eastern region, Western and Eastern Ghats, Western Himalayas, northern and Indo-
Gangetic Plains. Rich diversity in the North-Eastern region occurs in citrus, mango
and banana (Arora and Nayar, 1984: Ghosh, 1984).
Variability in Fruits
Banana
Citrus
Being the home of several Citrus species, rich genetic diversity occurs in the
North-Eastern, North-Western and Southern regions, the maximum concentration
being in the North-Eastern region. Bhattacharya and Dutta (1956) described 17 Citrus
species, their 52 cultivars and a few probable natural hybrids from this region. In
rough lemon alone, as many as 32 strains are available. The species, C.limon, C.
medica, C.jambhiri, C.ichangensis, C.latipes, C.macroptera, C.assamensis, C. Indica
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and C.aurantium are considered indigenous to this region. The Indian wild orange,
C.indica, is found in the Naga hills (near Dimapur), Garo hills of Meghalaya and
Kaziranga forests in Assam.
Grape
Mango
Rich variability in mango is present all over the country. Wild forms of
Mangifera indica have existed in peninsular tract, evergreen forests, North-East
region and in Terai ranges. Tribal areas at the junctions of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh and Orissa. Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Rajasthan; and South Tamil Nadu
and Kerala are some prominent centres. Some Mangifera species are native to North-
East India, Tripura, Manipur, Mizoram, South Assam, Chotanagpur Plateau,
Rajmahal hills and Andamans. Wild forms of M.indica and its allied species
M.sylvatica occur in the forests of North-East region. The fossil leaf impressions of
M. pentandra have been recovered in Assam. Mukherjee (1985) has reported that at
least six out of 41 Mangifera speices are native to India.
Other Fruits
There is a lot of variability in several other fruits all over the country. Several
speices of ber are found in Peninsular tract, Western and Eastern Ghats; Phoenix and
Ficus species in North-Eastern region; Indian gooseberry in Northern subtropical
plains; tamarind in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh; custard apple in
Andhra Pradesh; date palm in Kachchh; jackfruit in Eastern and Southern India; and
pome and stone fruits in temperate region.
(Chadha, 1978). In the North-Eastern region also, rich diversity occurs in Pyrus,
Rubus, Ribes and Prunus (Kaul, 1987). The Shillong plateau of Khasi hills in
Meghalaya has many Prunus species, such as P.nepalensis, P.undulata and
P.cerasoides.
A rich wealth of 17 wild and less known species of edible fruits exists in India
out of a total of 337 species in the world
The plant genetic resources constitute a reservoir of genes and gene complexes
and are the raw materials for improvement of horticultural crops. The richness of
species and genetic diversity in horticultural crops provided many opportunities,
which can be achieved with adoption of more rational, science based and pragmatic
approaches. There has been a significant progress in collection, conservation and
utilization of genetic resources of horticultural crops. The concerted efforts made in
past have yielded results and large number of varieties.
Banana
India harbours a great diversity in banana and plantain which can cater to any
need, be it for fruit industry, vegetable industry, flower industry or even leaf Industry.
They form a market worth several billions across the globe. With systematic efforts
on understanding their specific utilities, many of the lesser known varieties, especially
the land races can be exploited. The real strength of the country lies not only in
exploiting the commercial varieties, but also in thinking differently and exploiting the
untapped potential of this crop. Seeded landraces Ladiarit, Ladison, Rigitchi and other
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elite types Hatigola, Eboke, Ginde, Egitchi and Essing from Meghalaya landraces
mostly belonging to balbisiana (BB group) having resistance to drought cold and
frost, M.cheesmani and M. velutina, from Arunachal Pradesh, banana varieties
Kulprit, Safri, Anatur and Dingamanika from Cachar and Jaintia hills and landraces
Palayakodan, Kallur, Nayoodyan, Koombodiayan, Annarkanan and Katu from North
Kerala and Betta-bale, Putta – bale, Karibale, Bergi-bale, Sungathi-bale, Rasa-bale,
Pachcha-bale, Gujar-bale and Raja-bale from Karnataka have been reported.
Citrus
Jackfruit
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Mango
Other Fruits
Some wild edible temperate fruits such as Sorbus cuspidata, Malus baccata,
Pyrus pashia, Prunus cornuta, Punica granatum, Juglans regia and Ribes himalense
from Kumaon hills walnut, hazel nut, P.cornuta, apple, pear, Rosa sp., Crataegus,
Rubus and Corylus colurna from Pangi variety and Elaegnus, Prunus, Docynia and
Pyrus from khasi hills in Meghalaya have been collected.
Questions
Lecture.8
Breeding strategies - clonal selection
Clone
A clone is a group of plants produced exclusively from a single individual plant
through asexual reproduction. Most of the fruit plants are propagated asexually which
consist of large number of clones that is why these plants are known as a group of plants
derived from a single plant by vegetative means. In other words all the vegetative
progenies of a single plant make a clone.
Characteristics
Clones are stable- They retain their original traits just like pure line variety
Continuous inbreeding of clones which are heterozygous might lead to severe loss
in vigour
The phenotype of a clone is due to effect of gene (G), environment (E) and GxE
interaction over the population mean (h). Therefore P=h+G+E+GE
Clones are maintained by asexual reproduction, but pure lines and inbreds are
maintained by self-pollination or close inbreeding
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Genetic variation within clones may be due to mutation, mechanical mixture and
sexual reproduction.
a. Mutation
Somatic mutations are also known as bud mutations. The frequency of mutations
is generally very low. A mutant allele would be homozygous only when (i) both the
alleles in the cell mutate at the same time producing the same mutant allele, or (ii) the
mutant allele is already in the heterozygous condition in the original clone. Dominant bud
mutations express themselves more frequently than the recessive ones, as recessive
mutation get expressed only under homozygous conditions. Bud mutations often produce
chimeras, i.e., individuals containing cells of two or more genotypes. However, it is not a
great problem because normal plants, i.e., non chimeras, may be produced from chimeras
by several techniques.
b. Mechanical mixture
Mechanical mixture produces genetic variation within a clone, similar to the
manner as seen in pure lines.
c. Sexual reproduction
Clonal degeneration
The loss in vigour and productivity of clones with the passing of time is known as
clonal degeneration and it may be due to mutation and infection of virus and bacteria.
Clonal selection
The phenotypic value of a plant or a clone is due to its genotype (G), the
environment (E) and the genotype x environment interaction (GE). Of these, only the G
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effects are heritable and stable. Therefore, a selection for quantitative characters based on
single plant observation may not hold good.
A selection for polygenic characters like yield on the basis of unreplicated clonal
plots would also often be misleading and unreliable. The value of clone can be reliably
re liably
estimated only through replicated yield trials. However, selection for highly heritable
characters, such as plant height, days to flowering, colour, disease resistance, etc., is easy
and effective even on the basis of single plant or plot.
The various
various steps involved in clonal selection are briefly described below and are
depicted.
* * * * * * * * * * **
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First year: From a mixed variable population, a few hundred to few thousand desirable
plans are selected. A rigid selection can be done for simply inherited characters with high
heritability. Plants with obvious weakness are eliminated. In fruit plants, it is difficult to get large
number of individual selections. In such case, few plants may be selected.
Second Year: Clones from the selected plants are grown separately, generally without
replication. This is because of the limitation in propagation material in each clone, and also
because of the large number of clones involved. The characteristics of clones will be clear now
than in the previous generation when the observations were based on single plant. The inferior
clones are eliminated at this stage. The selection is based on visual observation and on the
breeder’s judgment of the value of clones. Fifty to one hundred clones are selected on the basis of
clonal characteristics.
Third year: Replicated preliminary yield trial is conducted. A suitable check is included
for comparison. Few superior performing clones with desirable characteristics are selected for
multi location trials. At this stage, selection for quality is done. If necessary, separate disease
nurseries may be planted to evaluate disease resistance of the selected clones.
Fourth to Seventh years: Replicated yield trials are conducted at several locations along
with a suitable check. The yielding ability, quality and disease resistance etc. of the clones are
rigidly evaluated. The best clones that are superior to the check in one or more characteristics are
identified for release as varieties.
Nineteenth year: The superior clones are multiplied and released as varieties.
Advantages
i) Clonal selection is an easy and less time consuming method.
ii) Easy maintenance because there is no problem of out crossing and loss of seed
viability. Variation occurs due to somatic mutation only which can be managed
by removal of undesired plants.
iii) Heterotic clones on selection may be used as permanent hybrids. Heterosis can be
exploited for longer time without production of hybrid seed every year (for
vegetatively propagated vegetable crops).
iv) Clonal selection is the only method of breeding in vegetatively propagated fruit
plants.
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Limitations
There is limited chance of getting new and useful type of variability
The multiplication rate is low.
It is only useful for vegetatively propagated plants.
Generally, clonal crops are cross-pollinated and they may show self incompatibility. The
selected parents may be used to produce single crosses involving two parents or an equivalent of
a polycross involving more than two parents (rubber).
Selection among F1 families: When the breeding value of parents is not known, and
when the relative contribution of general combining ability and specific combining ability is not
available, then a large number of crosses have to be made in order to ensure that at least some of
the crosses would produce outstanding progenies in F1. This is particularly true in a species where
crop improvement has not been done or has been done at a small scale. In such cases, it would be
cumbersome to evaluate a large number of F1 progenies generally in detail. To avoid this, small
samples of several F1 populations are generally grown. The general value of individual F1
families or populations is estimated noted. Inferior families are eliminated. Promising families
with outstanding individuals are then grown at a much larger scale for selection. The procedure is
designed to save time, space and labor by planting only small populations of a large number of
crosses at the preliminary stage.
Selection within F1 families: The selection procedure within F1 families is essentially the
same as that in the case of clonal selection.
But in the case of fruit and plantation crops like cashew, it is difficult to follow the above
steps. In these perennial crops, the steps given below may be followed:
Step I: Select two parents of desirable characters and hybridize them to produce sufficient
crossed fruits.
Step II: Raise the F1 seedling populations and evaluate the individual progenies for yield and
quality.
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Step III: Select few superior progenies and propagate them vegetatively to produce
grafts/budding on standard rootstocks.
Step IV: Evaluate the selected clonal seedling progenies (in sufficient number / clone usually
minimum of 5-10) along with the parents and standard varieties.
As step I to V take at least 20-25 years, some breeders avoid step I and IV. Instead, best
performing F1 progenies are assessed and the scion collected from them is multiplied as grafts /
budlings for further use as next varieties.
Achievements
Clone No.51 from Dashehari, MA-1 from Alphanso, Tommy Atkin from Haden.
Pusa Surya from Elden in mango, Pusa Seedless from Thompson Seedless of grape etc.
Questions
1. Clone is a group of plants produced from a single individual plant through asexual
reproduction.
Ans:True
2. Clones are maintained by asexual reproduction.
Ans:True
3. Somatic mutations are also known as bud mutations.
Ans:True
4. The loss in vigour and productivity of clones with the passing of time is known as
clonal degeneration.
Ans:True
5. The seedlings obtained from sexual reproduction are genotypically uniform from the
asexual progeny.
Ans:False
6. Sudden heritable change in the genotype of an organism is termed as mutation.
Ans:True
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Lecture.9
Breeding strategies - bud mutations and chimeras
Bud mutations
If mutation occurs in any one of the actively dividing meristematic tissues, the
branch arising from them, expresses the mutant character if it is dominant and this
phenomenon is known as bud mutation .Though mutation is most frequent at maturation
divisions, it may also arise in somatic cells. If mutation occurs in cells from which buds
are developed, the later are genetically different from the rest of the plant. These are
termed “bud mutation” or “sports”. The frequency of such mutations is very low to be of
any economic importance, which is also different in different species. The bud mutation
may arise through (1) gene mutation or (2) chromosomal variation. Bud variations have
been noted in sugarcane. This was first noted by Lorzier in Mauritius in 1869.
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Somatic mutations
These mutations occur in tissues other than the germ track. Most mutations occur
somatically, i.e., after the differentiation has set in, when a group of somatic cells is
genotypically different from the other cells in the same individual, a somatic mutation
may be suspected. The change occurs in the cells of the growing body. Hence the new
types of cells are not only heterozygous but form a patch. In meristematic tissues of
axillary buds and others a mutation often leads to a batch with new characters. Such
changes occur more frequently in polyploidy and heterozygous plants and in individuals
which have been grown for long as clones. If propagated vegetatively the mutated parts
give rise to new types of plants. This practice is common in horticulture.
The brown colour of the grain in sorghum in some cases is determined by the
persistence of the integument in which, the colour is deposited. Often mutant patches of
white occur in individual grains of panicles from homozygous brown grained line.
Anatomical studies have shown the suppression of the integument in such places where
the white patch appears and genetical studies have shown that this is only affecting the
somatic tissue and does not affect the germinal tissues. White grain colour is recessive to
brown. In Cosmos sulphureus, plants with yellow petals have often been observed to
appear suddenly; the usual one has orange-yellow coloured petals. Sometimes the region
affected is half the head and, in such cases, in the progeny, plants with all yellow flowers
have appeared. These have bred true. Somatic mutations have been recorded in
vegetatively propagated plants like apples, dahlias, chrysanthemum, potato, rose, etc.
Chimeras
A chimera is an individual with one genotype in some of its parts and another genotype
in the others. Somatic mutation may often lead to chimeras. When propagated asexually
these chimeras may become perpetual. Certain types of Pelargoniums and potatoes are of
such chimeras. When growth is encouraged from the concealed tissues the real nature of
these chimeras is revealed. Somatic mutations either at the terminal or axillary buds in
germinating seeds, seedlings or in mature plants can be produced by irradiation or
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Periclinal chimera: When the entire outer or inner layer is affected, the chimera is
known as ‘periclinal chimera’ (inner periclinal or outer periclinal depending upon the
layer affected)
Sectorial chimera: Only a part of the inner or the outer layer is affected (inner
sectorial chimera only a part of the inner or the outer layer is affected (inner sectorial and
outer sectorial respectively).
A: Sectorial chimera
B: Periclinal chimera
C: Mericlinal chimera
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Mutant alleles are generally recessive, but some dominant mutations may also
occur. In case of sexually reproducing crops, mutation breeding utilizes both recessive
and dominant mutations. In dominant mutations, the phenotype can be recognized as a
somatic mutation arising from the mutated cell, for example, a colour mutation in an
epidermal cell from ‘aa’ (colourless) to ‘Aa’. How ever, recessive mutations are much
more numerous than dominant ones. Recessive mutation can occur in the homozygous
dominant type as AA – Aa or in the heterozygote as Aa – aa. In the former one, the selfed
progeny normally segregate with 25 per cent recessive mutatnt ‘aa’ types.
Questions
1. Chimera is an individual with one genotype in some of its parts and another genotype
in the others.
Ans:True
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Ans: True
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Lecture.10
Breeding strategies –mutagenesis
mutagenesis and its application
Mutation
Sudden heritable change in the genotype of an organism is termed as mutation. It
may be spontaneous (without any treatment by man) or induced (artificially induced by a
treatment with certain physical or chemical agents) in plant population. The process
through
rough which mutants get induced is called mutation and the mutated individual is called
a mutant. Mutants have variously been classified as spontaneous and induced, natural and
artificial based on their origin; germinal and somatic based on the tissue involved;
invo lved;
chromosomal, genic and cytoplasmic etc.
Kind of mutations
Macro mutations are large mutations and can be recognized on a single plant
basis, e.g., changes in colour, shape, etc., Micro mutations are mutations with small
effects and can be recognized only when a group of 30 or more mutant plants are
compared with a normal one. Micro mutants differ with normal only quantitatively; for
example, mutants with larger or smaller grains or higher yield, etc., Micro mutations are
more important for direct use in plant breeding.
Point mutation is another term often used to designate gene mutation but it
comprises of group of changes at individual loci (point) including micro structural
change, micro-deficiencies
micro deficiencies and gene mutation.
a. Spontaneous mutations:
mutations: These are naturally occurring mutations, which arise
somatically. They arise in nature continuously without any human control and create
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variability, which forms the basis of conventional crop breeding methods. Their
frequency is extremely low (one in a million).
Physical or chemical agents, which cause mutation, are known as mutagens or mutagenic
agents.
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The following handling procedure is based on the selection for a recessive mutant
allele.
i. M1 generation: Several hundred (500 or more) seeds are treated with a mutagen
and are space-planted. M1 plants will be chimeras for the mutation present in
heterozygous state. About 20 seeds from each M 1 plant are harvested to raise the
M2 progeny rows.
ii. M2 generation: About 2,000 progeny rows are grown. Careful and regular
observations are made on the M2 rows. But only distinct mutations are detected in
M2 because the observations are based on single plants. All the plants in M 2 rows
suspected of containing new mutations are harvested separately to raise individual
plant progenies in M3. If the mutant is distinct, it is selected for multiplication and
testing. However, most of the mutations will be useless for crop improvement.
Only 1-3 per cent of M2 rows may be expected to have beneficial mutations.
iii. M3 generation: Progeny rows from individual selected plants are grown in M3.
Poor and inferior mutant rows are eliminated. If the mutant progenies are
homogeneous, two or more M3 progenies containing the same mutation may be
bulked. Mutant M3 rows are harvested in bulk for a preliminary yield trial in M4.
iv. M4 generation: A preliminary yield trial is conducted with a suitable check, and
promising mutant lines are selected for replicated multi location trials.
It may be noted that above procedure is recommended for all horticultural crops,
which are exclusively propagated by sexual means.e.g.Vegetables, Crossandra,
Periwinkle etc.
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2nd Year
3rd Year
segregation.
10th year
F. Final assessment M1 V10 Release of improved clones
generation of the Registration and patenting of new
mutants variety,
Plant production in a nursery and
certification.
A. Physical mutagens
1. Ionizing radiations
(a) Particulate radiations – α-rays, fast neutron, thermal neutrons.
(b) Non-particulate radiations – X-rays, γ-rays.
2. Non ionizing radiation – Ultraviolet radiation.
B. Chemical mutagens
1. Alkylating agents – Sulphur mustard, mustard gas, EMS (Ethyl methane
sulphonate), Ethylene Imine (EI)
2. Acridine dyes- acriflavin, proflavin, acridine orange, acridine yellow,ethedium
bromide.
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Achievements
Mango – Rosica from Peruvian variety Rosadodelca
Papaya- Pusa Nanha from local type
Grape-Marvel Seedless from Delight
Banana- High gate from Gros Michel, Motta Poovan from Poovan
Orange-Washington Navel
Grapefruits – Marsh and Thompson
Questions
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Lecture.11
Breeding strategies - hybridization and problems associated with hybridization
Hybridization
Hybridization refers to mating or crossing of two plants or lines of diverse
genotypes to obtain a viable hybrid progeny. The seed as well as the progeny resulting
from hybridization are known as ‘hybrid’ or F1.
Hybridization in self-pollinated crops
By planned hybridization between carefully selected parents, the breeder can
create populations with sufficient variability from which plants combining the desirable
features of the parents can be selected. Theoretically, all the plants of pure-line or a clone
are of one genotype (i.e. they have identical genetic constitution). Therefore, when
different pure-lines or clones are crossed, heritable variability is created by
recombination. Selection in the segregating generations of a hybrid will therefore be
effective.
Objectives of hybridization
The purpose of hybridization is to combine in a single variety, the desirable
characters of two or more lines, varieties or species. Occasionally, the recombination of
genetic factors leads to the production of new and desirable characters not found in either
of the parents. When two parents are crossed, the resultant F1 is a homogeneous one but
is heterozygous in nature, hence all plants look similar phenotypically. When they are
selfed to produce F2 the population is heterogeneous and heterozygous. Hence,
phenotypically many variations could be seen in this generation. Further, in this
generation, a cross may frequently give rise to progenies which are beyond the range of
the parents for a particular quantitative character such as height of plant, earliness, fruit
size, yield etc. This phenomenon is often referred as “transgressive segregation”. For
example, the progenies may be taller than the taller parent or earlier than the earlier
maturing parent. Such transgresive segregation may enable the breeder to attain his
objective quickly.
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Types of hybridization
Inter-varietal hybridization
The parents involved in hybridization belong to the same species. There may be two
strains, varieties or races of the same species. It is also known as intraspecific
hybridization. The intravarietal crosses may be simple or complex depending upon the
number of parents involved.
a. Simple cross: In a simple cross, two parents are crossed to produce the F1
AxB
F1
b. Complex cross: More than two parents are crossed to produce the hybrid.
Example
Three parent cross (A, B, C)
AxB
(A B) x C
(A B C) (Complete hybrid)
Four parents (A, B, C, D)
AxB CxD
(A B) x (C D)
(A B C D)
Eight parents (A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H)
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AB x CD EF x GH
ABCD x EFGH
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Bagging
Immediately after emasculation, the flowers of the inflorescence are closed in
suitable bags of appropriate size to prevent random cross pollination.
Tagging
Emasculated flowers are tagged just after bagging. The following information is
recorded on the tags with a carbon pencil:
1. Date of emasculation
2. Date of pollination
3. Name of the female and male parents. The name of female parent written first, and
then the male parent
Pollination
Pollination refers to transferring the mature and fertile pollen from the male parent
to the stigma of the female parent. This is done with the help of brush delicately with out
disturbing the stigma and female flower.
The pollinated flower is enclosed in a butter –paper bag or muslin cloth bag to
avoid contamination from outside pollen and labeled. Few days after pollination, when
the fruitset is conspicuous, the bag is removed. The seeds extracted from such crossed
fruits are the F0 seeds to raise F1 or hybrid plants.
Selection procedures with hybridization
Two selection procedures are commonly followed after hybridization to isolate the
desirable genotypes from the segregating progeny.
1. The pedigree method: This is widely followed by the plant breeders now, who
maintain a detailed record of relationships between the selected plants and their
progenies. It consists of the selection of individuals plants with the desired
combination of characters in the F2 generation and reselection of the progenies of
each selected F2 plant in succeeding generations until genetic purity is reached.
2. The bulk method: This method differs from the pedigree method in that the
hybrids are grown in bulk till the F5 or F6 generation. Desirable individual plants are
selected only in the F5 or F6 generation and these are then carried forward as
families, which are evaluated in the same way as in the case of pedigree method.
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Achievements
Fruit Hybrids
Mango Mallika, Amrapalli, Pusa Arunima, Arka Anmol, Arka Puneet,
Arka Aruna, Arka Neelkiran, Ratna, Sindhu, PKM-1, PKM-2.
Guava Arka Amulya, Safed Jam, Kohir Safed
Papaya CO-3, CO-2
Sapota CO-1, DHS-1, DHS-2, Hybrid 214, Hybrid-711
Banana CO-1
Questions
1. Crossing of two plants or lines of diverse genotypes to obtain a viable hybrid is
known as progeny hybridization.
Ans:True
2. The progeny resulting from hybridization are known as ‘hybrid’ or F1.
Ans:True
3. The parents involved in hybridization belong to the same species is known as
intraspecific hybridization.
Ans:True
4. The removal of anther without disturbing the female reproductive organs is known as
emasculation.
Ans:True
5. Pollination is known as transferring the mature and fertile pollen from the male parent
to the stigma of the female parent.
Ans:True
6. Maintaining a detailed record of relationships between the selected plants and their
progenies is known as pedigree method.
Ans:True
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Lecture.12
Resistance breeding for biotic abiotic stresses
A plant is said to be healthy or normal when it carries out its physiological
functions to the best of its genetic potential. These normal functions include division,
differentiation, and development. Absorption of water and minerals from soil and
translocation of these throughout the plants, photosynthetic product to areas of utilization
or storage, the metabolism of synthesized compounds, reproduction and storage of food
supplies.
1. Farmers can use resistant varieties without incurring any extra expenditure on
plant protection chemicals.
2. It is a safe measure- fungicides and other pesticides leave some residual effect.
4. In case of air borne diseases, it is impossible to cover larger area with any other
means of
5. disease control.
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Insects are usually specialized in their ability to attack the host or part of the host.
An insect is capable of damaging or attacking every species of the host. The plant
resistance includes those characters which enable a plant to avoid, tolerate or recover
from the attack of insect under conditions that would cause greater injury to other plant of
the same species.
(i) Introduction
An introduced variety resistant to the concerned insect pest and diseases or abiotic
stresses may be released for cultivation if it performs well in the new environment and is
agronomically desirable. Thus, it is the quickest and perhaps, the earliest method of
developing a biotic stress resistant variety. e.g. introduction of Phylloxera vertifoliae
resistant grape rootstock from USA to France. Sometimes, the introduced variety may not
perform well in the new environment and it may be susceptible to the biotypes of the
concerned pest prevalent in the area or to a new insect pests and/or diseases of the area.
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(ii) Selection
(iii) Hybridization
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BC6 F2 111111111111
Individual plant progenies grown, selection for
disease resistance and plant type similar to parent ‘A’
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made.*
*This resistant material is thus followed to next F3, F4, F5 generation till the desired
homozygoisty is obtained.
Normally, in the sixth back cross progeny (BC6F1) more than 98 per cent of plants would
have attained the genotypes of recurrent parent and by 10 th back cross (BC10F1) or with
BC6F6 almost 99.95 per cent progenies would have become completely homozygous.
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(iv) Mutation
Generally, it has not been used to produce a successful biotic stress resistant crop. The
reason for this is difficulty in screening of suitable mutations, the failure of such mutagenesis to
generate positive changes to the genome and large number of progeny that must be handled.
There is scope of genetic engineering in fruit crops for the development of transgenic
varieties resistant to biotic/abiotic stresses. This technology involves the isolation of gene of
desired character. Insertion of this isolated gene in a suitable vector (making it a recombinant
vector). Insertion of the recombinant vector into a suitable host (organism/cell) known as
transformation. Selection of the transformed host and multiplication followed by expression of
the introduced gene into the host is the normal procedure adopted.
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Questions
1. Resistant breeding is more effective measure of disease and pest control as compared
to other measures.
Ans: True
2. Taking a crop species in to a new area where it being grown so far is known as Plant
introduction.
Ans: True
3. Repeated back crossing leads to rapid increase in heterozygosity.
Ans: False (Homozygosity)
4. The degree of resistance is measured by using susceptible cultivar of same plant
species as check.
Ans: True
5. The objective of back crossing is to transfer one or two desirable characteristics from
an inferior variety to a superior variety.
Ans: True
6. Fifth back cross (BC5F1) or with BC3F1 almost 99.95 per cent progenies would have
become completely homozygous.
Ans: False (10th back cross or BC6F1)
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Lecture.13
Biotechnological application
a. Micro propagation
b. Conservation of germplasm
The potential importance of natural gene pool to meet the future need of crop
improvement by introducing specific characters such as abiotic stress resistance can not
be under estimated. However, the number of wild species and their natural habitats are
disappearing rapidly, as a result of introduction of highly bred modern varieties, growing
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urbanization and an increased pressure on land for cultivation. This leads to the erosion
of the natural germplasm to such extent that there is a general fear that potentially
valuable germplasm is being lost irretrievable. In plant improvement, it is necessary to
facilitate the assimilation of germplasm collection in working for the use of the breeders.
The process of genetic erosion necessitates measure that germplasm must be conserved in
such a manner that there should be minimal losses of genetic variability of a population.
The conventional methods of germplasm conservation may be vulnerable to losses due to
(i) Attack by pest and pathogens (ii) Climatic disorders (iii) Natural disasters and (iv)
Political and economic causes. Besides this, the seeds of many important fruit plants such
as mango, litchi etc, may loose their viability in a short time under conventional storage
system.
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi is maintaining large in-
vitro germplasm collection of banana, phalsa, bael, jackfruit, pomegranate etc. There are
two basic approaches followed to maintain the germplasm in-vitro.
c. Anther culture
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The major interest in haploids is based upon the production of homozygous plants as
an alternative for repeated cycles of inbreeding in self pollinated crops. In cross
pollinated species, double haploids are more to be used as parents in the production of
single or double cross hybrids which are as follows.
e. Somaclonal variation
Somaclonal variation explores the naturally occurring or in-vitro induced
variability of somatic cells following plant regeneration. Somaclonal variation is an
excellent method for shortening breeding programmes. Somaclonal variation may be due
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f. Somatic hybridization
It is an approach of immense value in the area of fruit breeding. Somatic
hybridization provides a method where sexual incompatibility in the plants can be by-
passed. Protoplast culture includes a series of operation such as isolation of the
protoplasts from cells, culturing them in a suitable medium, inducing them to divide and
then regenerating plantlets from them. Fusion of protoplasts may occur spontaneously or
they may be induced to fuse in the presence of fusigenic agents. The polyethylene glycol
(PEG) is the most widely used fusigenic agent (Chandha et al., 2000)
Important fruit plants in which protoplast fusion is practised are as under:
Citrus jambhiri
g. Molecular approaches
Morphological characters, chemical composition and cytological information
have been used over the years for the classification of plants. However, these techniques
have certain limitation as they could be influenced by environmental and developmental
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effects. The molecular markers are now being increasingly used in the areas of plant
classification and breeding. Polygenic characters which are very difficult to analyse using
traditional plant breeding methods can be easily analysed using molecular markers.
h. Genetic engineering
The advent of recombinant DNA technology has opened tremendous possibilities
for transforming almost any plant by transferring any gene from any organism across,
taxonomic barriers. The recombinant DNA technology involves the following major
steps.
Isolation of gene of desired characters.
Insertion of the isolated gene in a suitable vector (making it a recombinant
vector).
Transformation – Insertion of the recombinant vector into a suitable host
(organism /cell).
Selection of the transformed host.
Multiplication followed by expression of the introduced gene into the host.
Important gene transfer methods used for production of transgenic plants are
as under:
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Eg: In apple gene attacin (from Hyalophora cecropia) Iysozyme (farm chicken) and
cercropin B (from H.cecropia) can be used for disease resistance against Eriwinia
amylovora.
Questions
1. Micro propagation is a powerful tool for large scale propagation of fruit crops.
Ans:True
2. Expand-NBPGR
Ans:True
4. A popular application of zygotic embryo culture has been used in raising hybrids.
Ans:True
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(Biological method)
Ans:True
7. Conservation of germplasm through biotechnology is more efficient tool for short and
Ans: True
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Lecture.15
Family: Anacardiaceae
Chromosome number: 2n = 2x = 40
Mango is one of the choicest fruits of India, grown over an area of 1.23 million
hectares in the country. Mango occupies the prime position in India as apple in temperate
and grape in subtropical areas. In India, mango is acclaimed as ‘King of fruits’. The name
Mangifera was given for the first time by Bontius in 1658, when he referred to this plant
as arbor Mangifera (the tree producing mango). Linnaeus also referred it as Mangifera
arbor in 1747, prior to changing the name to its present form (Mangifera indica) in 1753.
Mango is a good source of vitamin A and C apart from the usual content of minerals and
other vitamins. Mango is also considered to have some medicinal properties. Ripe fruits
of mango are fattening, diuretic and laxative. The kernel is effective against diarrhoea
and asthma. Besides table purpose, fruits of mango can be used for the preparation of
pickles, preserves, jam, amchur (mango powder) and mango leather (ampapad) (Singh,
1992).
Germplasm resources
India is the home of mango germplasm where more than thousand varieties are
existing, which are widely distributed in different agroecological zones. Central Institute
for Subtropical Horticulture, (CISH) Lucknow has the largest collection of mango (633
accessions in the national repository) and they have greater genetic variability with
respect to fruit shape, skin colour, stone size, period and time of maturity, pulp thickness,
colour, bearing habit, yield and quality parameters (Anon., 2002). Further, IIHR,
Bangalore, IARI, Pusa, New Delhi, Sabour (Bihar), Fruit Research station Sangareddy
(Andhra Pradesh) etc. are also maintaining the germplasm of mango. In India, majority of
varieties are monoembryonic whereas in most tropical region polyembryonic types are
predominant.
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Almost all the commercial cultivars of mango are related to a single species
Mangifera indica. However, a few commercial cultivars of South East Asia belong to
other edible species such as M. altissima. M. caesia, M. cochinchinensis, M. foetida, M.
griffithi, M. langinifera, M. longipes, M. macrocarpa, M. odorata, M. pajang, M.
pentandra, M. sylvatica and M. zeylanica. There are different reports regarding the
number of species in Genus Mangifera. Singh (1969) reported 62 species whereas
Mukherjee (1949) reported 41 species but later on he reported that only 39 species are
existing (Mukherjee, 1985). There are five species of Mangifera reported from India e.g.
M. andamanica, M. indica, M. khasiana, M. sylvatica and M. comptosperma (Mukherjee,
1985).
Objectives
Introduction
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Selection
Almost all the present commercial varieties of mango in the world were
developed from open pollinated seedling selection e.g. Dashehari, Langra, S.B.Chausa,
Rataul, Swarnarekha etc.
Langr
a
The evolution of Florida varieties which are the leading mango cultivars of the
world is interesting. In 1889, introductions were made from India of which Mulgoa
became popular. Cultivar Haden was a seedling of Mulgoa. Subsequently, many
promising seedlings were selected which became popular. Tommy Atkins from Haden,
Keitt from Mulgoa, Dyke and Palmer from unknown origin, Irwin from Lippins, Golden
Nuggets and Brooks from Sandersha, Sensation from unknown origin etc. are promising
seedling selections.
Tommy Atkins
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Clonal selection
Langra and Himsagar (Kalyani, W.B.), bacterial black spot resistant clones of
Kensington, superior clones of Rumani and Neelum (Tamil Nadu) and a regular bearing
cultivar ‘Cardoz Mankhurad’ in Maharashtra which is selected from Goa Mankurad. In
Maharashtra, one off-season selection ‘Niranjan” has been made at Parbhani, which
comes to flowering during June to July and matures
the fruits in October. In TNAU (Regional Research
Station, Paiyur), a clonal selection from Neelum was
identified as dwarf variety and released as Paiyur-1.
This is suitable for high density planting (400
plants/ha).
Himsagar
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Hybridization
Interspecific hybridization
Interspecific hybridization did not receive more attention but it can be a useful
tool to transfer some useful genes in cultivated varieties. This is possible because all the
Mangifera species have the same chromosome number (2n = 40). Therefore, they can
inter cross easily (Mukherjee, 1963).
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a. Single day pollination of limited number of flowers in a panicle is the ideal practice.
Here, the main emphasis was given on utilizing large number of panicles and crossing
whatever few flowers opened on the panicle during that single day. Bagging with
perforated polythene bags of 24" x 12"size of 100 gauges was preferred. Crossing of
a few flowers in a given panicle at one time is advocated than taking up crossing in
more number of flowers in a given panicle in batches over a number of days.
(Mukherjee et al., 1961).
c. Marker gene: The purple colour of new leaves and panicle and beak characters of
fruit helps in identifying the hybrid seedlings in the nursery (Sharma and Majumder
et al., 1985).
d. A new off- season crossing technique was suggested by kulkarni (1986). It involves
induction of flowering in the desired parents in off season by veneer grafting, their
defoliated shoots on to leafy shoots off season flowering cv Royal special and
allowing open pollination between the desired parents. As no other cultivar flowers
during this season, this is a safe technique.
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In Israel, a new cultivar, Naomi, has been released which has smooth skin and red
pigmentation. In Australia, a hybrid of Sensation x Kensington has shown promising
results. In Israel, rootstock breeding is also in progress and a polyembryonic rootstock
13/1 has been released that is tolerant to salinity.
Mutation breeding
Naturally occurring useful mutants like Rosica has been isolated from the
Peruvian variety ‘Rasado de lca’. Similarly, Davis Haden is a mutant of Haden. However,
no induced mutant is known to have been released.
Polyploidy breeding
Much scope exists for polyploidy breeding. However, till date there is no report
on this line. Vellai Columban cultivar of mango is tetraploid in nature (2n = 4x = 80)
which is a polyembryonic type.
Heterosis
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The population with bigger fruits was large among hybrid progenies obtained with
Banganapalli as one of the parents. This effect may be due to an accumulation of
dominant allele each having additive effects and masking the effect of deleterious
recessive allele.
Questions
1. The name Mangifera was given for the first time by Bontius.
Ans:True
2. All the Mangifera species have the same chromosome number 2n = 40.
Ans: True
Ans:True
4. Most of the mango cultivars were developed through selection from open pollinated
seedling population.
Ans: True
5. Expand- CISH
Ans:True
cultivars.
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Ans:True
Ans:True
Ans: True
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Lecture.16
Crop improvement in banana
Family : Musaceae
Banana breeding was started in Trinidad, West Indies in 1922 and in Jamaica in
1924 (Shepherd, 1994). The driving force for this breeding programme was to develop
improved Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxsyorum F.sp. Cubense) resistant banana for export
trade. In 1960, both the programmes were combined under the Jamaica Banana Board.
United Fruit Company also started a small breeding programme in Panama in 1920s. In
India hybridization work was started at Central Banana Research Station, Adhuthurai,
Tamil Nadu in 1949. Important banana growing states are Maharashtra, Karnataka,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa,Bihar, West Bengal and Assam . In recent
days, in some districts of Uttar Pradesh, Harichal banana is cultivated on a commercial
scale. In South India, other than its edible use, banana is extensively used in all
auspicious occasions such as wedding, festivals and worshipping God. Banana is a good
table fruit, besides, the cultivar Nendran is used for cooking. It is also used for
preparation of chips.
Centre of diversity
Edible banana is native to old world especially South East Asia (Simmonds,
1962). Malayan area seems to be the primary centre of origin of cultivated banana
(M.acuminata). M.acuminata, was probably introduced into India and Burma where
M.balbisiana is a native species. Natural hybridization between these two species might
have resulted in many hybrid progenies (AAB, ABB etc).
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Genetic resources
Musa has about 50 species and this genus is divided into five sections:
a) Eumusa: Includes about 13-15 species of edible and wild banana. The
chromosome number is 2n=22 in wild species and most of the cultivated varieties
are having 2n=33 (2n=44 rarely) e.g. M.acuminata, M.balbisiana, M.basjoo etc.
b) Rhodochlamys: Mostly diploid, spread from India to Indonesia. Five to seven
species are kept in this group. Parthenocarpy is absent in this group e.g. M.ornata,
M.velutina.
c) Callimusa: This is of ornamental value and x=10 and 2n =20. It is found in Indo-
China, Malaya and Borneo. Parthenocarpy is absent in this type. It includes about
5-6 species e.g. M.coccinea.
d) Australimusa: Like Callimusa it has x = 10 and 2n=20 chromosome. Species of
this group is common in Queensland and Philippines. Important species of this
group are M. textilis or manilahemp, M.maclavi etc.
e) Incertae sedis: It includes M.ingens (x=7, 2n=14) of New Guinea which grows to
a height of over 10 m. This is the largest known herb. Another species in this
group is M.beccarii (x=9, 2n=18) from North Borneo.
Ensete is another genera of this family probably originated in Asia. Genus Ensete
has 6-7 species of which E.ventricosa is reported to be grown in Ethiopia as a food crop.
The most important Musa cultivars are almost sterile triploids (2n=3x=33) and also
tetraploid and diploid banana cultivars have also local importance in Asia. All banana and
plantain land races are farmers selection from intra and inter specific hybridization of two
different species, M.acuminata Colta, donor of the A genome and M.balbisiana Colta,
donor of the B genome. Simmonds and Shepherd (1955) reported scoring technique to
indicate the relative contribution of the two wild species for the constitution of a given
cultivar. Fifteen distinguishing characters between Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana
were identified by them. Score one was given for each character in which a cultivar
agreed with Musa acuminata and score five was given for each character to which agreed
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with Musa balbisiana. Intermediate expressions of the characters were assigned score of
2, 3, or 4 depending on their intensity.
Petiolar canal Margin erect or spreading with Margins not winged below,
scarious wings below, not clasping clasping pseudostem
pseudostem
Peduncle Usually downy or hairy Glabrous
Pedicel Short Long
Ovules Two regular rows in each locule Four irregular rows in each
locule
Bract shoulder Usually high (ratio:0.28) Usually low (ratio:0.30)
ratio
Bract curling Bracts roll Bracts lift but do not roll
Bract shape Lanceolate or narrowly ovate Broadly ovate, not tapering
tapering sharply from the shoulder sharply
Acute
Bract apex Red dull purple or yellow Inside Obtuse
pink, dull purple
Bract color Inside bract colour fades to yellow Inside bract colour
towards base continues to base
Bract scars Prominent Scarcely prominent
Free tepal of Variably corrugated below tip Rarely corrugated
male flower
Male flower Creamy white Variably flushed with pink
colour
Stigma colour Orange or rich yellow Cream, pale yellow or pale
pink.
At the botanical garden, Howrah, seeds of few banana species were collected
from Chittagong and Madras (Roxburg, 1832). More number of genotypes of banana was
also maintained at Central Banana Research Station, Aduthurai (Nayer, 1957). After that
it was shifted to Horticulture college and research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, Coimbatore. After the formation of National Research Centre on Banana
(NRCB) in 1995, a wide germplasm collection including wild types are being maintained
at this centre and intensive research programmes are being taken up on various problems
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related with banana. Presently, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University also maintaining
186 collections of germplasm.
Objectives of breeding
To develop dwarf statured banana suitable for high density planting and to
prevent damage from high wind velocity.
Production of good quality fruits.
Resistant to biotic and biotic stresses i.e. nematodes, panama wilt, bunchy top,
sigatoka leaf spot, moko disease and pseudostem weevil etc.
To develop varieties with wider agro-ecological adaptability.
Development of male fertile parthenocarpic diploids with resistance to major
diseases and pests.
Developing longer finger size.
Suitability for export.
Good keeping quality.
Constitution
AA 2x 16-23 Matti,Anai komban
AAA 3x 15-21 i)Gros Michel ii) Cavendish
AAAA 4x 15-20 Bodles Altafort (Synthetic
hybrid of West Indies)
AB 2x 46-49 Ney Poovan, Kunnan
AAB 3x 26-46 Champa, Rsathali
ABB 3x 59-63 Kanchkela, Monthan
ABBB 4x 63-69 Klue Teparod
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Hybridization
Evaluation of hybrid progenies from seedlings to harvest may not be the correct
phase instead, evaluation of the same under next vegetative phase i.e., sucker to harvest
stage will be ideal as full expression of yield potential could be observed only in the
second crop of the F1 progeny. The first crop (seedling to harvest) takes more than 15-19
months, where most of the energy of the plants is needed for corm formation.
Three main approaches in breeding dessert bananas of the Cavendish types are:
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In many banana growing countries, initially wild diploid bananas (AA) were
utilized as male parent and as a result, the resultant tetraploids had inherited many
undesirable traits. Hence, it has been felt by banana breeders that the primary objective is
to synthesize a good male parent. An ideal male parent must be highly resistant to
Panama and Sigatoka diseases, must have vertical and compact bunch and fruits as large
as the diploidy can allow and must be parthenocarpic having sufficient pollen to permit
its use as a male parent. Musa acuminata subsp. burmannica and its hybrids offer a good
source of resistance to black Sigatoka. One such diploid developed in Honduras is SH
2989. Other male diploids worthy to be mentioned are SH 3142 for nematode resistance
and SH 3176 evolved through multiple crosses for resistance to Black Sigatoka with
desirable horticultural traits.
Since 1971, extensive inter-diploid crosses were made to synthesize new diploid
forms at the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore using the following
parents:
Other diploid clones involved in the diploid male parents synthesis at Coimbatore are
the indigenous cultivars Anaikomban (AA) and Namarai (AA). Anaikomban is resistant
to nematodes and fusarium wilt but susceptible to yellow sigatoka. It has long fingers (15
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to 18 cm) and usually produces a smaller bunch weighing 6 to 8 kg. Namarai is a small
slender plant, grown in Pulney and Sirumalai hills of Tamil Nadu. With small fruits
having piquant flavor and pleasant acid sweet taste. It has very short pedicel. It is
susceptible to both Sigatoka disease and nematodes but no incidence of Panama disease
is known so far.
The introduced diploids are Pisang lilin (AA) and Tongat (AA), known for their
resistance to Panama disease and nematodes.
Many synthetic hybrids (diploids) have been developed which have good horticultural
characters including resistance to Sigatoka, Panama wilt and burrowing nematodes.
These hybrids are now used as the male parents to cross with local triploid varieties or
inter crossed to synthesise new triploid hybrids.
(AAB) (BB)
AB x Kadali (AA)
CO 1 (AAB)
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weevil and nematodes. The average bunch weight is 14 kg with 8 hands and 118 fruits in
crop duration of 314 days.
PITA-9: A Black Sigatoka Resistant (BSR) hybrid from the “False Horn”
plantain, a tetraploid hybrid having black Sigatoka resistance has been developed at
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria.‘BITA-3’ is a tetraploid
starchy banana hybrid with low partial resistance to black Sigatoka disease developed at
IITA High Rainfall Station in Onne (Southeastern Nigeria), where both (Banana streak
virus) and cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) have been observed. ‘BITA-3’ is a hybrid from
the interspecific cross ‘Laknau’ x ‘Taju Lagada’, ‘Laknau’ is a female –fertile AAB
starchy banana that closely resembles plantains. ‘Taju Lagada’ is an AA diploid Banana
having a long bunch with many hands. BITA-3’ produces heavy bunches.
Mutation breeding
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sport of Malbhog, Krishna Vazhai is a natural mutant of Virupakshi (or Pome), and
Sambrani Monthan (ABB), a mutant of Monthan (ABB).
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Biotechnology
Plant tissue culture and molecular biology techniques are applied to enhance the
handling and improvement of banana. Important application of a cell biology are micro
propagation for rapid multiplication and germplasm exchange, embryo culture/rescue for
in-vitro seed germination, cryopreservation of germplasm and genome manipulation
through genetic engineering using cell suspensions or protoplast culture. Although,
Vylsteke et al. (1996) reported that somaclonal variation through micropropagation is of
limited use in plantain breeding, it has been successfully applied in Taiwan for the
development of improved Cavendish banana cultivars with resistance to Fusarium wilt
and acceptable fruit quality (Hwang 1991, Hwang and Ko, 1989). In gene transfer
methods, Sagi et al. (1995), from Katholieke University, Leuven. Belgium reported that
the transgenic triploid cooking banana showing transient expression of GUS marker gene
in pot growing in the green house from DNA particle bombardment on ABB cooking
banana. The molecular markers are providing tools for phylogenetic investigations and
cultivar identification, basic genetic research, marker assisted selection and diagnostics in
pathogen identification.
Source of resistance
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Questions
Ans
1. AA - Matti
2. AB - Ney Poovan
3. AAA - Gros Michel and Cavendish
4. AAB - Rasthali
5. AAAA - Bodles Altafort
6. ABBB - Klue Teparod
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Lecture.17
Crop improvement in citrus
Family : Rutaceae
Centre of diversity
There are three major centers of diversity in India. The first in the North-East
including Assam and adjoining areas. It includes Papedas, pummelos and their hybrids,
citron, lemons and mandarins and other interesting types like jenera-tenga, soh synteng, a
sour fruit similar to the sweet lime and soh siem, a mandarin type. The second diversity
in south India, indigenous types include Gajanima, kichili and some wild mandarin types.
The third in North-West region at the foot of Himalayas where the hill lemon (galgal) is
common. The various types of mandarins, hybrids of pummelo, citron,lemons,karna-
khatta and rough lemon are found all over the country. In general, the wild types are
more common in the foot hills. Many of the progenitors of citrus fruits are believed to
have originated in India. These include C. latipes, C. limonia, C.kama,
C.pennevesiculata, C.maderaspatana, many of these are wild types. Presence of Sah-
Niangriang, a wild sweet orange and a wild mandarin (C.indica) furnishes strong
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evidence that Eastern India might be the centre of orgin for many citrus fruits, (Tanaka,
1981).
Germplasm resources
Exotic collection of citrus germplasm was started in 1940. Kinnow mandarin was
one of the collections which is now a leading cultivar in North – Western India. Besides,
other exotic collections were Valencia Late, Washington Navel, Jaffa, Malta Blood Red,
Pineapple, Ruby orange, Satsuma, Dancy Tangerine, Climentime, and Cleoptera wilking
,Temple, Duncan, Marsh seedless, Lisbon lemon, Trifoliate orange, Dancy, Lisbon
lemon, Trifoliate orange, (Dutta,1958), More than 650 accessions are being maintained
at CHES, Chethali, Bangalore, CHES, Ranchi, RFRS, Abhor, NRC on citrus, Nagpur,
Horticultural Experiment Station, Bathinda, IARI, New Delhi, MPKV, Rahuri, Citrus
Improvement Project, Tirupati, Citrus Experiment station, Nagpur, HC&RI, Periyakulam,
and Citrus Experiment Station, Tinsukia, Assam. During 1988 as a result of systematic
exploration by NBPGR in North-Eastern region, C. Indica and many endangered species
were collected for conservation.
Attempt has been made during 1978 by NBPGR to preserve the C. indica which
is progenitor of C.reticulata (Singh, 1981). For establishment of gene sanctuary, National
Park, the natural genetic diversity of C .indica was observed in the forest of Garo hills in
Megalaya which exhibited plant characters varying from bush to climber with high
frequency of distribution in dense forest and showing resistance to biotic stresses.
Therefore, a gene sanctuary for C. indica was established in Tanga Range in Garo hills.
Genetic material of citrus is conserved in field gene bank or repository.
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Time
Citrus being perennial in nature takes more time for bearing .However this
period can be reduced to a maximum of half by top working the seedling on an old tree.
Polyembryony
It is peculiar feature found in citrus in which seed consist of more than one
embryo. In addition to the zygotic embryo, one or more sometimes as many as fifteen
additional embryos are developed from the nucellar tissue called nucellar embryos and
found in the embryo sac. Most often, the zygotic seedling is crowded out by the vigorous
nucellar seedlings. Forgetting large number of hybrids, citrus breeder should select a
seed parent known to be either monoembryonic citrus species or polyembryonic except
(C.medica, C.latifolia and C.grandis) which are monoembryonic restricts the choice of
breeder and complicate the procedure required to attain the desirable objectives.
Sterility
Sterility is inability of gametic or sexual reproduction. Prevalence of high
generative sterility is obviously a serious hindrance in the use of a particular parent for
hybridization. Complete pollen sterility is problematic, where proportion of nucellar
embryos are very high. High level of sterility often leads to production of seedless fruits
which is serious hindrance to develop varieties.
Self incompatibility
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thereby they produce parthenocarpic fruits if cross pollination is not done through viable
pollens.
Long juvenility
Breeding objectives
Producing early maturing citrus fruits with high yield and fruit quality.
Developing rootstocks having disease and nematodes resistance, wider
adaptability, etc.
In rootstock breeding, the main emphasis has been given on the development of
root stock resistant to tristeza virus, Phytophthora, nematodes, etc. Most of the breeding
programmes make use of Poncirus, which is a carrier of resistance to tristeza,
Phytophthora and nematodes besides cold hardiness. Salt tolerant rootstocks have also
been found possible in some progenies involving Cleopatra and Sunki mandarin and
Rangpur lime.
Floral biology
Flowering in citrus takes place during February –April. In North India, sweet
orange and mandarins bloom only once in March. However, it is reported that sweet
oranges bloom twice in a year under Bihar conditions i.e.February –March and June –
July. Inflorescense in citrus species is of cymose type. Generally anthesis takes place
in the morning between 9.00 am to 12.00 noon. Flowers on shaded side of the tree have
been observed to open later than those exposed to sunshine.
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Breeding Methods
Introduction
Introduction of germplasm either from other countries or from one agro climatic
region to the other within the country has been one of the most potent improvement
methods. The mandarin variety ‘Santra’ is known to have been grown in India for many
centuries. It was introduced into the Central Provinces (now Maharashtra) by Ranghojee
Bhonsal II from Aurangabad in eighteenth century. Tangerines, St.Michael Blood Orange
and Large White Orange were imported and cultivated at Goojranwallah in Punjab during
1880. The present century has seen the introduction of a number of sweet orange varieties
including Washington Navel, Valencia, Jaffa, Blood Red Malta and tangerines. The first
two were introduced from America and the others from the respective countries of their
origin. Grapefruits were introduced from California and Florida, lemons from China and
Malta from USA and Italy. ‘Mosambi’ seems to have been introduced in Nagpur during
the beginning of the 20th century.
The introduction of ‘Kinnow’ mandarin (King x Willow leaf) in 1947 showed
great promise in North India. It was introduced in South India in 1958 and Punjab in
1959 and has performed extremely well in Punjab.
Clonal selection
Exploitation of natural variability existing in a variety has resulted in the isolation
of some promising clones in Citrus.
1. ‘PKM 1 lime is a clonal selection from seedling progenies of kadayam Type of
Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu.
2. ‘Yuvaraj Blood Red’ is a seedless and early maturing clonal selection from
‘Blood Red’ orange.
3. ‘Pramalini’ and ‘Vikaram’, the two kagzi lime varieties were developed
through clonal selection at Marathwada University.
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Hybridization
Hybridization is confronted with real problems in citrus improvement, both on
scion as well as rootstocks because the long juvenile phase delays the assessment of the
hybrids.
Most of the cultivated varieties are highly polyembryonic, hence the crosses made
using these as females result in very few weak hybrids, which are difficult to identify
from nucellar seedlings. Electrophoretic techniques separating the isozymes of parents
and hybrids may be of great value in scion breeding programme, as no morphological
markers are available at present.
The heterozygous nature of the crop further leads to wide segregation. The
problems are little less complicated of rootstock breeding where the commonly used
disease resistant male parent ‘Poncirus trifoliata’ has trifoliate leaves which is dominant
over the monofoliate character (in other citrus varieties and all the hybrids), by which
distinction of unifoliate nucellar seedlings could be easily made.
Hybridization Technique
The mature flower buds on the female parent are emasculated early in the
morning on the day of opening and are bagged. The flowers to be used as male parent are
bagged the previous evening. The next morning as the day warms up, the anthers dehisce
releasing the pollen grains when these flowers can be plucked to pollinate the receptive
stigmas of emasculated flowers. The pollinated flowers are bagged, opened after about a
week and allowed to mature into ripe fruits. In some cases, especially when the trifoliate
orange is used as male parent, difficulties are encountered as its flowering is over before
other citrus varieties flower. Therefore, pollen has to be stored at low humidity and
temperature.
Seeds from mature fruits are extracted and sown immediately in sterilized sand
and soil mixture. When seedlings are about 15 cm high, hybrid seedlings are identified.
Particularly those showing some morphological characters of male parent are marked
while others are rejected. Electrophoresis methods can also be employed for
identification of zygotic seedlings. Identification of hybrid seedlings having P.trifoliata
as male parent is easily done by looking for trifoliate character. The hybrid seedlings are
grown to mature trees in the field and the seedlings raised from the fruits are evaluated
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for resistance to various diseases, insect pests, nematodes and for suitability as scion or
rootstock.
Evaluation for rootstock purpose
Rootstock hybrids should have desirable attributes like high percentage of
nucellar embryony, resistance to different diseases and nematodes. The selected hybrids
are then tested with different scion varieties and compared with the commercial
rootstock. Various plant and fruit characters, yield and yield contributing characters are
recorded.
Evaluation of scion hybrids
In the first round of evaluation, the zygotic seedlings are raised on suitable
rootstock and observations on different vegetative and fruit characters are recorded.
Meanwhile, the resistance to different diseases is also confirmed. Selected hybrids are
tested on different rootstocks at different locations and compared with the commercial
varieties.
Intergeneric and intrageneric hybrids
Intergeneric
Though intergeneric hybrids are rare in fruit plants, much success has been
obtained in Citrus.
1. Hybrids of Poncirus
Citrange –A group having the parentage of trifoliate orange (Poncirus trifoliata)
and sweet orange (C.sinensis), the hybrids showed intermediate characters of the parents.
The leaves are mainly trifoliate but unifoliate evergreen leaves are also observed in some
plants. The fruits are juicy and flavoured. Some of the cultivars are Troyer, Carrizo,
Morton, Etonia, Rusk, Coleman, etc.
Citrangequat - This is a tri-generic hybrid of three different genera
(Poncirus, Citrus and Fortunella).
Citrangor - This hybrid was developed by back crossing Citrange with
C.sinensis.
Cicitrange - Another back cross hybrid between Citrange and Poncirus
trifoliata
x C.paradisi.
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In India, very little work has been done on citrus improvement through
hybridization. At the PKV, Akola, hybridization work has been undertaken to evolve
hybrids of kagzi lime. As a result, Hybrid 2, Hyrbid 4 and N52 were found resistant to
canker.
Breeding for improvement of citrus rootstock was initiated in 1972 at the Central
Horticultural Experiment Station, Chethali, and IIHR, Bangalore. Trifoliate orange was
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used as a donor source for Phytophthora and citrus nematode resistance. Hybridization
programme resulted in the production of 1183 hybrids from 16 different cross
combinations. Of these, CRH.3, CRH.5 and CRH.41 resistant to citrus nematode have
been evolved. A hybrid between Rangpur lime and trifoliate orange (Australia) having
high resistance to nematodes and Phytophthora, and highly polyembryonic in nature is
being evaluated for its suitability as rootstock for mandarin and sweet orange.
Mutation Breeding
Somatic mutations are common in citrus and through selection of the natural
mutants, quite a few number of desirable clones have been obtained. The frequent
occurrence of chimera may lead to clonal impurity and thus bud selection work in
propagation becomes important for ensuring clonal purity. Selections of natural mutants
have been successfully employed for seedlessness (lyo tangor), season of ripening
(Satsuma, Navel), improvement of colour (Ray Ruby grapefruit) etc. in Citrus.
Besides natural mutations, many induced mutants have been developed in Citrus.
For instance, ‘Star Ruby’ and ‘Rio Red’ varieties of grapefruit were developed in Texas,
USA through x ray and thermal neutron treatments of seeds of cv. ‘Ruby red’ whose red
flesh colour faded at harvest. In Japan, a few closely related clones of Satsuma mandarin
with varied fruit colour and fruit ripening times were obtained through mutation. In USA
also mutations had produced Satsuma seedling lines differing in productivity, fruit shape
and the ripening time. The grapefruit clones like Thompson and Foster Pink arose as limb
sports on white grapefruit. Gamma irradiation of seeds and bud woods performed in
Orlando, Florida, resulted in Seedless fruits on certain trees of seeded cultivars like
Pineapple orange as well as Duncan and Foster grapefruit. In Israel, Shamouti trees of
compact habit and early fruiting types and seedlessness have been developed in Eureka
lemon through irradiation of bud wood with gamma rays.
Polyploidy breeding
Most of the species and varieties of Citrus are diploids but occurrence of
polyploidy has been reported in many cultivars. The Hongkong wild kumquats,
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Fortunella hindsii may have been the first reported tetraploid. Polyploidy breeding
seems to offer prospects to obtain large sized fruit with dwarf plant types. Production of
triploids by crossing tetraploid with diploids may be useful in obtaining seedless
varieties. The seedless lime (C. latifolia) a triploid. Triploids have favorable
characteristics and yield well but they are sterile. The development of triploid through
breeding is very limited. Production of 3x is normally achieved by crossing of 4x with
2x which is often not feasible for want of sexual parents. The reciprocal cross ((2x) x
(4x)) produces many tetraploid individuals. Polyploidy manipulation by crossing of
tetraploids with diploids yielded some valuable triploid varieties like ‘Oroblanco’ and
‘Melogold’. A large diversity of autotetraploid parents with desirable characters
expressed in the progeny will be of high value to any citrus cultivar breeding program.
Spontaneous autotetraploids occur among many polyembroyonic citrus varieties.
Tetraploid trees of monoembryonic cultivars can be obtained by colchicine treatment.
Triploids also, occasionally occur spontaneously as sexual seedlings. In most cases the
egg provides the double chromosome number.
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Cell and tissue culture and specially protoplast manipulations have effectively
been explored in citrus improvement by regeneration of citrus trees from protoplast,
somatic hybridization (cybridization) and organelle transfer. In an attempt to develop
protoplast derived plants in the last one decade, Israel and Florida have shown protoplast
system in a dozen genera and interestingly citrus is the only woody plants among them.
Efficient protocols have been developed to obtain protoplasts with cell diversion
capability from all major citrus cultivars and some of their wild relatives.
Mandarin group
Citrus reticulata
Loose skinned orange, though mandarin and tangerine are names used more or
less interchangeably to designate the whole group, tangerine is applied more strictly to
those varieties which produce deep orange or scarlet fruits.
Tanaka has recognized it as loose skinned orange group. It is very cold resistant
for a true citrus fruit as hardy as Satsuma. Fruit colour is orange to deep orange, smooth
and glossy surface, pitted shape, oblate, deep orange, and size small with flattened base
having 7-10 segments.
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It is originated in China. Plant is thornless with dense top. Fruits are produced
singly or in clusters, fruit colour dark orange red, shape oblate flattened at both ends, size
small and segments 12-15.
Coorg orange
Dancy tangerine
In USA, the Dancy is the best known and highly prized of all the mandarin
oranges. Tree large, nearly thornless and has upright growth. Fruit colour is deep orange
red to scarlet, rind thin, loose, easily separable, segments 10-14. It is a late variety.
This variety is mainly grown in Punjab hills. The tree is large with semi –
upright growth habit and compact foliage and are spineless. Fruit are ovoid to sub
globose. Colour uniformly cadmium, surface pitted, semi glossy and finely wrinkled, rind
medium, adherence slight, segments 7-10.
Khasi mandarin
Swingle believed the king mandarin as a tangor, a hybrid between mandarin and
sweet orange. King mandarin was first introduced from Cochin China to California in
1882. King mandarin is cultivated in Assam. This is a prolific bearer, frost resistant and
produces high quality fruit.
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The tree is willowy in growth, almost thornless, and fruits usually borne singly at
the tip of slender branches. Fruit colour orange, surface smooth, glossy frequently
slightly lobed, necked base, apex depressed, wrinkled, rind thin with 10-12 segments. It
is an early variety.
Kinnow mandarin
It is a first generation hybrid between the king and willow leaf mandarin and
developed by H.B. Frost at the California Citrus Experiment station in 1915. It was
introduced into Punjab from USA. Tree is vigorous, large, top erect, dense symmetrical
with few scattered thorns. Fruit colour resembles of king, deep yellowish orange,
surface, smooth, glossy, very shallow pitted, shape slightly oblate, size medium with
flattened base, rind thin, peel tough and leathery, segment 9-10 easily separable, seed 12-
24. It is a late variety.
Nagpur Santra
This variety occupies prime position in Indian market and is one of the finest
mandarins grown in the world. It is also known as Ponkan. Tree is large, vigorous, and
spineless with compact foliage. Fruit size is medium, cadmium colour, smooth surface,
and glossy, rind thin, soft, and slightly adhered with 10-12 segments.
Satsuma Orange
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spherical shape, medium to large in size ,thin and easily separable rind, flavor rich and
seedless.
Temple mandarin
It is a hybrid between tangerine and sweet orange. Temple mandarin is most
beautiful and highly flavored fruit of the citrus group. Tree is medium, thorny, spreading
with deep orange to reddish fruit colour, rugose glossy surface, medium to large in size,
depressed or nearly flat apex, loose rind, solid axis with 10-12 segments, orange pulp. It
is late in maturity.
Lemon (C.limon)
Varieties of lemon
Eureka
It is a seedling selection of Sicilian lemons. Tree is medium, spreading and
thornless. Its fruit colour is lemon yellow, surface rugose, pitted, shape obovate, size
medium, apex round, rind medium thin axis small, solid, segments 8-10, juice acidic with
excellent flavor and quality. Eureka is a heavy yielder and begins bearing at early age. It
has tendency of bearing in the terminal end of the shoot.
Lisbon
Its appearance and yield is superior to Eureka. It is resistant to frost, heat and
high wind velocity. Tree is large and vigorous with spreading shoots. It has upright thorn
growth, lemon yellow fruit colour, smooth surface, medium size, pitted rind, small axis,
solid, 6-10 segments with 0-8 seeds.
Pant Lemon
Fruit size medium, juicy, heavy fruiting, tolerant to pests and diseases.
Villi Franca
It belongs to Eureka group and was introduced into Florida from Europe in 1875.
Tree is vigorous, thorny, spreading, erect, fruit oval to oblong, size medium to large,
colour bright lemon yellow, apex pointed, base rounded, rind thin, smooth, segments 8-
12, flesh fine grained, juice colourless, seed 25-30.
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Meyer lemon
Tree semi-dwarf, thornless, spreading, cold resistant, fruit colour light orange,
surface smooth, finally pitted, shape oblate or oblong base rounded, rind thin, axis small,
segments 8-10, seeds 8-12.
It is native of India and widely cultivated in the tropics. Tree medium sized,
hardy, semi vigorous, upright growth, thorny, fruit round to oblong, yellow apex rounded
and slightly nippled, base round, rind thin, papery segments 8-10, seeds 8-10.
Vikram
It was developed at MAU, Parbhani, fruit medium size, heavy fruiting, fruit
colour golden.
Pramalini
It was developed at MAU, Parbhani, high yielder, golden fruit colour, tolerant to
canker.
Sai Sarbati
Kagzi lime selection developed at Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidhyapeeth (MPKV),
Rahuri, Maharashtra. Fruit surface smooth, fruits more uniform, good size, thin skin, high
juice, TSS and acidity. High yield potential and tolerant to canker and tristeza.
It is large fruited acid lime. The plants are large, spreading, cold resistant,
thornless, fruit large in size, seedless triploid, and produce non-viable pollen. It is
considered as hybrid between lime and lemon. Fruit colour orange yellow, smooth
surface, segments 8-10. It is a late variety.
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Generally, sweet lime is grown as a root stock for its non acidic fruits.
Pummelo (C.grandis)
Duncan
Foster
It belongs to pink or red pulp group and originated as bud sport of Walters grape
fruit by R.B. Foster in 1906-07. Fruit colour is light yellow, surface smooth, oblate or
globose shape, size medium large, base rounded, apex round, rind medium thick,
segments 12-14, seeds 2-5. It is a late cultivar.
Thompson
It is a bud sport of Marsh. Fruit colour light yellow, surface smooth, segments
10-12, seeds 2-5.
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Ruby
It belongs to pink or red pulp group. It is originated as bud sport from
Thompson. Deep red colour which uniformly distributed throughout pulp.
Questions
Ans:True
Ans:True
Ans: True
Ans: True
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Lecture.18
Crop improvement in grapes
Botanical name: Vitis vinifera L.
Family: Vitaceae
Chromosome number: 2n=2x=38.
Centre of diversity
Germplasm resources
Field gene banks of grapes are maintained at Division of Fruits and Horticultural
Technology, IARI, New Delhi, Indian Institute of Horticulture Research, Bangalore,
Ganesh Khind Botanical Garden, Pune etc. Further, 616 genotypes of grapes are
maintained at IIHR, Bangalore
Objectives
• To develop early maturing, seedless and sweet cultivars for table purpose.
• To induce resistance to anthracnose, Phylloxera and chaffer beetle.
• To develop varieties with medium vigour and productive basal bud, which can
be trained on head or pandal system of training
For the tropics the objectives of breeding should be:
• To develop high yielding and high quality varieties with increased fruitfulness of
basal buds, less degree of apical dominance, suitability for different purpose such
as table, raisin, wine and juice and resistance to diseases.
• To develop root stocks resistant to salinity, nematodes and drought
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Introduction
Grapes are reported to have been introduced in Tropical India about 2600 years
ago in 620 BC (Olmo, 1976). Commercial cultivation did not start until the beginning of
20th Century. During 1930, Shree R.S.Pillay, identified Anab-e-Shahi from the
collections of Nawab Baquer Ali Khan and subsequently its commercial cultivation
picked up in South India. Bhokri and Cheema Sahebi in Maharashtra, Bhokri and Muscat
Hamberg in Tamil Nadu and Bangalore Blue in Karnataka are the introductions
The commercial varieties of grapes were introduced into India mostly by invaders
of Iran and Afghanistan (Thaper, 1960). Muhammed Bin Tughlaq introduced,
Bhokri,Fakhri and Sahebi cultivars in Aurangabad (Daulatabad) in 1338 (Pillay,1968).
Large scale introduction in a planned manner were initiated at Lyallpur as early as 1928,
when S.B.S.Lal Singh, was Head of Department of Horticulture, introduced as many as
116 graps varieties from different grape growing
countries (Singh and Singh, 1940, 1942). The
earlier promising introduction include,
Thompson Seedless, Perlette, Beauty Seedless,
from USA,Kishmish Beli and Kishmish Charni
from USSR (Singh and Singh,1972). The
cultivars like Ruby Seedless,Gordo
Blano,(Reisling, MS 18-55,MS 19-77,MS 16-
Thompson Seedless
2,Wortly Hall hybrids from Australia,Totlocha
from Brazil Flame Seedling 1281,Dogridge,Pride,Dixie,Wedor and Black Cornith-2 from
USA,Surnak Kitabiskij, Pozdrijwir and Shirajx-6 from USSR, Malvasiafina (Douro),
Boal De Alicante, Tinta Deira Preta, Jampal, Tinta Roriz,from Portugal and 0912
Horizon (SW) , 0913 Leon Millet, Foch and 0912 Swanson Red from Canada for wine,
raisin and table purposes have been introduced and are under evaluation. Further, number
of Vitis sp.have been introduced for resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses e.g. V.gigas,
V.caribea, V.munsoniana, V.smalliana,V.cineraria, V.shuttleworthi, V.arizonica and
V.monocola from USA (Singh and Pana,1993)
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Selection
Open pollinated seedling segregates for a large number of characters and hence
the population of seedlings from open pollinated seeds is a potential source for selection
of desirable type e.g. Cheema Sahebi (Sel-7), Selection-49. Some promising seedlings
from open pollinated population of Pandhari Sahebi and Kabul Monukka were also
selected.
Clonal selection is also one of the methods of fruit improvement. Due to natural
mutation in existing cultivars considerable variation occurs between individuals that help
in varietal improvement through clonal selection. The promising clonal selections of
grapes are as follows:
yielding. TSS 22-24%, acidity 0.77% and juice content 65%. It ripens in the middle
of June.
b. HS 37-6 from Perlette: Developed at HAU, Hissar. This cultivar is 15 days earlier in
maturity than the parent
Hybridization
Grapes are highly heterozygous and are propagated asexually at commercial
scale. Inbreeding results in rapid loss of vigour and fertility of vine, even in first
generation. The crossing of unrelated parents with good combining ability followed by
raising a large number of hybrid seedlings in each combination and rigorous selection
may result in good ideotype of commercial use.
In India, hybridization work was started in 1958 at IARI, New Delhi. The purpose
of hybridization at IARI, New Delhi was to develop early maturing, high yielding, better
quality seedless varieties with resistant to biotic stresses. However, IIHR, Bangalore,
started breeding programme in 1968, with objective to develop superior varieties for
table, raisins, wine and juice, On the basis of types of parent used, it can be grouped into
two (a) Interspecific / Intergeneric hybridization and (b) Interspecific or intervarietal
hybridization.
Interspecific / Intergeneric hybridization
Muscadinia is a rich source of resistance to diseases and pests and also possesses
a unique and delightful flavor and aroma. The crosses between Vitis and Muscadinia
which differ in chromosome number are made with difficulty, but most of the resulting
hybrids remain sterile. The pollen of M.rotundifolia will fertilize the egg cell of
V.vinifera but the reciprocal cross is less successful. Partly fertile F 1 hybrids (2x=39) can
cross reciprocally between themselves or with V.vinifera x M.rotundifolia which have
been further improved by back crossing with V.vinifera, resulting in some fertile vines
that produce acceptable quality table grapes (Olmo 1971).Crossing within Muscadinia
has given outstanding self fertile cultivars like Tarheel (M.rotundifolia x M.munsoniana),
South Land, Magron, Regale (Cold hardy) Sterling (cold hardy) and Triumph (bronze
cloured berry weighing 7.9g). Telki 5A (V.berlendieri x V.riparia) highly resistant to
Phylloxera, tolerant to lime soils and moderately resistant to nematodes, Harmony (1613
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In order to incorporate the desirable characters of one cultivar into other through
hybridization, the knowledge of inheritance pattern and general and specific combining
ability of the cultivars is very essential for making choice of parents in restricting the
cross-combination and more seedlings population for better selection. The viability and
germination ability of the hybrid seeds are also important factors in deciding the parents
to be used in hybridization. It has been found that in some cultivars when used as female
parents or selfed, the seed germination is poor and some time do not germinate e.g.
Cordinal. If such cultivars are required in hybridization, they should be used as male
parents in order to induce seedlessness in the progeny. It would be better to select a
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variety having high seed index as female parents. Cultivar Angoor Kalan can also be used
as female parent for earliness, seedlessness and good quality, but for the same purpose
cultivars Beauty Seedless, Perlette and Pusa Seedless should be used as male parents
Mutation breeding
Mutation breeding may be attempted as a complementary tool in grape breeding
for one or more important characters, without altering the whole genetic setup. The
important mutagens used in grape breeding are physical mutagens (χ ray and γ rays ) and
chemical mutagens (Ethyl Methane Sulphonate (EMS),N-Nitroso-N-Methyl Urethane
(NMUT) and N-Nitrose-N-Methyl-Urea
(NMU).
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Niagara having red fruit from Niagara and Robin Cardinal an early maturing variety from
Cardinal are other important induced mutants in grapes.
Polyploidy breeding
Biotechnological tools
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Protoplast culture
Protoplasts are of great importance as tool for genetic amelioration and somatic
hybridization. But regeneration of grape vines from protoplasts has not yet been
successful.
Anther culture
Anther culture can result into haploid grape vines which can then be developed
into homozygous diploids by doubling chromosomes. These homozygous diploids will be
very useful for producing F1 hybrids and for making genetic studies. But there is low
success rate of regeneration of grape vines from anther and only one case of haploid has
been reported in grape.
Bunch is medium in size, yellowish green berry, sweet, TSS 22-25%, seedless
berry, suitable for raisin making, fresh table use and making good quality dry and white
table and dessert wine. Released in 1980.
Released in 1980, bunch is medium in size, berry yellowish green, sweet, TSS 18-
21ºB, having foxy flavor seeded cultivar, suitable for making quality wine, resistant to
anthracnose.
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Bunch is large, golden yellow colour berry, ellipsoidal to ovoid, sweet, TSS 17-
20ºB, having muscat flaovur, seeded cultivar, suitable for fresh table use and dry white
table and dessert wines, released in 1980.
Vigorous vine, good yield potential (30kg/vine), Bunch well filled berry, dark
colored, seedless, sweet TSS 20-21ºB, acidity 0.6-0.7%, suitable for head system of
training and gives two crops in a year, suitable for juice making, released in 1980.
Vigorous vine with high yield potential (25kg/vine), bunch well filled, sweet, TSS
20-22ºB,suitable for head system of training, it is good for table purpose and making red
desert wine, tolerant to anthracnose, released in 1980.
It was released in 1980, bunch is medium in size, berry bluish black, spherical to
obovoid, sweet, TSS 20-25ºB,having mild foxy flavour and seeded, it is good for fresh
table use and making dry table, dessert wines and juice, resistant to anthracnose disease.
This variety was released in 1994, vine is vigorous with heavy yield potential
(36kg/vine), bunch is well filled large (410g) berry greenish yellow, round to ovoid large
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(3.8g),sweet, TSS 20-21ºB,acidity 0.5% having muscat flavor, gives two crops in a year,
suitable for good white dessert wine.
Digrasset
This variety was collected at ARI (MACS), Pune from the grape germplasm
collection maintained at Ganesh Khind Botanical Garden, Pune in 1976. It is a clone of
Vitis champini, Vine shows vigorous, spreading and prostrate growth having deep root
system. It remains dormant during winter season after October pruning and again grows
in February-March under climatic conditions of Maharashtra. This is a potential root
stock for growing grape under saline and drought conditions.
It was released in 1996, it is basal bearing, tenturier (peel and pulp both coloured),
seeded cultivar, it is early maturing, suitable for making coloured juice and wine, bunch
is loose and medium TSS 19ºB, resistant to anthracnose.
Questions
Ans:True
2. Give an example for a grape variety developed through mutation
Ans: Cardinal
3. Anthracnose is a major fungal disease in grapes.
Ans:True
4. Embryo rescue technique is one of the biotechnological tools used for
development of seedless grapes.
Ans:True
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Lecture.19
Crop improvement in papaya
Centre of diversity
papaya in the world. It is also cultivated in Brazil, Mexico, Australia, Hawaii, Malaysia,
Taiwan, Peru, Florida, Gold Coast, South Africa and Bangladesh. In India it is widely
cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh.
Germplasm resources
The family Caricaceae consist of six genera and 35 species. Carica and
Vasconcellea are the important generas. The genus Carica has only one species, Carica
papaya the cultivated species. Vasconcellea contain 21 species, which are considered as
the wild relatives of papaya. Their diversity is common in South America
Variations with respect to plant stature, sex types, fruit shape and size, seed
content are observed in papaya. Presently, germplasm is being maintained at TNAU,
Coimbatore, IIHR, Bangalore, IARI Regional Station, Pusa, Bihar, CHES, Ranchi,
CHES, Bhubaneshwar and CISH, Lucknow for further characterization and evaluation.
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Objectives
Botany
Papaya belongs to family Caricaceae and genus Carica having about 40 species.
It is a dioecious plant but gynodioecious cultivars are also available. The stem is hollow
and soft wooded. It is usually unbranched when young but at later stage upright shoots
develop at its terminal growth due to obstruction. The leaves are palm like with long
stalks. Flowers are cymose, fragrant borne in leaf axils. The fruit is a fleshy berry. The
fruits from pistillate flowers are ovoid-oblong to nearly spherical in shape and the fruits
from hermaphrodite flowers are pyriform, cylindrical or grooved.
stamen differentiation was observed 56-59 days before anthesis. Anther dehiscence starts
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hours before the flowers opening and continues depending upon the weather
conditions and stigma becomes receptive a day before the flower opening and
remaining receptive for 6 days. The peak anthesis was observed between 5.00-
6.00 a.m. The receptivity of stigma was found maximum on the day of anthesis in
most of the species (Subramanyam and Iyer, 1986). To ensure good fruit set in the
dioecious cultivars of papaya (e.g. CO1, CO2, CO4, CO5, CO 6, Pusa Giant, Pusa
Dwarf, Pusa Nanha,), the female and male ratio should be 20:1. However,
maximum number of andromonoecious trees are retained in gynodioecious
varieties (eg. CO3, CO7, Coorg Honey Dew, Sun Rise Solo, Sun Set Solo etc.)
Further, insects are the major pollinating agents in papaya.
Sex forms
1. Dioecious: male and female trees segregate in the ratio of 1:0.sibmating is done
for maintaining of purity.
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CO2 It is pure line selection from local type, suitable for papain
production in terms of high enzyme activity. Dual purpose variety
for dessert fruit as well as papain
CO3 It is a hybrid between CO2 x Sun Rise Solo, plant is vigorous,
fruit is medium in size with good keeping quality.
CO4 It is a hybrid between CO1 x Washington, fruit is large, keeping
quality is good, and flesh colour is yellow.
CO5 It is a selection from Washington; it is also good for papain
production in terms of high latex yield
CO6 It is a selection from ‘Giant. Fruits are bigger weighing 2.5 to 3.0
kg. Suitable for papain and dessert purpose
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Induction of polyploidy
Hofmeyer (1945) reported on polyploidy in papaya. They found that the quality of
tetraploid fruit was better than the diploid and it was also compact with small seed cavity.
But tetraploids were less fertile than diploid as indicated by comparative seed count.
However, according to Singh (1955) there was complete sterility in both female and male
tetraploids and expressed doubt about their commercial utilization. Further, Zerpa (1957)
reported that colchicine induced tetraploid hermaphrodite plants, which were used as
male parent in a cross with a female diploid produced a few seeds without endosperm, by
embryo culture, two triploid plants were obtained which turned out to be hermaphrodite.
Hybridization
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Research Complex Tripura (Singh and Sharma, 1996). Cultivar Cariflora was developed
by crossing K2xK3 line of papaya which is tolerant to PRSV (Conover et al.,1986).
Inter-specific hybridization was also attempted in the genus Carica. The cross
between the Carica papaya and Carica caulifora did not form mature seed but immature
embryos could be germinated and grown by embryo culture. F1 hybrids of Carica
papaya x carica pubescens and Carica papaya x Carica quercifolia were vegetatively
vigorous. Carica papaya x Carica cauliflora F1 progenies are slow growing and those of
Carica papaya x Carica stipulata developed apical necrosis before reaching maturity.
Iyer and Subramanyam (1984) attempted interspecific hybridization and reported that
F1hybrids of C.cauliflora x C.monoica when crossed with C.papaya gave fertile hybrids,
although the C.cauliflora and C.monoica are incompatible with C.papaya but hybrids of
C.cauliflora x C.monoica are compatible.
Heterosis breeding
Dai (1960) reported heterosis in the cross between Philippines x Solo varieties. F 1
hybrid tended to have reduced seed number and enhanced plant vigour. Heterosis up to
111.4% for yield and yield traits was obtained in Solo yellow x Washington whereas high
heterosis for potential economic competitiveness was noticed in Thailand x Washington
(Iyer and Subramanyam, 1981). At IIHR, Bangalore, an F1 hybrid namely, Surya (Sun
Rise Solo x Pink Flesh sweet) was released recently. It is gynodioecious in nature and
produces about 75-80 fruits of medium size weighing about 600-800g. the flesh is red in
colour, firm, sweet to taste with a TSS of 14º brix.
Mutation breeding
7
Carica papaya
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Biotechnology
Embryo culture
Transgenic papaya
Transgenic papaya has been developed against Papaya Ring Spot Virus (PRSV)
using coat protein mediated resistance in University of Hawaii by Dennis Gonsalves. The
coat protein gene from PRSV was isolated, cloned and used for transforming papaya to
provide resistance against the severe strain of the same virus. The target cultivars used in
transforming papaya were the Red fleshed, Sun Set Solo and the Yellow Fleshed Kapoho
Solo. Transformation with coat protein gene was done using micro projectile
bombardment technique using embryogenic tissues of papaya.
Two transgenic lines Sun UP from Sun Set Solo and UH Rainbow from Kapoho
were developed which have shown excellent resistance to PRSV. Sun UP, which is
homozygous for CP (Coat Protein gene), was resistant to most isolate of PRSV, from
other geographical locations except Taiwan’s YK isolate of PRSV. Rainbow was found
susceptible to PRSV isolates from outside Hawaii but was resistant to the severe strain of
Hawaiian PRSV (HA isolates).
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Questions
4. Name two papaya varieties suitable for papain extraction as well as table purpose
CO2 and CO5.
Ans:True
Ans:True
Ans:True
Ans:True
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3. IARI, Bihar - CO 5
4. Pusa Giant - resistant to papaya mosaic
5. HPSC-3 - Pusa Majesty
Ans
1. Dioecious - CO5
2. Gynodioecious - CO7
3. IARI, Bihar - Pusa Majesty
4. Pusa Giant - tolerant to strong wind
5. HPSC-3 - resistant to papaya mosaic
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Lecture.20
Crop improvement in sapota and pomegranate
SAPOTA
It is a wind pollinated crop. Flowers are protogyny and the stigma grows out of
the bud about two days before anthesis. Flowers open between 4-4.30 a.m. Anthers
dehisce between 8-10 p.m. The flowers keep fresh for nearly two days. The stigma is
found to be receptive two days before opening and continues to be like that up to 12
hours after opening. Peak receptivity is between 8-10 a.m. The total time taken from fruit
set to maturity is 10-12 months under North Indian Conditions but in Tamil Nadu it takes
only 4-5 months.
Breeding objectives
The main emphasis on breeding of sapota are to develop dwarf stature trees with
precocity in bearing, high yield and high keeping quality of less seeded fruits with less
latex
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Breeding methods
Clonal selection
Number of varieties like Cricket Ball, Kirthi Barthi, oval, Thagarampudi, Badami,
Baramasi and Guthi exhibit natural variability. Exploration of this natural variability by
clonal selection is an accepted method of breeding in sapota.
Cricket Ball,
PKM 1
PKM – 4: a clonal selection from open pollinated seed of PKM – 1. It has spindle shaped
fruits suitable for dry flakes production. Pulp is attractive with light pinkish honey brown
colour, crisp and sweet flesh (TSS 24˚brix).
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Hybridization
1. Co.1: It is a hybrid between Cricket Ball and Oval. This variety is superior to
either of the parents. The fruits are long oval (egg shaped), medium in size with a
mean fruit weight of 125g. The flesh is granular in texture and reddish brown in
colour, taste being very sweet with a TSS of 18˚Brix.
2. Co.3: It is hybrid between Cricket Ball and Vavivalasa. Fruits are oblong –
ovate in shape. Pleasantly flavored, very sweet with a T.S.S of 24.2. The average
yield of the tree is 157 kg as compared to only 101.32 kg and 109.5 kg in CO-1
and CO-2 respectively. The stature of the tree is more upright and compact,
suitable for high density planting at a spacing of 5-6 m either way instead of the
conventional spacing of 8mx8m.
4. PKM. 3: It is a hybrid between Guthi and Cricket Ball. It has vertical growth
habit and hence lends itself for high density planting. Trees bear big sized fruits
with oval shape and have cluster-bearing habit. The fruit yield is 14 tonnes per
hectare.
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a TSS of 26˚brix. The colour of the pulp is light orange. The mean fruit weight is
150g.
6. DHS.2: It is also a hybrid between Kalipatti and Cricket Ball. Tree is vigorous
and bearing round fruits. It is a high yielder. The fruits are sweet with a TSS of
23˚ brix having a light orange brown pulp, which is soft, granular and mellowing.
The mean fruit weight is 180g.
Pomegranate
Centre of diversity
Germplasm resources
Objectives
To develop suitable types which produce small soft seeds with attractive red
(pink) aril.
To develop easily manageable upright growth habit of the tree.
To develop thornlessness in the twigs, a desirable character as it helps in cultural
management of the tree.
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To develop varieties resistant to fruit borer (Virachola isocrates) and fruit rot
(Phomopsis sp.)
To develop varieties free from fruit cracking, aril blackening.
Identification and development of suitable varieties for cold arid region.
Varieties with longer steerage life.
Selection
Many pomegranate types cultivated in India are of seedling origin. They offer a
wide range of variability with respect to shape and size of fruits, mellowness of seeds,
aril colour, rind colour, sweetness and acidity. On the basis of yield and physico-chemical
characters of fruits, number of cultivars have been recommended for commercial
cultivation in different states of India,viz. Ganesh, G-137,P-23,P-26 and Muscat in
Maharashtra, Bassein Seedless, Jyothi and Madhugiri in Karnataka, Dholka in Gujarat,
Jalore Seedless, Jodhpur Red , and Jodhpuri White in Rajasthan and Kabul Red, Vellodu,
Yercaud 1, and Co-1 in Tamil Nadu. Two ornamental types (Japanese Dwarf and Double
flower giving red, yellow and white flowers) are planted in the omamental gardens (Nath
and Randhawa,1959). Due to considerable variability and their adaptability to existing
agro-climatic conditions, selection of superior genotypes will be the best approach to get
desirable ideotypes. The cultivar GBG-1 is a selection from open pollinated population of
Alandi in 1932. The name Ganesh was given in 1970. Five Muskat types, namely P-13,
P-16, P-23, P-26 and SK-1 were identified by Naik (1975). Further, P-23 and P-26 were
released in 1986 for commercial cultivation by MPKV, Rahuri. At the University of
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Clonal Selection
G-137 is a superior clonal selection over Ganesh, other clones are also superior
i.e.G-107,G-132,G-133. Sayed et al.(1985) reported a clone Acc.No.455 which has been
renamed as Yercaud-1 and released for commercial cultivation in Tamil Nadu.
Hybridization
In order to incorporate blood red colour of
Russian types into Ganesh, several crosses were made at
Rahuri in 1976.Out of 122 F1 hybrids, seven had deep red
aril colour but the seeds were hard and inferior in taste
than Ganesh. A promosing line from the F2 population
(No.61) combining desirable quality attributes has been
released by the name Mridula (Ganesh x Gulsha Rose
Pink).
Mutation
Mridula
Use of physical (x rays) and chemical mutagens (N, N-dimethyl N.nitrosourea)
may help in the development of the superior cultivar of soft seeded types (Levin, 1990).
Biotechnological tools
Attempts have been made to regenerate the plant by using leaf (Omura et al.,
1987) and shoot tip explants (Mahinshni et al., 1991). Enzyme based marker was also
used to identify the genetic variability among the existing genotypes. Somatic
embryogenesis was also practiced by using petal as explant (Nataraja and Neelambika,
1996).
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Dholka
Large fruit size, greenish white rind, fleshy testa, pinkish white or whitish with
sweet juice, soft seeds and acidic juice.
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Kabul
Large fruit size, rind deep red mixed with pale yellow, thick, fleshy testa dark red,
slightly bitter juice.
Kandhari
Fruit large in size, rind deep red, fleshy testa, blood red or deep pink with sweet,
slightly acidic juice, hard seeds.
Muskat red
Fruit small to medium in size, rind somewhat thick, fleshy testa with moderately
sweet juice, seeds are semi hard.
Paper Shell
Fruit medium in size,rind thick,fleshy testa, reddish pink with sweet juice and soft
seed.
Spanish Ruby
Fruit small to medium in size, rind thin, fleshy testa rose coloured, soft seed.
Ganesh
Jyothi
Also known as GKVK-1, attractive yellowish red fruit colour, medium fruit size,
red aril colour and soft seeds.
Vellodu
Fruit medium to large in size, rind moderately thick, fleshy testa, juicy, seed
moderately hard.
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Poona
Fruit large in size, fleshy testa, deep scarlet or pink and red.
Bedana
Fruit medium to large in size, rind brownish or whitish, fleshy testa, pinkish
white with sweet juice and soft seeds.
Bhagwa
Phule Arakta
It is also developed by MPKV, Rahuri. Plant is heavy yielder with bigger fruits
and sweet soft seed. It is less susceptible to fruit spots and thrips.
Questions
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Ans
11. CO.2 - clonal selection form Baramasi
12. PKM.1 - clonal selection from Guthi
13. PKM .4 - clonal selection from PKM.1
14. DHS.1 - hybrid between Kalipatti and Cricket Ball
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Lecture.21
Crop improvement in pineapple and guava Pineapple
Germplasm resources
In India, much attention has not been given in the development of field gene
banks. However, commercial cultivars are maintained at BCKV, Kalyani, Agriculture
Research Station, Kovvur (APAU), Department of Horticulture, College of Agriculture,
Jorhat, Regional Research Station: Diphu (Assam Agricultural University), Department
of Horticulture, College of Horticulture, Navsari (GAU), College of Horticulture at
Vellanikara and Trichur. A list of 135 varieties was published as early as in 1935 by
Johnson, although some of them were found synonymous.
Objectives
1
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Inheritance Pattern
According to Collins, 1960 spineless form in which spines are restricted to top
few inches of the leaf and dominanat to spiny wild type. Further many wild cultivars
possess spiny leaves. Ananas ananosoies is also a source of disease resisteance. The
cultivar pernambuco is donor for good flavor and aroma, tender non fibrous juicy
fruits, early fruiting, resistant to heart and root rot. Queen can be for crisp, non
fibrous deep yellow flesh fruits, early Repening.
Red Spanish is good source of vigour, resistance to wilt, heart and root rot.
Singapore Spanish can be good donor for square. Shouldered fruits with golden
yellow flesh and wild species are good source of vigour, resisteance to various
disease and pests, spiny tip and spiny characters are the phenotypic expression of
single pair of alleles, with spiny tp being dominant (Collins and kerns,1946).
Homozygous 55 and heterozygous 5 and produce spiny tips, recessive and may give
rise to spiny plants progeny (Collins and kerns, 1946). The piping and non piping
characters are controlled by another non- linked pair of alleles with the gene P
(piping) being epistatic to 5 and s. The homozygous pp genotype produce pronounced
piping than Pp genotypes. Frequent mutations of 5 and s occur (scn. 1996). Ananas
erectifolius is having Se gene of smooth tip leaves. (Collins, 1960).
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Hybridization
A cross between Red Spanish and Cayenne has led to the development of a new
hybrid PR-1-67 in Puerto Rico (Remirez, 1970). This hybrid shows better plant vigour
and resistance to wilt disease. However, self fertile somatic mutants obtained from
cultivar Cayenne show a loss of vigour on selfing and heterosis on crossing. A hybrid (H-
7) has been produced by crossing Valera Monendi x Kew. This hybrid produces large
fruits, individually weighing on an average 3.0-3.5 kg.
Mutation
Biotechnological tools
Attempts have been made for rapid multiplication of the plants through micro
propagation by using different kinds of explants i.e. leaf base, shoot base, excised lateral
buds, meristem tips from crown etc. In the crosses where fertilization fails due to
incompatibility, embryo culture technique can help to rescue the hybrid. The genetic
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transformation of pineapple clones has been attempted with the objective to acquire
ability to introduce desirable genes
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GUAVA
Guava is also known as the ‘Apple of the Tropics. It is a very rich and cheap
source of vitamin C and also contains a fair amount of calcium. Important guava
growing states in the country are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.
Allahabad district of Uttar Pradesh has the reputation of growing the best quality of
guava fruits in the world (Mitra and Bose, 1990). The importance of guava is due to the
fact that it is the hardy fruit which can be grown in alkaline and poorly drained soil.
Center of diversity
Germplasm resources
Guava is mainly a self pollinated crop but occurrence of cross pollination results
in great variation in the seedling population. About 103 genotypes are available in the
Indian collections (iyer and Subramanian, 1987) while Yadav (1990) has listed 153
genotypes including Psidium species, cultivars and hybrids mainly at CISH, Lucknow,
IIHR, Bangalore, NDUAT, Faizabad, and HAU, Hisar. Guava germplasm is being
maintained at several centers in the country in field banks which are often not
systematically maintained (Pathak and Ojha,1993).
Breeding objectives
4. Uniform ripening
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Botany
Most of the Cultivars of Indian guava belongs to the genus Psidium and species
gujava. Based on the shape of common guava fruits, they are classified into two groups
(De Candolle 1904) i.e. Psidium pyriferum, Psidium pomiferum. Genus Psidium contains
about 150 species (Hayes, 1970). All cultivated varieties of guava are either diploid 2n-
2x-22 or triploid 2n-3x-33 (Atchinson, 1947).
Inheritance pattern
Bold seed is found to be dominant over soft seed and governed monogenically.
Red flesh colour is dominant to white pulp colour and also goverened
monogenically.
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There is linkage between red flesh colour and bold seed size.
Triploidy and some other genetic factors are responsible for female sterility.
Achievements
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Hybridization
At IIHR, Bangalore, as a result of hybridization among Allahabad Safeda, Red
Flesh Chittidar, Apple colour, Lucknow-49 and Bananas, 600 F1 hybrids were raised.
One hybrid Arka Amulya has been released recently. It is a progeny from the cross
Allahabad Safeda x Triploid. Plants are medium in vigour and are spreading type. Fruits
are round in shape. Skin is smooth and yellow in colour. Fruits on an average weigh
about 180-200 g, Flesh is white in colour and firm. TSS is around 12˚Brix, soft seeded,
keeping quality is good.
Hybrid 16-1 (Apple color x Allahabad safeda) has been developed. Plants are
semi vigorous, moderate yielding, fruit skin bright red with few seeds high Tss and good
keeping quality (Subramanyam and I year, 1993).
Safed Jam: This is a hybrid between Allahabad Safeda and Kohir (a local
collection from Hyderabad –karnataka region). It is similar to Allahabad Safeda in
growth habit and fuit quality. The fruits are bigger in size with good quality and few soft
seeds.
CISH, Lucknow isolated two hybrids H-136 for red pulp and soft seeler with high
Tss.
Work at CISH, Lucknow has shown that Chittidar, Portugal, Seedless and Spear
Acid are tolerant to wilt.
Resistance species of guava can be utilized for imparting the wilt resistant
character. It was observed that psidium guajava and psidium chinensis are compatible.
However, cross between psidium guajava and psidium molle was incompatible but
reciprocal combination was a compatible combination (subramanyam and I year, 1982).
Polyploidy Breeding
Producing triploids will be futile since the fruit shape in triploid is highly irregular
and misshapen because of differential seed size. However, in order to evolve varieties
with less seeds and increased productivity, crosses were made at IARI, New Delhi,
between seedless triploid and seeded diploid variety Allahabad Safeda. Of the 73 F 1
hybrids raised 26 were diploids, 9 trisomics 5 double trisomics and 13 tetrasomics.
Distinct variation in tree growth habit and leaf and fruit characters was observed. Three
trisomic plants had dwarf growth habit and normal shape and size of fruits with few
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This is also known as the Guinea guava or Brazilian guava. The plants are like
shrub or small tree. The leaves are green in colour, broad, oblong-oval, acute or obtuse,
8-12 cm long with lower surface pubescent. Red hairs are found on the mid veins.
Psidium guineense
Psidium montanum
Plants are just like shrub, attain a height of about 1.5m, flat round branches. It is
found in mountains of Jamaica. Fruits are round with very poor quality
Psidium montanum
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Psidium fredrichsthalianum
It is known as Chinese guava. Plants are tall (7-11 m height), fruits are small and
globose in shape with high acid content. It can be used for jelly making. Plants are
tolerant to guava wilt.
Psidium Cattleanum
It is known as the Cattely guava or Strawberry guava. It is a shrub or small tree
(3-6 m in height), fruits are small, deep scarlet in colour, and globose in shape. This
species is more tolerant to low temperature than Psidium guajava.
Psidium molle
Tree is medium in height; leaves are green and oval in shape. Apex of leaf is
pointed; lower part of leaves is velvety in appearance. Red hairs are found on the central
veins. In one leaf 6-8 pairs of primary veins are found. Petals are 5-11, stamens are 196-
239, and stigma is long with big ovary of 3-5 chambers. Fruits are small in size, average
fruit weight is 13g. It contains vitamin C about 70 mg/100 g of pulp
Psidium pumilum
It is also known as Chinese guava. Tree is like pyramidal in shape, leaves are light
in colour, small in size, non-pubescent, having 13-17 pairs of primary veins. Petals 7
smooth and creamy colour which drop immediately after anthesis, Stamens are 252-327
in number, small stigma with medium size of ovary having 4-5 chambers. It flowers
twice in a year. It takes about 130 days for attaining the maturity of fruits. Average fruit
weight is about 19g and an average vitamin C content is 171mg/100g pulp.
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Psidium cujavilis
Growth characters and flowering habit of the plants is just like Psidium
guineense. The size of fruit is small to medium, average weight is 30-50 g, and sour in
taste.
Psidium policarpum
The growth characters are similar to Psidium guajava except the shape of the
fruits is periform. Average fruit weight is about 200-250g. Flavonoid patterns show close
affinity between P.guajava and P.molle (Dass and Prakash, 1981). However, inspite of
the morphological similarities in P.molle and P.guineense, they showed minute
differences in flavonoid pattern.
Questions
1. Pineapple hybrid PR-1-67 is resistance to wilt disease.
Ans:True
2. Spanish variety of pineapple is resistant to mealy bug.
Ans:True
3. Guava is also known as the ‘Apple of the Tropics.
Ans:True
4. Pineapple is rich and cheap source of vitamin C and also contains a fair amount of
calcium.
Ans: False (guava)
5. Most common breeding objective of guava fruit is development of seedless variety.
Ans:True
6. Give an example for pink fleshed variety of guava Arka Mridula.
Ans:True
7. Spear Acid guava variety is tolerant to wilt.
Ans:True
8. Psidium fredrichsthalianum is tolerant to Guava wilt.
Ans:True
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Lecture.22
Crop Improvement In Apple and Other Rosaceae Crops
APPLE
Cultivated apple has been classified as pumila group. Majority of the cultivated
apples are diploids (2n=34) and few are triploids (2n=51). Delicious group of apples are
very popular and occupy 50-70 per cent area in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu &
Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh and North- East hills.
Breeding objectives
Apple is grown as a composite tree consisting of rootstock, scion and occasionally
interstem. Thus genetic improvement must involve both rootstock and scion. The scion
breeding objectives are to evolve varieties, red in colour with early maturity, high yield,
superior dessert and storage quality and resistance to scab. Besides, a new wave of clonal
rootstocks capable of surviving under wide range of environmental conditions, inducing
precocity, enhancing productivity and fruit quality in scion are required to be bred.
Genetics of apple
Malus has 25 to 30 species and several sub-species, many of which are cultivated
as ornamental trees for their profuse blossoms and attractive fruits. Many of the species
intercross freely and semi self incompatibility is common. Trees grown from collection
of Malus are frequently inter-specific or inter-varietal hybrids. The cultivated apple is
botanically Malus domestica Borkh.
Malus domestica
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The majority of cultivated apples are diploids (2n=34). There has been a belief
that they are complex polyploids, being partly tetraploids and partly hexaploid with the
basic number of x=7 which is common in Rosaceae. The hypothesis is based on the
associations and behavior of chromosomes and six sets of three chromosomes. So, they
are functionally diploids. Among the cultivars, there are also triploids (2n=51). Triploids
appear to be more common in cultivated apples, accounting for about 10 per cent of the
commonly grown cultivars. Some triploid varieties are Baldwin, Gravenstein, Rhode
Island Greening, Blenheim Orange and Mutsu. These are more vigorous and tend to have
larger fruits but produce poor pollen and require diploids to pollinate them. These are
useless as parents for breeding as they produce few seeds and give rise to weak seedlings.
Apomixis
Facultative apomixes is characteristic of a number of Malus species which are
probably of hybrid origin but does not appear to occur among the cultivated apples. The
apomictic species which have been investigated are polyploids. Malus sikkimensis
(Hook). Koehne is a triploid, M.coronaria (L.) Mill., M.hupenhensis (Pamp.) Rehd,
M.lancefolia Rehd. M.platycarpa Rehd., M.toringoides (Rehd.,) Hugs are known in
triploid and tetraploid forms. M.sergenti Rehd is known in diploid, triploid, tetraploid and
pentaploid forms. Under normal circumstances, these species reproduce themselves
freely by apomictic seeds but most of them can produce sexual hybrids if crossed with
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sexual diploids. Seedlings from these apomictic species are not necessarily identical and
a certain amount of variation can be found. The importance of this character in Malus
species is that seedlings of some are sufficiently uniform to enable their use as rootstocks
which are virus – free.
IMRPOVEMENT
Introduction and Selection
Spur type cultivars
At Regional Fruit Research Station, Mashobra, spur
varieties introduced through the National Bureau of Plant
Genetic Resources, New Delhi during the eighties are under
evaluation. These varieties include Red Spur Delicious,
Golden Spur Delicious, Miller’s Sturdeespur, Oregon Spur
and Red Chief of which Red Spur Delicious has been found to
be promising.
In UP, cultivars Red Spur and Oregon Spur were Golden Spur Delicious
introduced from Italy and are being multiplied for evaluation.
Colour Sports
Colour sports like Royal Red, Vance Delicious, Top Red, Skyline Superme Red
Delicious were introduced in HP. The cultivars Royal Red, Vance Delicious and Top Red
and Skyline Supreme Red Delicious were found to be promising.
Early varieties
Work at NBPGR Regional Station, Phagli, Shimla indicated that the cultivars
Vered, Michal, Maayan, Shilomit, Hybrid-1 and Tropical Beauty were found to be
promising for cultivation under mid and low hill conditions. In the mid hills of HP, the
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cultivars Tropical Beauty and Parlins Beauty were found to be the best in respect of yield
and fruit quality.
Scab is a serious disease of apple and none of the commercial varieties are
resistant to it. Although some resistant varieties have been evolved in other countries,
none of these compares favourably with the popular Delicious and its commercial sports.
The scab resistant varieties Prima, Priscilla, Sir Prize, Jonafree, Liberty and Coop.12
introduced from USA are under evaluation at Regional Fruit Research Station, Mashobra
and Bajaura in HP.
Hybridization
Selection of Parents
Most of the quality traits like size, shape, cropping, etc., are under polygenic
control. Thus, when two cultivars are crossed, there will be a continuous range of
expression of these characters in the seedlings and will not segregate into discrete
categories.
Williams (1959) calculated that the percentage of desirable seedlings that can be
expected as the main product of an apple breeding programme for polygenically
controlled characters is seldom more than 40 per cent and for every additional character,
the figure rapidly decreases. Thus, for a programme in which the main objective is
polygenically controlled mildew resistances, size of fruit, season of maturity, flavor and
colour of skin, a reasonable estimate would be 40,20,20,10 per cent respectively.
New Varieties
The modern breeding, objectives are breeding of varieties with high yield,
superior dessert and storage quality, disease and pest resistance. Breeding work on apple
has been in progress at Regional Fruit Research Station, Mashobra in Himachal Pradesh,
Fruit Reseach Station, Shalimar in Kashmir and Horticultural Experiments and Training
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Centre, Chaubattia in UP. The major objectives were better shelf-life, early maturity, high
dessert quality and scab resistance.
a) Ambred (Red Delicious x Ambri 157) : Tree is tall, maturity in second week of
September; fruits medium in size, conical, symmetrical, bright red stripes over barium
yellow ground; dots obscure; skin medium in thickness, smooth and glossy; flesh whitish,
crisp, firm aromatic and juicy, keeping quality is good up to three months in air cooled
storage. It has low incidence of powdery mildew, sooty blotch and apple scab.
b) Ambstarking (Starking Delicious x Ambri 81): Tree is vigorous, tall and open,
maturity in second week of September; fruits medium in size, round, conical symmetrical
and uniform in shape, currant red streaks over chrome yellow ground; dots numerous and
conspicuous; skin rough, smooth, flesh whitish firm, crisp, tough and juicy; keeping
quality comparable with Starking Delicious. It is tolerant to apple scab.
c) Ambroyal (Starking Delicious x Ambri 84): Tree is semi-dwarf and spreading. Fruit
maturity is in third week of September; fruits medium in size, conical in shape; skin thin.
smooth, red streaks on yellow ground; flesh white, soft, sweet, juicy with good dessert
quality. Storage quality is comparable with Starking Delicious.
in shape, symmetrical sides equal and uniform, skin thick, smooth with chrysanthemum
crimsonwash; flesh whitish, firm crisp, sub acid aromatic and juicy with good dessert
quality. Tree is moderately susceptible to powdery mildew and tolerant to apple scab.
Early and dessert quality: Work was started at Chaubattia in 1970 and two promising
hybrids Chaubattia Princess and Chaubattia Anupam were evolved. Both these are from
crosses of Red Delicious x Early Shanburry.
Chaubattia Princess ripens during last week of June to the 1 st week of July. The
tree is of medium vigour with upright growth habit. Fruits are medium in size, regular
and conical in shape. Fruit skin is thin and smooth with deep red streaks on pale
background. Flesh is creamy white, crisp in texture, firm juicy and very sweet. TSS is 14
per cent and acidity 0.22 per cent. The fruit pressure at maturity is 14 to 15 1b/sq. inch.
Keeping quality is quite good.
Scab resistance: During 1983, crosses Gala x 58553, Liberty x Delicious, Gala x 6356-
22 Gala x 6143-1, Freedom x delicious, Gala x Prima and Freedom (open pollinated)
were made at Mashobra and the hybrid seedlings are being evaluated.
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Mutation Breeding
PEACH
Breeding objectives
The main objective of peach (Prunus persica) improvement for low chilling areas
would be to develop cultivars with low chilling requirement, tolerance to high summer
temperature, maturity between 60 and 70 days after full bloom, firm flesh, freedom from
loose fibre, attractive colour, non- browning of flesh, resistance to root-knot nematode,
iron chlorosis and water logging. For processing peaches, firmness of flesh, freedom
from loose fibre, attractive colour and non-browning of flesh are the important characters
to be improved.
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Clonal selection
‘Sharbati’ is a chance seedling selected at Saharanpur
Hybridization
Redhar is a cross between “Halehaven and Kalhaven bred at USA. Inter-specific
hybridization has also been attempted in peaches especially in the development of
rootstock resistant to nematodes. Nemagcrad, a hybrid between P.persica x P. davididasa
is a widely used root-knot nematode resistant rootstock, which is immune to Meloidogyne
incognita.
PLUM
Breeding objectives
In European plum (Prunus domestica), improvement for cold hardiness,
productivity, large sized fruits, colour (red, purple or blue), free stone and dessert quality
are important criteria. For Japanese plums (P. salicina), self fertile, late blooming plums,
with high quality (particularly yellow skin) are important characteristics.
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The main objectives of plum improvement programme for subtropical regions are
to develop an early maturing cultivar with low chilling requirement, tolerant to high
temperature and dwarfing rootstocks, tolerant to saline and stagnant soils, large fruited,
free stone, juicy with proper TSS/ acid ratio, suitable for processing and resistant /
tolerant to insect, pests and diseases.
Breeding methods
Introduction
A large number of plum varieties have been introduced from different countries.
Of these, Santa Rosa and Sutlej Purple are important commercial cultivars found suitable
for midhills of North Western Himalayas. Other methods of breeding are not yet followed
in this crop in India.
PEAR
Breeding methods
Introduction
superior strains of softpears. Of these, soft-fleshed selections ‘Red Blush” ‘Punjab Gold’
and “Punjab Nectar” are promising. Red Blush recorded the highest yield (23.7
tonnes/ha) with good quality attributes.
Questions
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Lecture.23
History and importance of plantation crops
Plantation crops constitute a large group of crops. The major plantation crops
include coconut, arecanut, oil palm, cashew, tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, palmyra etc. Their
total coverage is comparatively less and they are mostly confined to small holdings.
However, they play an important role in view of their export potential as well as domestic
requirements and in employment generation and poverty alleviation programmes
particularly in rural sector. In India, these crops are grown over an area of 3.2 million ha
(1.82% of the total cropped area), generating an annual income of over Rs. 1, 00,000
millions and contributing about Rs. 30,000 million to export earnings. Though
historically tea, coffee and rubber were raised as industrial crops in larger estates,
currently sizeable area under these crops are in smaller holdings in diverse farming
systems. There has been considerable research attempts to improve their productivity
through genetic means, to formulate package of cultural practices to boost up the yield
/ha, to manage major pests and diseases and above all to develop post-harvest
technologies and value –added products. Plantation crops are important in many aspects.
Coconut “Kalpavriksha” is used as food, edible oil and industrial lubricant. Tender
coconut water is a healthy drink. Owing to immense utility coconut is popularly known
as the tree of heaven. The timber, leaf petiole, shell husk, etc, are useful for various
purposes. Arecanut yields a masticator used with betel leaf and also as panmasala, pan
parag and scented supari. Oil palm yields palm oil rich in vitamin A and E. Cashew bears
apple and nuts having commercial importance. Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) is
industrial oil. Cocoa is grown for beans yielding cocoa butter and chocolate cake. Rubber
is an industrial crop. Tea and coffee are beverage crops. Palmyra yields padaneer having
versatile uses.
Tea: India is the largest producer and consumer of tea in the world and accounts for
around 28 per cent of world production and 15 per cent of world trade. There is no
restriction on export of tea and under the present Exim Policy; import of tea is permitted
with an import duty of 70 per cent.
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Coffee: Coffee is mainly grown in two states – Karnataka and Kerala which accounts for
82 per cent of country’s production. Robusta and Arabica are the two varieties accounting
for 52 per cent and 48 per cent of the area respectively. During recent years area under
robusta coffee is increasing. The major buyers of Indian coffee are the Russian
Federation and Western Europe.
Coconut: Presently India is the highest producer of coconut in the world. It produces
about 14925 million nuts from an area of 1.9 million hectares. The productivity is 7822
nuts /ha which is more than double when compared to that of Indonesia and Philippines.
Arecanut: Arecanut plays an important role in the social, cultural and economic
activities of the people; India is the largest producer of arecanut in the world. The country
earns about Rs.45 million annually by exporting arecanut in different forms. The current
production is about 5.59lakh tonnes from an area of 397 thousand hectares. Karnataka,
Kerala, Assam and Tamil Nadu are the important states producing arecanut.
Cocoa: Cocoa is a crop of humid tropics of South America. The native Mayas and Aztecs
prepared a beverage called ‘xoxoatl’, by roasting and grinding cocoa beans. The word
chocolate originated from it. They used cocoa beans even as currency. Later domesticated
to many countries and now it is being grown for cocoa products (beverages, chocolate
bars, confectionery, powder and liquor). The major producer is Ivory Coast. Africa
produces 55% of world production, Asia 23% and America 22%. The first cocoa brought
to India is said to be in 1798, when 8 plants were shipped from Amazon and planted at
Courtallam in Tirunelveli district of Madras state. Later in 1873 few plants were planted
in Burliar fruit station. In South India, states of Kerala, Madras and Mysore (Wood,
1964) were found as suitable. The commercial cultivation of cocoa started in India only
in 1960’s with Kerala taking the lead. At present, Andhra stands first in area (16,969ha)
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and Karnataka in production (7250 MT). The demand in Indian chocolate industry is
30,000 MT as against its production (12,954MT). Thus, there is a wide scope for
increasing the area under cocoa.
Cashew: Cashew a native of Eastern Brazil introduced to India just as other commercial
crops like Rubber, Coffee and oil palm. It was introduced during 16 th Century by the
Portuguese and the first introduction of cashew in India was mainly considered as a crop
for afforestration and soil binding to check erosion. India is also the largest producer and
consumer of cashew nuts. It is estimated that total production of cashew is around 0.57
million tonnes from an area of 0.24 million hectares.
Commodity Boards
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References
1. T.K. Bose, V.A. Parthasarathy and P.K. Chattopadhyay. 2006 Plantation Crops
Vol.1 Pub: Partha Sankar Basu, NayaUdyog, 206, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700
006, India.
2. T.K. Bose, V.A. Parthasarathy and P.K. chattopadhyay. 2006 Plantation Crops Vol.2
Pub: Partha Sankar Basu, NayaUdyog, 206, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700 006,
India
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Lecture.24
Origin, distribution, domestication and adoption of plantation crops
Arecanut
The nativity has been variously attributed to former Cochin- China, Malay
Peninsula and neighboring islands and East Indies. It is also grown in East Africa,
Madagascar, Zanzibar, Sri lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Indonesia, China, the
Philippines and Fiji Islands. However, scientific cultivation of arecanut is only in India.
Nearly 90% of the area and production come from Karnataka, Kerala and Assam.
Karnataka is the major arecanut- producing State, accounting for 38% of the Indian
production. It is also grown to a small extent in Tamil Nadu, Meghalaya, West Bengal,
Maharashtra and Orissa.
Cashew
It is a native of Brazil which was spread by the Portuguese to different parts of the
world primarily for soil conservation, afforestation and waste land development. Cashew
was introduced to India by Portuguese in the Malabar Coast in the 16 th century and
subsequently dispersed to other parts of the country and also to South- East Asia. Around
the same time it was introduced to East African countries. Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Goa and West Bengal which are presently the
main cashew producing States, although it is grown in non traditional areas like Madhya
Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Cocoa
The primary centre of diversity of cocoa is Upper Amazon basin in South
America. The tropical part of Central America qualifies as the secondary centre of cocoa.
After Mexico was conquered by Spanish, cocoa was introduced to Caribbean and
Venezuela, then to Philippines, Indonesia, India and Madagascar. Though cocoa gone to
Africa only in 1822, Ghana, Nigeria and Ivory Coast became the major producers.
Central American cocoa is Criollo, which is the ‘fine’ or ‘flavour’ cocoa. The common
Forastero ‘bulk’ cocoa, populations Amelonado, Comum, West African Amelonado,
Nacional, Matina or Ceylan and Guiana and Trinitarios adopted to cultivation in different
countries. In India, cocoa is mainly grown in in Kerala, Karnatak, Andhra Pradesh and
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producer. In India, Kerala is the predominant rubber- growing State. Tamil Nadu and
Kerala account for 98% of the total production. The cultivation has extended to non
traditional areas like Tripura, Karnataka, Assam, Meghalaya, Maharashtra, Goa and
Orissa.
Tea
The origin of tea is South- East Asia. The use of tea as beverage could be traced back to
the later part of the 8th century AD, when commercialization of tea occurred through the Arabian
travelers. It is now spread over in India, China, Africa, Srilanka, Indonesia, Japan, Russia,
Malaysia, Mauritius, Australia and Argentina. Tea is grown in 50 countries, predominantly in
Asia, Africa and Europe. Of the major tea producers, India, China, Srilanka, Kenya, Russia and
Indonesia contribute the maximum share to global production.
References
1. Kumar,N., J.B. Mohammed Abdul Kader, P. Rengasamy and I. Irulappan, 1999.
Introduction to Spices, Plantation Crops, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Oxford
IBU Publishers, Chennai.
2. T.K. Bose, V.A. Parthasarathy and P.K. Chattopadhyay. 2006 Plantation Crops
Vol.1 Pub: Partha Sankar Basu, NayaUdyog, 206, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700
006, India.
3. T.K. Bose, V.A. Parthasarathy and P.K. Chattopadhyay. 2006 Plantation Crops
Vol.2 Pub: Partha Sankar Basu, NayaUdyog, 206, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700
006, India
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Lecture.25
Breeding strategies, clonal selection, poly-clonal orchards, bud mutation,
mutagenesis and its application in crop improvement of plantation crops
Breeding strategies
The important objectives are higher yields, resistance to pests and diseases, higher
quality, tolerance to abiotic stresses and evolving low input responsive varieties. Most of
the plantation crops, with twin advantage of vegetative propagation and viable sexual
reproduction offer much scope for crop improvement work, especially for selection,
breeding and exploitation of hybrid vigour.
Clonal selection
A clone is a group of plants produced from a single plant through asexual
reproduction. All the members of a clone have the same genotype as the parent plant as a
result, they are identical with each other in genotype. Clones are maintained by asexual
reproduction.
Merits of clonal selection
i. It is the only method of selection applicable to clonal crops. It avoids
inbreeding depression, and preserves the gene combinations present in the
clones.
ii. Clonal selection, without any substantial modification, can be combined with
hybridization to generate the variability necessary for selection.
iii. The selection scheme is useful in maintaining the purity of clones.
Demerits of clonal selection
i. This selection method utilizes the natural variability already present in the
population.
ii. Sexual reproduction is a prerequisite for the creation of variability through
hybridization.
Poly clonal orchards
More than one clone is planted and they are allowed to mate randomly. This is
mainly done to collect the seeds. The purpose of this is to produce a quantity of seed of
known parentage and proven performance. Therefore, the parents used in seed gardens
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are selected on the result of progeny trials. Having selected the parents, they are
propagated vegetatively by rooted cuttings or by budding or grafting onto a seedling
rootstock. The female parents should be self-incompatible, i.e. trees which will not set
fruit with their own pollen, as all seed produced on these trees should arisen from pollen
from another tree. The desired crosses can be ensured by hand-pollination or by proper
design of the seed garden where natural pollination is relied on. With two self
incompatible parents, all the pods will result from cross-pollination and can be used for
seed, there being no apparent difference between a cross and it’s reciprocal. In such
cases, equal numbers of each parent were planted, often in double rows of each clone.
Where one parent is self-compatible, seed is gathered only from the self –incompatible
parent and in such cases the pollen parent was planted in the ratio of one to five female
parent trees. Another form is planting a series of self incompatible parents in such an
order that a number of different crosses are produced and seed can be collected from all
the trees. Garden with two self incompatible parents called biclonal orchard and with
multiple self incompatible clones, poly clonal orchards. It is of course, practical to plant a
small number of plants of several clones and obtain seed of known crosses by hand-
pollination. (e.g. Cocoa and rubber)
Bud mutation
Mutation is a sudden heritable change in a character of an organism. Mutations
produced by changes in the base sequence of genes are known as gene or point mutation.
Some mutations may be produced by changes in chromosome structure, or even in
chromosome number they are termed as chromosomal mutations. Mutation occurring in
buds of somatic tissues which are used for propagation is called as bud mutation. e.g.
clonal crops.
Mutagenesis
Treating a biological material with a mutagen in order to induce mutations is
known as mutagenesis.
Agents which induce mutations are known as mutagens. Mutagens may be
different kinds of radiation (physical mutagens) or certain chemicals (chemical
mutagens).
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A. Physical mutagens
1. Ionising radiation
a) Particulate radiation e.g., α- rays, β-rays, fast neutrons and thermal neutrons
b) Nonparticulate radiation (Electromagnetic radiation) – X- rays and γ- rays
2. Nonionising radiation : ultraviolet radiation
B. Chemical mutagens
1. Alkylating agents : EMS- ethylmethane sulphonate, MMS-
methyl methane sulphonate
2. Acridine dyes : acridine orange, acridine yellow, ethidium bromide
3. Base analogues : 5- bromouracil, 5-chlorouracil
4. Others: nitrous acid, hydroxyl amine, sodium azide.
References
1. B.D. Singh, 2005 Plant breeding – Principles and methods – Kalyani Publishers,
New Delhi
2. Chadha KL & Rethinam P. (Eds.).1993. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX.
Plantation Crops and Spices. Part-I. Malhotra Publ. House.
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Lecture.26
Hybridization, haploid and ploidy breeding and In vitro techniques
in the improvement of plantation crops
Hybridization
The mating or crossing of two plants or lines of dissimilar genotypes is known as
hybridization. In plants, crossing is done by placing pollen grains from one genotype,
called the male parent onto the stigma of flowers of the other genotype, referred to as the
female parent. It is essential to prevent self pollination as well as chance cross-pollination
in the flowers of the female parent. At the same time, it must be ensured that the pollen
from the desired male parent reaches the stigma of flowers of the female parent for
successful fertilization. The seeds as well as the progeny resulting from the hybridization
are known as hybrid or F1.
In Plantation crops, in coconut, intervarietal hybrids with different parental
combinations such as Tall x Dwarf, Dwarf x Tall and Tall x Tall were produced in India
and Srilanka. The hybrids are popular because of early bearing and high productivity.
(Tall x Dwarf hybrids- Keraganga- WCT x Ganga Bondam, Kerasankara- WCT x
Chougat dwarf orange, VHC 1 – ECT x Malayan green dwarf, VHC 2- ECT x Malayan
Yellow dwarf). These hybrids are characterized by early bearing in 4-5 years, increased
yield of nuts with a mean of 100/palm, good quality copra having high content of 176 g
and oil recovery of 70%.
Dwarf x Tall hybrids :The distinct advantage of this hybrid over T x D is that it could be
produced on a large scale by regularly emasculating dwarf mother palms permitting free
natural crossing with pollen from tall palms standing nearby. Use of Dwarf orange or
yellow as female parent enables the identification of hybrid seedlings because of colour
marker (Chandra sankara – Choughat Orange dwarf x WCT).
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Though late in bearing, the yield potential of T x T hybrids is good. These hybrids are
considered to be high yielding and tolerant to biotic and abiotic stress when compared to
D x T hybrids.
In cashew, to combine prolific bearing with other desirable traits with bold nut,
cluster bearing habit and compact canopy, hybridization with parents selected for these
characters were attempted. Hybrids performed better than the selections. Hybrid vigour
could be easily be commercially utilized in cashew through soft wood grafting.
Cocoa
The hybrids Trinitarios in cocoa result from natural crosses between Criollo and
Forastero types. They are hardier and more productive than Criollo.
Hybridization
Self- incompatibility in cocoa is utilized in production of hybrids with specific
objectives. Hybrid vigour is established in cocoa. Hybridization programme was started
at Vittal in 1980 using selected parents, for high pod yield, dry bean yields, bigger bean
size, more fat content and drought tolerance. A comparison of parents and hybrids in
progeny trials with 70 cross combinations indicated more vigour in progenies, with
positive and significant heterosis.
Progeny Trial I
The parents in the first progeny trial included Upper Amazon collections, Imperial
College Selections, Scavina series and Nanay series. Hybrid NA-33 x ICS -89 excelled in
pod and bean yield.
Progeny Trial II
It had a total of 17 hybrids and their parents. Hybrid I-56 x II – 67 gave the
maximum pod and bean yield, followed by I-14 x I-56 and I-56 x III-35.
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Progeny Trial IV
Nine hybrids with their seven parents were evaluated for yield and drought
tolerance. Hybrids II-67 x NC-29/66 and II-67 x NC-42/94 registered the highest pod
index with advantageous physiological and biochemical components.
Multiplication
Vegetative propagation through soft wood grafting method was also standardized
for multiplication of selected accessions and high yielding varieties for supply as well as
for early evaluation.
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In oil palm, Tenera hybrids between Deli dura x AVROS pisifera with
tremendous yield potential were evolved. In India, 2 high yielding teneras selected from
cross combinations involving 11 duras of Malaysian origin and 5 pisiferas of Nigerian
origin were released for cultivation. Considerable yield improvement was reported for
hybrid.
Haploids
An individual with the gametic chromosome number is called as haploid.
Haploids are weaker than diploids and are of little agricultural value directly. But they are
of great interest because they offer certain unique opportunities in crop improvement.
They are used for developing homozygous diploid lines, following chromosome doubling
in two years. This greatly reduces the time and labour required for the isolation of inbreds
and pure lines.
Tissue culture
Cashew : Production of somatic embryogenesis and plantlet regeneration which could
subsequently be useful for genetic transformation to introduce genes for resistance to tea
mosquito and stem and root borers, micro grafting techniques, developing haploids and
isogenic lines and molecular characterization of existing genetic diversity.
Coconut: Embryo culture has become an important tool for safe germplasm movement.
The 3 components of an embryo culture protocol are field collection of embryos, in-vitro
conservation and retrieval, and ex-vitro establishment of seedling. Success achieved in
the routine use of embryo culture for field collection and short-term storage up to 2
months in sterile distilled water and nearly 80 % of the embryos could be retrieved. A
medium containing 2g/litre of activated charcoal without sucrose could store the embryos
for 6 months which gives 77% germination.
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Coffee : The major constraints of coffee production where tissue culture techniques can
offer solutions are development of resistance through genetic engineering for fungal
diseases particularly leaf rust, introduction of Bt gene to control of berry and stem borers,
use of embryo rescue for interspecific crosses from resistant species and development of
tools for quality improvement for uniform maturity, short maturation cycles, high soluble
solids, large bean size and density, better aroma and less caffeine content. Synthetic seed
technology for encapsulating embryos in sodium alginate has been developed. Anther
culture technique has been successfully employed for callus induction and plantlet
regeneration in interspecific hybrid between C. congensis x C. canephora. Plants are
successfully regenerated from the embryo cultures of 3 interspecific crosses involving C.
canephora as one of the parents and 3 indigenous wild species viz., C. bengalensis, C.
travencorensis and C. wightiana.
Oil palm: The technique of cryopreservation in oil palm has been standardized and the
embryoids could be stored for 15 months in liquid nitrogen and then plantlets can be
regenerated from frozen embryoids.
Rubber: Isogenic lines evolved from anther culture could be used in heterosis breeding.
Gene transformation protocols, through Agrobacterium and by using gene gun have been
perfected and further success in this line will lead to improvement of rubber through
biotechnological tools.
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Tea: The major areas where biotechnology would be useful in tea improvement are
micropropagation for mass multiplication of elite tea clones, application of molecular
markers for characterizing tea clones as well as quality, genetic engineering for
developing resistance to blister blight and identification , characterization and gene
transfer for low- caffeine tea. Tissue culture-derived clones are more vigorous than
conventionally propagated plants through vegetative methods and produced higher
number of laterals in response to centering and tipping.
Cocoa
Somatic embryogenesis
From floral parts genetically identical embryos are formed. These embryos grow
and forms seedling like architecture, which is advantageous, reduces pruning (Penn State
University, USA). Secondary embryogenesis, single embryos can form multiple
secondary embryos each identical to the first.
MS (Murashige and Skoog) + NAA 1.8 + Thiamine 1mgl-1+ CW (Coconut water) 15% +
Sucrose 4% (KAU media for somatic embryogenesis)
MS basal medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l of NAA and 0.5 mg/l of BAP is found to
be best with leaf explants for optimal callus production (CPCRI)
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References
1. Chadha KL & Rethinam P. (Eds.).1993. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX.
Plantation Crops and Spices. Part-I. Malhotra Publ. House.
2. T.K. Bose, V.A. Parthasarathy and P.K. Chattopadhyay. 2006 Plantation Crops
Vol.1 Pub: Partha Sankar Basu, NayaUdyog, 206, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700
006, India.
3. T.K. Bose, V.A. Parthasarathy and P.K. Chattopadhyay. 2006 Plantation Crops
Vol.2 Pub: Partha Sankar Basu, NayaUdyog, 206, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700
006, India
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Lecture.27
Genetic resources, objectives of breeding, principles and method of breeding and
Salient breeding achievements in Coconut
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Objectives
Adopting measures for the development of coconut industry
Imparting technical advice to those engaged in coconut cultivation and industry.
Providing financial and other assistance for the expansion of area under coconut.
Encouraging adoption of modern technologies for processing of coconut and its
products
Adopting measures to get incentive prices for coconut and its products.
Recommending measures for improving marketing of coconut and its products.
Recommending measures for regulating imports and exports of coconut and its
products.
Fixing grades, specifications and standards for coconut and its products.
Financing suitable schemes to increase the production of coconut and to improve
the quality and yield of coconut.
Assisting, encouraging, promoting and financing agricultural, technological,
industrial or economic research on coconut and its products.
Collecting statistics on coconut and its products and publishing them.
Undertaking publicity activities and publishing books and periodicals on coconut
and its products.
Crop Improvement
production of short-statured varieties and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. The
genetic improvement of coconut is difficult and time-consuming because of long pre-
bearing age, perennial habit, heterozygous nature, time lag involved in the study of
progeny, low multiplication rate, lack of clonal propagation and requirement of large area
for experimentation.
Cogent
The international Coconut Genetic Resources Net Work under IPGRI, Rome, has
approved the establishment of multi-site International Coconut Gene Bank (ICG) at Indo-
nesia, India, Brazil,Papua New Guinea and Cote d Ivoire. The site selected for ICG for
South Asia is CPCRI Seed Farm, Kidu , Karnataka.
Among exotic cultivars, Philippines Ordinary (PO), Philippines Laguna (P) and
San Ramon from Philippines, Fiji Tall and Fiji Longtonwon from Fiji Island and Strait
Settlement Green from Malaysia are superior. Among indigenous cultivars, Kappadam,
Andaman Ordinary and Laccadive Ordinary have higher-yield potential than local West
Coast Tall.
The palms are periodically exposed to low rainfall or delayed onset of monsoon
or both resulting in poor yield. The adverse effects of drought on coconut persist even for
the subsequent 2-3 years. Under these circumstances, evolving a drought tolerant variety
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They identified WCT × WCT, Federated Malay States (FMS), Java Giant, Fiji,
Andaman Giant and LO × COD as drought tolerant. Recently, some more tolerant
varieties have been identified and they are all currently being utilized in breeding
programmes to identify high yielding hybrids with drought tolerance.
The root (wilt) disease is one of the major production constraints in Kerala and in
view of its phytoplasma etiology, the two strategies followed are:
a) Uprooting the diseased palms and replanting; and
b) Breeding for disease resistance. In the former programme, there is an inbuilt risk of
losing the valuable indigenous gene pool. Hence, there is a need to identify disease-free
desirable genotype and maintain them in conservation blocks.
The crop loss caused by root (wilt) disease has been indicated earlier and in view
of their phytoplasma etiology, effective chemical control measures are not available.
Hence, the development of resistant/tolerant varieties to the root (wilt) disease is the only
lasting solution.
Screening of the available coconut germplasm starting from 1972 onwards failed
to identify any disease tolerant accession. However, in areas where the disease was
endemic, high yielding disease-free WCT palms were found. These palms were subjected
to physiological and serological studies followed by electron microscopy to ensure that
they were free from MLOs. Similarly, disease-free CGD plants were also identified in hot
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spot areas. These disease-free palms were utilized for producing WCT × CGD and CGD
× WCT hybrids and WCT inter se and self-pollinated material. The screenings of these
progenies are in progress from 1989 onwards. CPCRI has released two resistant varieties
Kalpasree (CGD selection) and Kalparaksha(MGD selection) and one tolerant hybrid
viz., Kalpasankara (CGD x WCT). These three varieties are high yielding and have been
released for cultivation in root wilt prevalent areas.
4) Pest Resistant cultivars: Preliminary screening of cultivars and hybrids against leaf
eating caterpillar and rhinoceros beetle has been carried out. Though there is variation
among coconut cultivars for the susceptibility, no resistant cultivar was observed.
5) Quality improvement: The oil content has a very narrow range in many accessions
varying from 65 to 70 percent.
Higher oil content: However, cultivars like Laccadive Ordinary have oil content of up
to 72%. Efforts have to be directed to improving the oil content of high yielding
varieties.
Quality of oil
There is also a need to breed varieties for low saturated: unsaturated oil ratio in
view of the dietary consciousness of the vegetable oil users.
Tendernut water quality: Consumption of tendernut as a natural, refreshing drink is
becoming increasingly popular in our country. Among the cultivars evaluated the cv
COD had the maximum total sugars (7.0%) and reducing sugars (4.70 %) coupled with
low sodium and potassium levels. CPCRI has released this variety for tendernut purpose.
Coconut cv Phillippines Ordinary, MYD, WCT and Hybrid MYD x WCT are also
having appreciable amount of nut water and sugar during seventh month after fruit set
and these cultivars are suggested for cultivation for tendernut. The volume of nut water
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was the highest in 7 month old tendernuts .The Tall genotype Zanzibar and West Coast
Tall and Dwarf genotypes COD and MOD were superior in terms of tendernut water.
Methods of Breeding
Introduction: The earliest exotic introductions were made in 1924 from Philippines,
Malaysia, Fiji, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Vietnam which formed the nucleus population
for many research programmes. The germplasm exchange programme was further
intensified in 1952 and in 1958; survey for collection of indigenous germplasm was
started. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI), Kasaragod has been
designated as the "National Active Germplasm Site" for coconut and maintains the
world's largest assemblage of coconut germplasm with 132 accessions which include 86
exotic and 46 indigenous cultivars. The World Coconut Germplasm Centre is located at
Sipighat in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Germplasm collections are also maintained at
Regional Research Station, Kerala Agricultural University, Pilicode and at 11
Coordinating centres, in different States under the AICRP on Palms, These collections
are being evaluated for the economic characters such as number of nuts/palm/year,
number of bunches, average number of female flowers production, setting percentage,
weight of copra/nut, oil content (%) in copra and resistance to pests and diseases in
comparison with local cultivars.
1) Growth: Stout, straight trunks are associated with short, strong bunch stalks and full
crown having umbrella/ Spherical shape. Closely spaced leaf scars are a clear
indication of a large number of short, strong and well-oriented leaves. A high-
yielding palm has more than 30 fully opened fronds.
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5) Age of Palm: In general, palms of 25-60 years old (Middle aged) are recommended
because this corresponds to steady period of yield.
6) High and Consistent Yield of Nuts: The number of nuts/ palm is highly variable
mainly due to the number of female flowers and percentage of set. Most of the palms
are regular-bearers even though a few palms show pronounced alternate bearing
habit. Selection should be based on large number of spikelets with only one or two
female flowers /spikelet and high-setting percentage. In India, 80 nuts/palm/year is
taken as standard.
High Copra Output: Copra yield is influenced by the number of nuts produced
per year and the weight of copra/nut. High degree of correlation exist between weight of
husked nuts and that of copra and high heritability values are observed. Palms producing
medium-sized nuts with round or oblong shape weighing not less than 600 g of husked
nut and mean copra content of 150 g/nut or more are selected,
High-yielders of Outstanding Breeding Value: All high-yielding mother palms
need not necessarily produce high-, yielding progenies. Mother palms which produce best
progenies have high breeding values. The superiority of progeny can be judged from
certain characters at the nursery stage itself. Progeny of high-setting mother palms shows
early germination, high collar girth, faster rate of leaf production and early flowering.
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It is desirable to restrict selection to the best 10% of the palms in each field.
Exploitation of Hybrid Vigour: Discovery of hybrid, vigour by Patel (1937) in crosses
between West Coast Tall (WCT) and Chowghat Green Dwarf (CGD) is a significant
landmark in the history of coconut improvement. This important finding paved the way
for successful breeding programmes for high yield in many coconut-growing countries.
Tall x Dwarf Hybrids: Tall varieties are taken as female parent and dwarf
varieties as male parent. Among dwarfs, Chowghat Dwarf Orange and Ganga Bondam
are best for production of hybrids with West Coast Tall. These hybrids are characterized
by early-bearing in 4-5 years, increased yield of nuts with a mean of 100/palm, good
quality copra having high content of 176 g and oil recovery of 70%. The hybrid palms are
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Dwarf x Tall Hybrids: Dwarf varieties are taken as female parent and tall
varieties as male parent. The distinct advantage of this hybrid over T x D is that it could
be produced on a large scale by regularly emasculating dwarf mother palms, permitting
free natural crossing with pollen from tall palms standing nearby. Use of Dwarf Orange
or Yellow as female parent enables the identification of hybrid seedlings because of
colour marker. Yellow, orange or red petiole colour is recessive to brown and green
pigments and hybrids show a greenish-brown or brownish petiole depending on the
colour of talls used in crossing. Occurrence of natural cross hybrids (NCD) of dwarfs in
the open-pollinated progeny of dwarf is a well-known phenomenon. NCDs are present to
the extent of 20%. Hybrid seedlings are selected based on increased vigour and petiole
colour.
D x T hybrids are more vigorous than either of the parents and are prolific
yielders. They come to bearing in 4-5 years and out yielded the tall. Field evaluation of
coconut hybrids indicated that among T x D and D x T hybrids, D x T was definitely
superior to T x D. It was also noticed that tree-to-tree variation was minimum in the
hybrid. The nut and copra characters are superior to dwarfs and more or less similar to
talls. The hybrids occasionally show a tendency for alternate-bearing, bunch, buckling,
and susceptibility to moisture fluctuations, resulting in button shedding and drooping of
leaves.
Use of Malayan Yellow Dwarf as female parent gives 95-97% recovery of
hybrids, since it is more homozygous due to self-pollination. In combinations involving
Chowghat Dwarf Orange, hybrid recovery is only 30% since it is not completely
homozygous. For production of stable hybrids with high economic value, selection of
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cultivars with wide genetic make-up, selection of hybrid combiners and use of inbred
talls as male are recommended.
Tall x Tall Hybrid: The T x T hybrids are produced by intravarietal
hybridization of tall cultivars under controlled conditions. Individual palms of high-
breeding value are identified and utilized for production of T x T hybrids. Though late in
bearing, the yield potential of T x T hybrids are good.
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national Coconut Genetic Resources Net Work (COGENT) under IPGRI is responsible
for the introduction and exchange of coconut germplasm with the financial support from
FAO and ADB. The COGENT restricts the movement of coconut germplasm through
seeds and permits zygotic embryos.
Breeding achievements in coconut
Coconut varieties released through selection
Sl. Cultivar Released under the State for which
No. name recommended
1 Laccadive Ordinary Chandrakalpa A.P., TN, Karnataka,
Maharastra, and Kerala
2 Banawali Green Round Pratap Coastal Maharastra
3 Philippines Oridinary Kerachandra Coastal Maharastra,
Coastal AP and WB.
4 Andaman Ordinary VPM-3 All districts of Tamil
Nadu
ALR (CN) 1: It is single line selection from Arasampatti tall (Dharmapuri district)
released from Coconut Research Station, Aliyar nagar. This variety comes to bearing in
five years of planting and continues to bear and yield well up to 80 years. It is a drought
tolerant, early bearer (5 years), high yielding, tall variety. 7645 nuts give one-ton copra.
This variety tolerates the incidence of important pests of coconut. It is suitable under both
rainfed and irrigated conditions.
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ALR (CN) 2
It is a selection from Tiptur tall with an average yield of 109 nuts/palm /year.
Comes to bearing in 5½ years with regular bearing habit. It produces 12 inflorescences
per year. The weight of copra is 135g/nut with an oil content of 64.7 per cent. It possesses
drought tolerance and is moderately resistant to rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil and
leaf blight.
Hybrids: The manifestation of heterosis or hybrid vigour in coconut was first reported
from India in 1937. The intervarietal hybrids produced for commercial plantings are T x
D and D x T with different parental combinations. These hybrids are gaining popularity
because of their early bearing and high productivity. The plants are dwarf in stature and
start yielding from 3-4 years after planting.
Eg: Lakshaganga, Ananda Ganga, Chandra Laksha, Keraganga, Kerasree, VHC-1, VHC-
2, etc.
B) Evaluation and release of Hybrids in coconut.
Steps involved in commercial production of coconut hybrids are as given below;
o 1. Emasculation of male flowers before female flowers come to receptivity,
o 2. Collection of mature male flowers
o 3. Extracting pollen from male flowers
o 4. Mixing of pollen with diluents in the ratio of 1:9
o 5. Dusting of pollen + diluents mixture using a pollen dispensor
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Hybrids
1) CHANDRASANKARA (COD x WCT): This hybrid is between COD x WCT and
was released by CPCRI Kasaragod in 1985. It is an early bearing and high yielding
hybrid with an average annual yield of 116 nuts per palm. The copra content is 215
g/nut.
2) CHANDRALAKSHA (LO x COD): This is a tall x dwarf hybrid with an annual
yield of 109 nuts per palm. This hybrid comes to bearing in about 6 years.
3) KERASANGARA (WCT x COD): This hybrid comes to bearing in 4-5 years and
attains steady bearing by the 6th or 7th year after planting. The mean annual yield is
108 nuts/palm with a copra content of 187g/nut.
6) KERAGANGA (WCT x GB): This is yet another hybrid released by KAU. The
average annual yield is 100 nuts/palm. The copra content is 201 g/nut and oil content
is 69 percent.
7) KERASREE (WCT x MYD): This is a recently released hybrid from KAU. The
annual mean yield is 112nuts/palm with a copra content of 216g/nut.
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8) KERASOUBHAGYA (WCT x SSG): This is a cross between West Coast Tall and
Straight Settlement Green. Comes to bearing in about 5-6 years with an annual yield
of 116 nuts/palm. Copra content per nut is 196g and oil content is 65%.
9) VHC-1 (ECT x GB): It is a hybrid between East Coast Tall and Malayan Dwarf
Green. It’s pre bearing age is 4 years, with an yield of 98 nuts/palm/year. Copra
content per fruit is 135 g with an oil content of 70 per cent.
10) VHC-2 (ECT x MYD): It is a hybrid evolved by crossing, East Coast Tall and
Malaysian Yellow Dwarf at Veppankulam,Tamil Nadu. It yields more than 100 nuts
per tree per year, which is 55% higher than local varieties and 8% over VHC 1. It
yields as much copra yield as VHC 1 with 11% higher oil content. The buckling of
bunches is negligible with a high degree of stability.
11) VHC-3 (ECT x MOD): VHC 3 (East Coast Tall x Malaysian Orange Dwarf) records
a mean yield of 156 nut/palm/year and copra yield of 25.2 kg/palm/year with an
increased nut yield of 10 per cent and copra yielded 19.7 per cent over VHC 2. Oil
content is 70 per cent. The estimated oil yield is 2.55 tonnes / ha as against 2.13 and
1.13 tonnes/ha in VHC 2, ECT respectively. High nut weight, kernel weight and
copra weight are the special features of VHC 3. The hybrid recorded high copra out
turn of 162 g/nut as against 146 g in VHC 2. For one tonne of copra it requires 6180
nuts, whereas VHC 2 and ECT requires 7680 and 6675 nuts respectively.
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adjoining states.
References
1. Thampan PK 1981. Hand Book of Coconut Palm. Oxford & IBH.
2. Kumar,N., J.B. Mohammed Abdul Kader, P. Rengasamy and I. Irulappan, 1999.
Introduction to Spices, Plantation Crops, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Oxford
IBU Publishers, Chennai.
3. Chadha KL & Rethinam P. (Eds.).1993. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX.
Plantation Crops and Spices. Part-I. Malhotra Publ. House.
2. Expand CPCRI
3. What is COGENT
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Lecture.28
Genetic resources, objectives of breeding, principles and method of breeding and
Salient breeding achievements in Areca nut and oil palm
India is the largest producer of arecanut in the world. The country earns about
Rs. 45 million annually by exporting arecanut in different forms. The current production
is about 5.59 lakh tonnes from an area of 3.97 lakh hectares. Compared with 1960-61
figures, it is seen that the area has increased by two and a half times and production by
three and a half times. The productivity increased from 845 kg/ha to 1243kg/ha.
Karnataka, Kerala, Assam and Tamil Nadu are the important states producing arecanut.
Areca palm, a monocot, belongs to Family: Arecaceae (Syn: Palmae). Areca was
a monospecific genus. The genus expanded rapidly from its monospecific status and at
present contains about 76 species. Areca catechu is the only cultivated species used as a
masticatory, though nuts of Areca triandra also can be chewed. The A.triandra has
ornamental value due to suckering habit and heavy bunches of red nuts. The A. concinna
is another suckering palm with scarlet red fruits. In Sri Lanka, its fruits are occasionally
chewed.
Mangala (VTL-3): An introduction from Peking China released for cultivation during
the year 1972.
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Mangala
Features
1) A semi tall variety with good chewing and marketing quality,
2) Early bearing with high percentage of fruit set and high yield,
3) Quicker stabilization of production, Yield : 3.0 kg chali/palm/year
4) Nuts are medium size with oval or egg shape.
Sree Mangala (VTL-17): An introduction from Singapore, its habit, flowering and fruit
characters are similar to Sumangala. It gives an average yield of 15.63 kg/palm/year.
Swarnamangala (VTL-12)
Selection from Saigon.Regular bearer, consistent yielder with homogenous
population .Trees are semi tall to tall, stem sturdy with shorter internodes having partially
drooping crown with well placed bunches. Average number of bunches/palm/year - 3.90.
Orange to deep yellow color oblong to round and bold ripe nuts. Bears from the 4 th year
with a potential yield (kg chali/palm/year) - 6.28 and average yield (kg chali/palm/year) -
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Mohitnagar: This is an indigenous cultivar from West Bengal. The important feature of
this variety is its greater uniformity. The bunches are well-spaced and nuts are loosely
arranged on the spikes which help in uniform development and enable efficient plant-
protection measures. Early stabilization of yield and high annual yield potential of 3.7 kg
chali/palm (15.8 kg ripe nuts) are its characteristics.
Calicut 17: Recommended for Andaman and Nicobar Islands, this is tall with longer
internodes and crown. The striking feature of this variety is its consistent and high yield
potential (18.89 kg ripe nuts/palm/year with a chali yield of 4.34 kg/ palm) having well-
placed bunches with round and bold nuts.
SAS1 (Sirsi Arecanut Selection- I): Recommended for the hill zone of Karnataka. It is
tall with compact canopy. It is a regular-bearer. Nuts are round and even sized and
closely arranged on compact bunches. It is suitable for both tender and ripe nut
processing. It has high curing percentage, yielding 4.60 kg chali/palm/year.
Besides, there are several cultivars designated by their name of the place where they are
grown.
Thirthahalli Grown in Malnad area of Karnataka preferred for tender nut processing.
Hirehalli Dwarf A dwarf mutant with closely spaced internodes from Karnataka
South Kanara Largely grown in South Kanara district of Karnataka and Kasargod of Kerala.
Palms are regular-bearing with large-sized nuts. Yields about 7 kg ripe
nuts/palm/year giving 1.5 kg chali per year.
Sreevardhan It is grown in coastal Maharashtra; Nuts are oval with marble white kernel
and tastier endosperm which are rated as the best quality. Yield is comparable
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to South Kanara
The other important varieties grown in different States are Hirehalli Local
(Karnataka), Mettupalayam (Tamil Nadu) and Kahikuchi (Assam).
Hybridization
Hybridization programme in arecanut was initiated at Central Plantation Crops
Research Institute (CPCRI) Regional Station, Vittal, with specific objective of evolving
high--yielding
yielding and regular-bearing
regular bearing varieties, combining large-
large-sized
sized fruits with more
number of nuts/bunch, /combining semi tall, early bearing and high yield of Mangala
with quality of Sreevardhan,
Sreevardhan, transferring more number of female flowers and high fruit
setting percentage from A. triandra and studying
studying the combining ability for exploitation of
hybrid vigour. Intervarietal hybridization carried out among Mangala, Sumangala, Sree
Mangala, Mohitnagar, Thirthahalli and Hirehalli Dwarf and evaluation of hybrid
seedlings with respect to their performance did
did not result in selecting useful arecanut
hybrids so far. Utilization of dwarf mutants seems to be encouraging. The attempts in the
direction to establish plantation with short-statured
short palms are in progress. Hirehalli Dwarf
x Sumangala cross is promising with respect to yield (2.65 kg chali/palm) and combining
the dwarf stature.
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OIL PALM
Elaeis is derived from the Greek word elaion meaning oil while the specific name
guineensis shows its origin from the Guinea coast. The other species under the genus are
E.olerifera and E. odora.
odora E.oleifera,
E.oleif , known as American oil palm. Elaeis guineensis
(African oil palm) is a diploid with 2n = 32.
Differentiating features of American oil palm and African oil palm
Sl. No Features American oil palm African oil palm
1 Botanical name Elaeis oleifera Elaeis guinensis
2 Stature Dwarf Tall
3 Leaflet arrangement on On one plane Alternative arrangement
the frond of leaflets
4 Quality of oil Better Comparatively poor
5 Yield Less More
6 Distribution Found only in America Cultivated in America,
Asia and Africa.
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Tenera: Shell 0.5-4mm thick, medium to high mesocarp content (60-90%) fibre ring
darker in colour and encircles the endocarp. Higher sex ratio and larger number of
bunches than Dura.
Pisifera: Shellless with small pea- like kernels in fertile fruits. It is of little commercial
value, but is important in breeding commercial palms.
Oil palms can also be classified based on the colour of exocarp as follows:
Nigrescens: Unripe fruit deep violet to black at apex and ivory coloured towards base.
This is the commonest type. Two forms are recognized on ripening. They are Rubro
nigrescens (ripe fruits deep reddish orange) it has the highest content of carotenoids and
carotene. It is the commonest form in West Africa and Rutilo nigrescens (ripe fruits
paler-orange with black cap on upper half).
Virescens: Unripe fruits green, ripening to light reddish orange with small greenish tip.
Anthocyanins little or absent.
Albescens: Fruits lack reddish colour at maturity as it contains little or no carotene. It
ripens to pale-yellow or ivory with a blackish or green cap on upper half.
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Germplasm Collection
World Collection: Search for assemblage of germplasm in oil palm started after the
Second World War. The first collection of E. guineensis was established at Nigerian
Institute for Oil-Palm Research (NIFOR) during 1961-1964. Subsequently prospection
for genetic materials was taken up at Ivory Coast, Palm Oil Research Institute of
Malaysia (PORIM) and at Republic of Zaire. A large germplasm was gathered at PORIM
and the collections from Nigeria provided valuable genes for high yield, dwarfism and un
saturation.
The Elaeis oleifera germplasm was assembled by PORIM, International Bureau
of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) and United Brands Company in Central America
from Central and South America, Surinam, Colombia, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua
and Brazil.
Indian Collection: Oil palm was introduced to India towards the end of the 19th century
out of botancial curiosity. Systematic collection of oil palm materials was initiated during
1960s by the Department of Agriculture, Kerala. They introduced material from Malaysia
and Nigeria which consisted of Dura x dura, Dura x tenera, Dura x Pisifera and Tenera x
Tenera were planted at Oil Palm Station at Thodupuzha, Kerala. Active collection of oil
palm accessions was taken up by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research during
1979 and ex-situ field gene banks consisting of accessions from 11 countries are
maintained at National Research Centre for Oil Palm, Pedavegi (Andhra Pradesh), and
Research Centre of NRC for Oil Palm, Palode (Kerala). A cold tolerant accession of oil
palm is available at CPCRI Research Centre, Mohitnagar, West Bengal.
Crop Improvement
The main emphasis of breeding is to evolve varieties with high yield of palm oil,
the commercial oil extracted from the mesocarp, although the endosperm also contains
oil. Better oil quality with higher percentage of unsaturation reduced height increment,
tolerance to drought, pest and disease as well as precocity are also important considera-
tions.
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To impart resistance to vascular wilt, spear rot and cercospora leaf spot,
identification of parental materials with improved resistance and breeding with such
materials and interspecific hybridization with E. oleifera are being attempted, The E.
oleifera produces oil with lower melting point (22° C), higher iodine value and
unsaturation (80%) giving a large liquid fraction which increases the commercial value of
oil. Crosses with E. oleifera, are being evaluated to develop progeny with superior quality
oil. In breeding for short compact palms, E. oleifera, Dura selections such as Dumpy
dura, Pobe dumpies and Indian dwarf are utilized as gene source for dwarfness. The
features of inter-specific hybrid with E. oleifera are given below.
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Oil (%) 50 34 30
References
1. Chadha KL, Ravindran PN & Sahijram L. 2000. Biotechnology inHorticultural
and Plantation Crops. Malhotra Publ. House.
2. Chadha KL. 1998. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX. Plantation andSpices
Crops. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
3. Chopra VL & Peter KV. Handbook of Industrial Crops. Haworth Press.Panama
International Publishers, New Delhi (Indian Ed.).
4. Balasimha,D. and Rajagopal,V. 2004. Arecanut.306 pp. CPCRI, Kasaragod
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Lecture.29
Genetic resources, objectives of breeding, principles and method of breeding and
Salient breeding achievements in palmyrah palm and rubber
PALMYRAH PALM
The distinguishing characters of palm in this genus are their palmate, fan like
leaves and dioecious character –i.e., male and female flowers are borne on separate trees.
Next to coconut, palmyrah is the most abundant palm found in the world.
Crop Improvement
Yield potential of padaneer, height of the palm, bearing capacity, flowering in
off-season besides the main season and sugar content of the sap are the major economic
traits. The yield of padaneer in 38 palms was recorded for 3 consecutive years from 1982
at Srivilliputhur Palmyrah Research Station, Tamil Nadu. Of the 38 palms studied,
36.33%, 34.2% and 28.93% yielded padaneer in 1, 2 and 3 out of 3 years considered. The
samples of trees observed for 3 years together reveal that 68.4%, 36.82%, 31.56% and
5.26% of the palms are poor, low, moderate and good yielders respectively.
Male palm -excelled female palms in all characters except percentage of jaggery
recovered from padaneer. The tree with good yielding capacity can be used in hybridiza-
tion programme to evolve high-yelding palms.
Male Female
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The tapper has to climb palmyrah palm 2-3 times a day. The tappable palm is
about 15-20 m or more in height. The height of palms becomes a limiting factor for the
tapper to cover more number of palms. Accidents, sometimes fatal, are not uncommon.
Screening for dwarf types is a very important objective in palmyrah breeding. With this
objective, 213 palms were observed for their height, among the mature palms available at
the Palmyrah Station Srivilliputhur, Tamil Nadu. Nearly 43.7% were semi-dwarf palms.
These trees can be utilized in hybridization programme to evolve dwarf plants.
The palms have been classified based on percentage of jaggery recorded for
padaneer. A total of 43 palms were considered.
Considering the criteria, plantation is screened and 16 (9 male and 7 female)
palms have been identified as elite palms for higher content of jaggery.
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To maintain male and female ratios, it is better to collect 10 to 15 per cent of double nuts.
Varieties
In India, there is no recognized variety. But palmyrah palms growing in Sri Lanka
can be broadly classified into 2 varieties based on pigmentation of fruit skin. They are
black and red skinned fruits.
Black-skinned fruits have comparatively less red pigment on their skin. Red
skinned fruits have variable amounts of black pigments along with very liberal
distribution of red in their skin. Fruits and nut number per tree are significantly greater in
this variety. But pulp weight per nut is less; sugar, starch and protein constitute 77%,
10% and 2.5% of the pulp respectively. The alkaloids, amino acids and minerals are in
greater amount in red skinned varieties. The other favourable fruit features, along with
the sap-yielding characteristics of these varieties, seem to favour selection of red-skinned
fruit variety for commercial exploitation.
Released varieties
SVPR-1: Palmyrah research station, Srivaliputhur (TNAU) has released one improved
variety namely SVPR-1 Palmyrah palm.
Features
Semi-dwarf type
High padaneer yield of 298 litres per palm in a tapping duration of 95 days.
Quality of padaneer: The padaneer of this variety has a high jaggery content (144 g
per litre of padaneer i.e., 14.40 %) and a high brix content.
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RUBBER
Genus Hevea comprises of 10 species. All the species are diploids with 2n = 36
and can be crossed interspecifically by artificial pollination. Bark of all species contain
latex in all parts of their plants.
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Germplasm: The spectrum of Hevea germplasm can be broadly classified into those
existing in the primary centre of diversity in Brazil and those developed in centres of
secondary diversity. Thus, it is a collection of all genotypes that represent the entire
genepool, including current popular clones, obsolete clones and wild accessions from the
centre of diversity in Brazil. Rubber Research Institute of India, Kottayam, Kerala,
maintains a collection of 174 exotic and indigenous clones of Wickham origin in a clone
museum. In addition, 4,967 accessions representing the wild Brazilian germplasm
collected through germplasm exchange programmes are also maintained. International
Rubber Research and Development Board (IRRDB) and Association of Natural Rubber
Producing Countries (AN-RFC) are agencies associated with the clone exchange
programmes.
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Clones
Clones are group of plants produced by vegetative propagation from single trees.
All individual trees of a clone possess identical genetic constitution, which is responsible
for the uniformity existing among them. Clones are usually named after the estates,
institutes or stations from where they have originated and indicated as abbreviations.
Based on the type of mother tree, from which the clone is derived, they are classified as:
Primary clone: Mother tree is of unknown parentage, selection of mother tree is based
on superior performance in the existing plantation. Tjir - I, GT I, PB 86, PR 107 and PB
28/59 are primary clones.
Tertiary clone: Mother tree is evolved by controlled pollination in which at least one or
both parents are secondary clones. RRIM703 (RRIM 600 x RRIM 500) is an example. In
order to obviate the potential risks involved in the monoclone culture, cultivation of a
mixture of clones which is categorized as follows is recommended:
Category I: Clones like RRII 105 (in traditional areas) along with RRIM 600 and GT I
(in non-traditional areas) to cover upto 50% of the total area. Other important clones
under this category are PB 260, RRII 414 and RRII 430.
Category II: Clones like RRIM 600, GT 1, PB 28/59, PB 217 and RRIM 703 to cover
upto 50% of the total area. Other important clones in this category are RRII 5, RRII 203,
RRII 417 and RRII 422.
Category III: The cultivars under it are divided into 3 categories which can cover upto
15% of the total area in aggregate. They are:
• RRII 5, RRII 203, PB 255, PB 2611 and PB 235
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RRII 414
Country of origin India
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RRII 430
Country of origin India
Developed by Rubber Research Institute of India
Parentage RRII 105 x RRIC 100
Mean Yield 5 Years 10 Years
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PB 28/59: A Malaysian clone with fluted and crooked trunk sometimes showing
tendency for leaning, Moderate to heavy branches, Girth at opening medium and girth
increment on tapping poor. Virgin bark thickness low thickness on renewal above
average. Average annual yield is 1,423 kg/ha/year. Susceptibility to wind damage is
medium. Occurrence of tapping panel dryness is severe. The clone is highly prone to
abnormal leaf fall, pink and powdery mildew diseases.
PB 217: The parents of this Malaysian clone are PB 5/51 and PB 6/9. Trunk tall and
straight. Wintering and refoliation are normal to late. Girth at opening is medium, girth
increment on tapping high. Virgin bark thickness is low but renewed bark is medium in
thickness. Average yield is 1,257 kg/ha/year. Latex colour is light yellow. Wind damage
is very low. Tapping panel dryness mild. Incidence of phytophthora severe in Malaysia
but low in India. Pink and powdery mildew diseases severe.
RRIM 703: The parents of this clone are RRIM 600 and RRIM 500. It has an upright
trunk. High yielding with yield trend from the eighth year of tapping. Girth at opening is
high to medium and girth increment on tapping low. Virgin bark thickness is high and
renewed bark thickness medium to high showing tolerance to powdery mildew. The
average annual yield is 1,310 kg/ha/year. Latex colour is light yellow. Wind damage and
tapping panel dryness high. Abnormal leaf fall is severe in India, though reported to be
only mild in Malaysia. Occurrence of powdery mildew is mild. The clone is prone to
severe pink disease.
PB 217
Country of origin Malaysia
Developed by Prang Besar Estate
Parentage PB 5/51 x PB 6/9
Mean Yield 5 Years 10 Years 15 Years
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RRII 5
Country of origin India
Developed by Rubber Research Institute of India
Parentage Primary clone (Selected from Malankara Estate,
Thodupuzha)
Mean Yield 5 Years 10 Years 15 Years
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RRII 203
Country of origin India
Developed by Rubber Research Institute of India
Parentage PB 86 x Mil 3/2
Mean Yield 5 Years 10 Years 15 Years
RRII 417
Country of origin India
Developed by Rubber Research Institute of India
Parentage RRII 105 x RRIC 100
Mean Yield 5 Years 10 Years
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RRII 422
Country of origin India
Developed by Rubber Research Institute of India
Parentage RRII 105 x RRIC 100
Mean Yield 4 Years 10 Years
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RRII 52
Country of origin India
Developed by Rubber Research Institute of India
Parentage Primary clone
Mean Yield 5 Years
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References
1. Anonymous 1985. Rubber and its Cultivation. The Rubber Board of India
2. Chadha KL & Rethinam P. (Eds.).1993. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX.
Plantation Crops and Spices. Part-I. Malhotra Publ. House.
3. Chadha KL. 1998. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX. Plantation and Spices Crops.
Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
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Lecture.30
Genetic resources, objectives of breeding, principles and method of
breeding and salient breeding achievements in cashew
The family Anacardiaceae comprises about 60 genera and 400 species of trees and
shrubs with resinous bark. Though Anacardium is described as a small genus with only 8
species, over 20 species are known to exist in Central and South America. The species of
Anacardium vary largely with respect to size, shape and colour of peduncle and size and
shape of nut and leaves. The A. gigantium from Surinam has the biggest apple, whereas
A. rhinocarpus and A. spruceanum possessing
possessing hard wood are useful as root stocks and A.
occidentale is a diploid with 2n= 42.
Germplasm: The early attempts for germplasm collection in India were made
during 1952-1957
1952 1957 with sanctioning of adhoc schemes in Kerala (Kottarakkara),
Karnataka (Ullal)
(Ullal) Andhra Pradesh (Bapatla), Assam (Daregaon) and Maharashtra
(Vengurla). A total of 1,490 germplasm accessions have been conserved at National
Research Centre on Cashew at Puttur and at different cashew research stations in India,
These are primarily indigenous
indigenous types' selected from the seedling progenies of the limited
initial introductions with few exotic types from Brazil, Nairobi, Lindi, Nacala,
Mozambique, Ex Tanganya, Singapore, Australia and Republic of Panama. The
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1) High yield with bold nuts: Cashew being primarily export oriented crop, it is
necessary to give utmost priority for developing varieties and hybrids with export
grade kernels. Nuts should be big and plumpy to produce more of W-180 grades.
Yield of more than 10 kg per tree per year.
Fruit setting percentage in cashew: 1 to 18 %
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Breeding achievements in cashew: In the past cashew was primarily propagated for
soil conservation and forestation. At present due to the effort of research more than 40
varieties/hybrids have been released. Of these 25 varieties are selection from germplasm
and 15 are developed through hybridization and selection.
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and thus prove the usefulness of selecting parents with bold nut character for transmitting
this trait to hybrid. Short duration of flowering (Anakkayam1), high sex ratio and longer
mixed phase, intense branching, high shelling (%) and high nutritive value of kernels are
also looked in the parents.
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Research Station Variety Source of Yield Nut Kernel Shelling Kernel grade
germplasm potential weight(g weight (%)
(kg/tree) ) (g)
Cashew Research Anakkayam 1 BLA 139- 12.0 6.0 1.7 28.0 W280
Station, 1(T.No. 13-9 of
Anakkayam, Bapatla)
Kerala Sulabha K-1 0-2 23.34 9.8 2.5 25.51 W210
Cashew Research Madakkathara BLA 39-4 13.8 6.2 1.6 26.8 W 280
Station, 1 (T.No.39 of
Madakkathara Bapatla)
Anakkayam , Madakkathara NDR 2- 1 17.0 7.3 2.0 26.2 W 280
Kerala 2 (Nedunellur2-1)
K 22 1 Kottarakkara 22 13.2 6.2 1.6 26.5 W 280
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References
1. Damodaran VK, Vilaschandran T &.Valsalakumari PK. 1979. Research
onCashew in India. KAU, Trichur.
2. Raj PS & Vidyachandra B. 1981. Review of Work Done on Cashew.
UASResearch Series No.6, Bangalore.
3. Chadha KL. 1998. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX. Plantation and Spices
Crops. Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
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Lecture.31
Genetic resources, objectives of breeding, principles and method of breeding and
salient breeding achievements in coffee
Eucoffea includes most of the useful species of the genus. Coffea arabica, Coffea
canephora and Coffea liberica are some of the species that found their place into
commercial cultivation in India. The basic genome in the genus coffea is x = 11. In
Eucoffea, all species are diploids with 2n = 22 except C. arabica (2n= 44) which is
tetraploid.
Arabica Coffee: The C.arabica is a small tree with dark green leaves. The flower buds
are produced during October – March and flowers blossom 9-10 days after the receipt of
blosoom showers. Arabica is self fertile. The fertilized ovary grows into a fruit in 8-9
months.
Robusta Coffee: The Coffea canephora is bigger tree than Arabica. Flowers per clusters
are more. It is a lowland coffee with wider geographic distribution. It grows under
relatively more open and humid conditions than Arabica.
Tree Coffee: The Coffea liberica is a large bearing big broad, dark green and leathery
leaves. The flowers and fruits are larger and take one year to mature. The ripe fruits are
yellow to reddish- brown in colour.
Origin
Arabica coffee: Ethiopia – In a place called Caffa.
It occurs naturally in forests between 450 to 600 m elevation (1400 to 1800 ft
elevation)
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Crop Improvement
Germplasm Collections: The earlier collections made during 1930s totalling 1,462 were
of indigenous origin from seeds collected from vigorous, disease resistant Arabica and
Robusta plants from various estates. This included many putative hybrids such as Kents,
Coorgs, 5.26 and 5.31 (both Liberica x Arabica origin) and Devamachy hybrid Robusta x
Arabica origin)
Collection of exotic germplasm was started in 1953 and introductions were made
from all coffee growing countries including Ethiopia, the homeland of coffee. Early
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introduction of Robusta coffee was from Sri Lanka and Indonesia, although later
introductions were made from Costa Rica, Uganda, Madagascar and Ivory Coast. The
germplasm collections were maintained in the gene bank of Central Coffee Research
Other Species: 18 species belonging to the genus Coffea and closely related genus
Psilanthus.
Hybrid lines: Coffee lines and hybrid lines showing varying degrees of resistance to leaf
rust were introduced from Central Rust Research Centre, Portugal
Varieties: The selections and introductions were further improved by employing pure-
line breeding, intervarietal crossing, back-crossing and interspecific hybridization. The
selections were released for cultivation after zonal assessment.
Arabica Varieties
Selection 1 (S 288): This variety is a tetraploid hybrid derived from S-26 which is
supposed to be a progeny of natural cross between' C. liberica x C arabica. It is resistant
to leaf rust race I and II. Though this is a high-yielder with quality similar to Arabica,
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seed abnormalities are very frequent. However, because of its wide adaptability to varied
agroclimatic conditions, it is still being cultivated in some areas.
Selection 3 (S-795): It is a cross-bred line of S-288 x Kents. It has bold fruits and seeds
of good quality. The variety is resistant to race I and II of leaf rust. It has a yield potential
of 700-1,200 kg clean coffee/ha with 75%; “A” grade and cup quality 5-6.
Selection 5: It "is derived from a cross between Devamachy x S-881 (wild Arabica from
Rurne Sudan. Devamachy is a spontaneous hybrid of Robusta x Arabica spotted in
Coorg, It has small, oblong, leathery leaves and oblong fruits and seeds. It has an yield
potential of 900 to 1,100kg clean coffee/ha.
Selection 6: A hybrid between S-274 (Robusta) x Kents. Its plants are larger with
Robusta type branching. Fruit is medium to bold with cup quality similar to Arabica. It
has an yield potential of 900 to -1,000 kg clean coffee/ha with high “A” grade beans.
Selection 7: Derived from San Ramon (a dwarf Arabica variety from Columbia) crosses.
San Ramon was crossed with S-1406 to obtain Selection 7.1. Selection 7.2 is a cross
between dwarfs of 7.1 x Agaro. This hybrid when crossed with Hybrido-de-Timor,
Selection 7.3 was obtained. Selection 7.3 shows high resistance to leaf rust. Its plants are
dwarf.
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Cauvery: It is derived from Catimor lines which is a cross between Caturra and Hibrido-
de-Timor. The plants are dwarf and highly suitable for high-density planting. It shows
high degree of synchronised flowering, fruit set and fruit ripening. It shows a high yield
potential of 1,000 to 2,000 kg clean coffee/ha. It produces more A grade coffee with
superior cup quality.
Chandragiri coffee:
It is a newly released coffee in 2007-08 by Coffee Board with the original source
from Portugal .It was introduced in the year 1975 to CCRI Balehonnur from Portugal.
Farm trials and intensive research trials were taken up at CCRI Balehonnur.
Features
1. Bushy growth with slightly bigger leaves than Cauvery coffee
2. Bigger sized berries: It produces 25 per cent bigger sized berries compared to
other varieties.
3. Resistant to leaf rust: Lower (5 to 7 %) leaf rust incidence in this variety is
reported compared to other varieties (20 to 40 %).
4. Tolerant to drought
Robusta Varieties
Coffea canephora was introduced to India after the appearance of leaf rust in
Arabica. Now, it has become popular as a cultivated species of coffee. Robusta coffee is
highly cross-pollinated and high-yielding selections were recommended for cultivation.
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Sel-lR (S-274): This is a single plant progeny giving 1,400-2,500 kg clean coffee/ha. It
can come up even at lower elevations and shows high resistance to leaf rust Growth is
vigorous but with shallow root system. Its fruits are bold giving 43% “A” grade coffee.
Sel-2R (S-270): This also is a single plant progeny selection Robusta giving high yield
but fruits are not as bold as in Sel-lR.
References
1. Indian Coffee (Monthly) By Coffee Board, No –1, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar Road, P.B.
No.- 5366, Bangalore-1
2. Chadha KL & Rethinam P. (Eds.).1993. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX.
Plantation Crops and Spices. Part-I. Malhotra Publ. House.
3. Chadha KL. 1998. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX. Plantation andSpices Crops.
Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi.
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Lecture.32
Genetic resources, objectives of breeding, principles and method of breeding and
salient breeding achievements in tea
The genus comprises about 45 species of evergreen shrubs and trees in tropical
and subtropical Asia. Botanist distinguished 3 distinct tea- producing taxa which were
referred as jats.
China type: (Camellia sinensis): China type grows as a shrub 1-3m high with erect
branches. Two morphological forms are identified in this type, viz. macrophylla with
broad and long leaves and parviflora with small narrow leaves. Plants are resistant to cold
and adverse conditions but low yielding.
Assam type (Camellia assamica): Assam type is a small tree growing up to 10-15 m
adapted to tropical conditions. Two types are recognized, viz., Assam type with light
green leaves giving higher yields of better quality tea and Manipuri type with dark green
leaves, drought resistant but with poor yields and quality.
Cambodean hybrid type (Camellia assamica ssp lasiocalyx): The cambod type is
conical in appearance reaching a height of 6-10m. Leaves semi erect vary in size between
China and Assam types. In most species particularly the commercial jats, diploid
chromosome number is 2n = 30.
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Crop improvement
From the very early days of tea cultivation in India, seeds were used for planting
and it remained so far over 120 years.
1949: The use of vegetatively propagated plants was started in 1949 after the release of
clones by Tocklai Experimental Station.
Tea being a highly cross-pollinated crop, the seedling populations is highly
heterogeneous and comprises a large number of genetically distinctive genotypes which
can be grown in a range of agro climatic conditions. The genetic and phenotypic
variability of seedlings is high.
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9) Leaf flexibility: Select bushes producing flexible leaves which are easier to roll and
ferment easily and have good colour in the finished product giving an infusion of
appropriate colour, aroma and astringency.
10) Suitability for vegetative propagation: Select bushes which have capacity to root
easily from cuttings.
Clonal selection
Exploitation of heterogenity in seedling population, arising out of cross
pollination, through clonal selection has played a vital role in tea improvement
programme.
Selection of elite mother bushes is an important step in the development of its
clones. (Mother bushes are selected based on visual assessment of characters like large
pluck size and higher unit weight, higher density of plucking points, semi-orthotropic
branching, and healthy and robust branching. Quality of made tea such as light green
leaves and pubescence of leaves and branches are also looked into. The yield potential of
mother bushes is calculated based on bush yield/unit area, out of field yield / unit area.
Yield over two pruning cycles are considered and yield potential of more than one is
considered high yielding. Subsequent processes in the development of clones involve the
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assessment of rooting performance in the nursery, establishment in the field and survival
in succeeding drought period, yielding ability, quality of tea and tolerance to biotic and
abiotic stresses. Then select the best performing clones. These are then tested in different
tea-growing areas. Based on comprehensive assessment, clones are released for
commercial planting. The whole process from time of selection of mother bushes to
release of clones for commercial cultivation takes about 10-12 years. The long time
required for release of a clone is the limitation and methods for early yield prediction of
clones are necessary. However, clonal selection has resulted in the development of
several superior clones for commercial use in different tea growing regions. Twenty-eight
clones have been developed by United Planters Association of South India.
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References
1. Chadha KL & Rethinam P. (Eds.).1993. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX.
Plantation Crops and Spices. Part-I. Malhotra Publ. House.
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Lecture.33
Genetic resources, objectives of breeding, principles and method of breeding and
salient breeding achievements in cocoa
Theobroma is the name given by Linnaeus meaning “Food of the Gods” (Greek
name Theos = Gods and Broma = Food) to the chocolate tree cocoa. Theobroma bicolor
and grandiflorum are other better known species. T. bicolor is typical with the
inflorescence appearing in the axils of new leaves and the branches bent down as the
pods reach maturity. Seeds of Theobroma bicolor are used as adulterant. Theobroma
cacao is a diploid with 2n = 20. Theobroma cacao ssp.cacao includes Criolla populations
of Central and South America and Theobroma cacao ssp. sphaerocarpum which includes
other populations like Forastero and Trinitario.
Classification
The most accepted classification divides cultivated and wild cocoa into 3 groups,
based on Venezuelan terminology namely Criollo, Forastero and Trinitario.
Criollo: Pods yellow or red when ripe, usually deeply furrowed, often markedly
warty, usually conspicuously pointed, pod wall thin in section so that pod compresses
under hand pressure; seeds large, plumpy and almost round in cross-section; cotyledons
white or pale-violet. Beans ferment quickly; comparatively low yield. It produces the best
quality cocoa; but only small quantities are available in the world market. Criollos
typically lack vigour and jorquette. They are reported to be extremely susceptible to bark
canker, witche’s broom and cocoa swollen shoot virus. Two types are distinguished in
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criollo. Central American criollo, the unripe pod is green in colour and turns to yellow
while ripening; Venezuelan criollos, this cultivar shows greater degrees of variation from
tree-to-tree in colour, size and shape of pods. The unripe pod is usually red in colour.
Forastero: This is a large group which consists of cultivated, semi-wild and wild
populations. Of this, Amelonado population is the most extensively grown. Unripe pods
are whitish or green and turn yellow on ripening, usually inconspicuously ridged and
furrowed, surface often smooth, ends rounded or very bluntly pointed, pod walls
relatively thick and often with a woody layer, difficult to cut, seeds flattened, fresh
cotyledons deeply pigmented and dark violet cross-section; usually giving an astringent
product. These are hardier, more vigorous and higher yielding than criollo types.
Trinitario: These are hybrid populations result from natural crosses between
criollo and forastero types. They are highly heterogeneous showing wide range of
morphological and physiological characters. Colour of unripe pod may be whitish, green,
red, variable in shape and wall thickness, surface ranging from smooth to warty; beans
plump to flat; pigmentation of cotyledons white to nearly black. They are hardier and
more productive than criollo, the best clones combine the vigour of Amazonian with
much of quality of criollo, while other clones are very inferior.
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Germplasm Collection
Research Stations working on cocoa in India:
1) CPCRI Regional Station, Vittal, South Kanara, Karnataka
2) KAU Vellanikkara, Thrissur
In a little more than 2 century, commercial cultivation of cocoa has extended from
its centre of origin in South America to West Africa, the Far East and Oceania. It has
become an important crop throughout the humid tropics. However, material for
commercial plantings has been derived from a very narrow genetic base leading to low
productivity in cocoa. Realizing the need to improve the genetic diversity, scientific
expeditions were conducted to collect wild cocoa from the natural habitats. The materials
collected in these expeditions are now maintained in national and international
germplasm collections in Central and South America and in the Caribbeans. Collections
at Centro Agronomico Tropical de Investigacion & En-senanza (CATIE), Costa Rica
International Cocoa Gene Bank (ICG), Trinidad and CEPLAC, Brazil have been
designated as primary collections and the germplasm is freely available to breeders.
Transfer of germplasm from International Germ-plasm Centres to user countries is done
through intermediate quarantine, of 2 years, with the facilities at Reading University, UK
and at CIRAD, Montpellier, France. In order to undertake long-term breeding activities,
the International Group for the Genetic Improvement of Cocoa (INGENIC) was created
in 1993.
The important parent materials for cocoa germplasm are:
• ICS selections from Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture in Trinidad
• Upper Amazon parents like IMC, NA, PA and SCA
• Amelonado which originated in West Africa
In India, cocoa germplasm collections are conserved with further exploration at
CPCRI Regional Station, Vittal (291 accessions) and College of Horticulture, Kerala
Agricultural University, Vellanikkara (500 accessions).These collections were from
Mslsysia, Ghana, Nigeria, Amazon, Trinidad, Brazil, Ecuador, UK, Mexico, Jamaica
clones and few local collections from Wynad, Kerala and Shiradi ghats, Karnataka.
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Crop Improvement
The cocoa germplasm has been utilized for crop improvement, in some ways. They are:
• Evaluation and selection of superior clones which are adapted to the locality with
desired traits like higher bean yield and resistance/ tolerance to biotic and abiotic
stresses, testing their performance in comparative yield trials and large-scale
production of clonal materials from elite clones.
Production of first-generation hybrids of self-incompatible high-yielders,
assessment of their performance and selection of superior hybrids. The important-
biotic factors considered are resistance to black pod disease and vascular streak die-
back and drought tolerance among abiotic stresses.
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Varieties
Several high-yielding varieties/hybrids have been released from India, Indonesia,
Trinidad and Costa Rica.
India
Five varieties were released from Cadbury-Cocoa Research Project, Kerala
Agricultural University, Thrissur, Kerala, through single plant selection from local
populations and exotic collections. All the clones are tolerant to vascular streak die-back.
CCRP I: Pods are medium-sized, green which changes to yellow on ripening, constricted
at the base, blunt beak and moderately deep ridges and furrows. The trees are self-
incompatible. Mature pods weigh 385 g, with 46 beans and 0.8 g oven-dry bean weight.
On an average, a tree yields 56 pods /year, with an yield potential of 72 pods.
CCRP II: It is a single plant selection from local population. It has spherical pods with
obtuse apex. No ridges and furrows in the pods and yields 54 pods /tree /year.
CCRP IV: Pods large, purple tinged, turning yellow on ripening, beaked with acute tip,
basal constriction shallow or absent, pericarp deeply rugose with deep ridges and
furrows. The trees are self -incompatible. Mature pods weigh 402 g with 45 beans and 1.1
g oven-dry bean weight. On an average, a tree yields 66 pods/ year with a yield potential
of 93 pods.
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CCRP V: Pods large, elliptical, green when immature turn yellow on ripening,
moderately deep ridges and furrows, apex acute. Trees are self-incompatible. Mature
pods weigh 425 g with 45 beans and 0.8 g oven-dry bean weight. Average yield is 38
pods/tree/year with a yield potential of 55 pods.
CCRP VI: Pods very big, green turning to yellow on ripening, thick rind, elliptical
without basal constriction, apex obtuse, pod surface rugose with shallow ridges and
furrows. Trees are self-incompatible. Mature pods weigh 895 g with 48 beans and 1.9 g
oven-dry bean weight. Average yield is 50 pods/tree/year with an yield potential of 180
pods.
CCRP VII: Pods large, elongated, green, turning to yellow on ripening, beaked with
acute apex, slight basal constriction, pod surface rugose, moderately deep ridges arid
furrows. The trees are self-incompatible. Mature pods weigh 526 g with 47 beans and 0.9
g oven-dry bean weight. Average yield 78 pods/tree with an yield potential of 95 pods.
CCRP 8: Hybrid between CCRP 1 x CCRP 7. Trees are self-incompatible. Pods green,
medium sized, turning yellow on ripening, apex attenuate, base intermediate, rugosity
intermediate. Mature pods weigh 389 g with 49 beans and 0.88 g oven dry bean weight.
Average yield 90 pods/tree giving 11.40 kg wet beans.
CCRP 9: Hybrid between CCRP 1 x CCRP 4. Trees are self incompatible. Pods green,
medium sized, turning yellow on ripening, apex attenuate, base strong, rugosity
intermediate. Mature pods weigh 370 g with 37 beans and 0.8 g oven dry bean weight.
Average yield 106 pods/tree giving 8.97 kg wet beans.
CCRP 10: Hybrid between CCRP 3x GVI 68. Trees are self incompatible. Pods green,
medium sized turning yellow on ripening, apex attenuate, base intermediate, rugosity
intermediate. Mature pods weigh 332 g with 41 beans and 1.1 g oven dry bean weight.
Average yield is 80 pods/tree giving 8.15 kg wet beans
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Cocoa Varieties
Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Vittal (Karnataka);
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Indonesia
DR-1, DR-2, DR-21 and DR-35 are resistant to cocoa moth.
Trinidad
ICS-l, ICS-45 and ICS-92 are high yielding selections, showing varying degrees of
tolerance to 'witches broom' .Hybrids; ICS-1 x SCA-6; (ICS-1 x SCA-6) x SCA-12; ICS-
6 x SCA-6, (ICS-6 x SCA-6) x SCA-12 and TSH-999 are high-yielding hybrids released
from the Tropical Research Station, Trinidad.
References
1. Chadha KL & Rethinam P. (Eds.).1993. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX.
Plantation Crops and Spices. Part-I. Malhotra Publ. House.
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Lecture.34
Genetic resources, objectives of breeding, principles and method of breeding and
salient breeding achievements in kokam & betelvine
3. Short harvesting period: Fruit harvest in kokum is only for about six weeks in a
year, which is a short period for processing. During the first half of the summer
the demand of kokum has to be met out of the production of the previous year and
then supplying the production of current year for the second half.
4. Spoilage of the produce: Kokum starts fruiting from March and it extends until
the first week of June. If it rains during the fruiting season the fruits will be
spoiled. Premonsoon showers will spoil part of kokum produce.
5. Regional and seasonal demand: Though kokum drink is superior to many
synthetic soft drinks in the market, its use is not known through out India. It is
suggested to popularize kokum drink as a health drink than a soft drink.
Varieties
At KKV, Dapoli, fourteen kokum types with early maturity, bigger sized fruits
and high yield have been identified.
Konkan Amrit: Released from KKV Dapoli (Dr. B.S. Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth.).
Konkan Amrit variety fruits are bigger in size weighing about 30 g.
Yellow kokum: A unique variety of kokum in Uttara Kannada dist. It is locally called as
bili murugalu though the colour is yellow. It is believed to posses more medicinal
properties. Skin will turn yellow at the time of ripening.
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Kokum is one of the important non timber forest produces (NTFPs) collected from the
western ghats of Karnataka.
Variety Konkan Amritha was developed by clonal selection. This variety is considerably
early having short harvesting period (78days) with a few pluckings. The yield is high
(138.28kg) with medium sized fruits (34.45g) having rind of 17.55g. Filled seeds were
3.55 per fruit. This variety is a pure female.
Betel vine
Betel vine: Piper betle Family: Piperaceae
Betel vine is a perennial, dioecious evergreen creeper. There are about 100
number of cultivars recognized by the growers and traders in India. These are classified
based on leaf size, shape, texture, quality and taste. The morphological differences in
terms of length: breadth ratio due to sexual dimorphism do exist in betelvine. Male plants
have leaves which are narrowly ovate with 1.84 length: breadth ratio and female plants
have cordate or ovate leaves with 1.26 length: breadth ratio. Leaves of the female plants
are mostly pungent and male plants are non pungent.
Origin: Malaysia (Central and Eastern Malaysia). It was introduced to India in pre
historic times. It is believed to have come originally from Java.
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In India two high yielding cultivars have been developed in recent years of which
SGM-1 is for cultivation in southern States. DPB-6 was released by Maharashtra state
and Bidhan pan was released by West Bengal and Orissa. This cultivar was also
recommended for cultivation in North Eastern States under protected cultivation.
Characteristics of commonly traded and improved cultivars are as follows
Bangla: It is one of the widely traded types which encompass a large number of land
races of betelvine. It grows vigorously and are generally very pungent. Leaves are having
7-9 prominent secondary veins, petioles are 8-10cm in length and lamina are 8.5-15.5 x
11-19cm, dark green in colour with yellowish tinge. Leaves are cordate to roundish
having widest part of the lamina below the middle point, entire and glabrous. Leaves are
also fibrous with nearly having 82% eugenol.
Meetha: Grown mostly in three districts of West Bengal namely, East Midnapore, South
24-Parganas and Howrah. Leaves are comparatively thinner than Bangla, waxy, cordate
to broadly ovate, dark green in colour with characteristic pale yellowish specks and
having short apex but pointed. The characteristic aroma in leaves is due to presence of the
anethole as one of the constituents.
Sanchi: Leaves are medium to large in size, narrow and ovate with long base, lobes less
prominent than Bangla. Leaf margin is entire. Leaves are dark green and fibrous. Leaves
are pungent.
Kapoori: It is grown mostly in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Kerala and
Karnataka. Vines are moderately vigorous, highly branched and leaves are narrow to
ovate with thin lamina and soft in texture. The aroma is due to presence of high
percentage (20%) of terpenyl acetate.
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Deshawari: It produces large cordate leaves with short, pointed, acuminate and
characteristically curved apex. It has mild sweet taste which is due to low anethole
content.
Khasi: This cultivar is somewhat wild in character and mainly grown in North Eastern
hilly region. Leaf colour is dark to dull green.
SGM 1: It is a clonal selection from a Palghat type. It is adaptable to all betel vine-
growing areas of Tamil Nadu. It produces a higher leaf yield of 109 lakh leaves per
hectare in a crop duration of 2 to 2½ years. The vines are dwarf statured with vigorous
bushy growth having thick hardy stem with short internodes and multilateral. Leaves are
attractive yellowish green colour with desirable pungency. It is the first betel vine variety
released by TNAU from Southern India.
SGM
SGM (BV) 2: This is a pureline selection from Dindigul local. It possesses multilateral
vines (17-20/vine) with long petioles and attractive dark green leaves. The leaves are
moderately pungent with good chewing quality. It is a high yielder with good market
appeal. The duration of the crop is 2-2½ years. The suitable season for cultivation was
January – March and June – August for Agathi and March – May and August – October
for betelvine. The crop is moderately resistant to phytopthora wilt, blight and nematodes.
It yields about 49 lakh leaves / ha / year which is 25.4% increase over SGM 1, 33.8%
increase over Karpoori and 62.0% increase over vellaikodi. It can be cultivated all over
Tamil Nadu and is suitable for open trench cultivation.
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Bidan Pan: It is a selection from the local Bangla cultivar. The characteristic feature of
the plant is short internode length. The productivity goes high due to short internodal
length.
DBP-6: It is a selection from a local Karpoori collection from Maharashtra. The cultivar
has given about 10-18 percent increase in productivity over the cultivars of Maharashtra.
Leaf characters are similar to Karpoori.
Cultivated types including wild and semi wild types should be extensively
collected and should be grown under uniform conditions and various traits like yield,
quality, disease and pest resistance should be evaluated in wild and semi wild types
which may be valuable sources for resistance genes.
Procedure for selection in the several progenies includes a) cultivars can be inbred
to produce seeds and selection is to be done among the progenies varied there from. b)
Inter breeding of cultivars and selection in resulting progenies. Induction of new
variations can be achieved through mutation; somoclonal variations through tissue culture
of cultivars; haploid can be intercrossed to develop heterotic hybrids. Betelvine can be
crossed with other sister species (inter specific hybridization) ad the resulting F1 and F2
there from can be studied for desirable variants.
References
1. Journal of Plantation Crops
2. T.K. Bose, V.A. Parthasarathy and P.K. chattopadhyay. 2006 Plantation Crops
Vol.2 Pub: Partha Sankar Basu, NayaUdyog, 206, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata 700 006,
India
3. Chadha KL & Rethinam P. (Eds.).1993. Advances in Horticulture. Vol. IX.
Plantation Crops and Spices. Part-I. Malhotra Publ. House.
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