Chemistry, The Central Science, 10th edition,

AP version
Theodore L. Brown; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr.;
and Bruce E. Bursten

Chapter 13 (part I of II)Properties of Solutions

(N.B. aspects of this topic were seen in chapter 4)

(This ppt is a modified file from our Textbook publisher with

additional slides taken from ppt file found at
http://www.chemistrygeek.com/chem2.htm )

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Resources and Activities

• Textbook - chapter 13 & ppt file

(AP, SAT II and regents exams) Chemtour videos from W.W. Norton
• Online practice quiz chapter 11 :
http://www.wwnorton.com/college/che
• Lab activities
mistry/chemistry3/ch/11/chemtours
• POGIL activities: .aspx
– Molarity
– Saturated and Unsaturated Solutions
Chapter 12 Animations from glencoe
– Solubility website for Chang’s book:
– Common Ion Effect on Solubility http://glencoe.mcgraw-
– Fractional Precipitation hill.com/sites/0023654666/student_view
– Solution Stoichiometry 0/chapter12/animations_center.html#
• Chem guy video-lectures at
http://www.cosmolearning.com/cour
ses/ap-chemistry-with-
chemguy/video-lectures/
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 Activities and Problem set for chapter 13 (due date_______)

TextBook ch. 13 – content required for Chapter 13 – sample and practice exercises,
regents (in part), SAT II and AP
exams GIST, VC problems, selection of end of

chapter exercises.
Lab activities:
– Solubility of KNO3 Independent work - students to view animations &
interactive activities (from Norton and from the
– Colligative properties lab Glencoe site for Chang’s book) and write
summary notes on each. These summaries are
to be included in your portfolio.
POGILS (6 – Some of these were done
with Chapter 4 work) Animation to view
– Molarity • http://www.wwnorton.com/college/chemistry/chemi
stry3/ch/11/chemtours.aspx
– Saturated and Unsaturated
Solutions
– Solubility http://glencoe.mcgraw-
– Common Ion Effect on Solubility hill.com/sites/0023654666/student_view0/chapter1
2/animations_center.html#
– Fractional Precipitation (dissolution of an ionic and a covalent compound;
– Solution Stoichiometry osmosis)
 Student, Beware!

Just because a substance disappears when it comes

in contact with a solvent, it doesn’t mean the
substance dissolved.

• Dissolution is a physical change—you can get back

the original solute by evaporating the solvent.
• If you can’t, the substance didn’t dissolve, it reacted.
 Solutions

• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two

or more pure substances.
• In a solution, the solute is dispersed uniformly
throughout the solvent. (view Glencoe animation)

Solutions
An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in
water, results in a solution that can conduct electricity.
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved,
results in a solution that does not conduct electricity.

nonelectrolyte weak electrolyte strong electrolyte

 Solutions

The intermolecular
forces between solute
and solvent particles
must be strong enough
to compete with those
between solute particles
and those between
solvent particles.

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How Does a Solution Form?

As a solution forms, the solvent pulls solute

particles apart and surrounds, or solvates,
them.

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Three types of interactions in the solution process:
• solvent-solvent interaction
• solute-solute interaction
• solvent-solute interaction

DHsoln = DH1 + DH2 + DH3

How Does a Solution Form

If an ionic salt is
soluble in water, it is
because the ion-
dipole interactions
are strong enough
to overcome the
lattice energy of the
salt crystal.

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Why Do Endothermic Processes Occur?
Things do not tend to occur
spontaneously (i.e., without
outside intervention) unless
the energy of the system is
lowered.

Yet we know that in some

processes, like the dissolution
of NH4NO3 in water, heat is
absorbed, not released.

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Enthalpy Is Only Part of the Picture
The reason is that increasing
the disorder or randomness
(known as entropy) of a
system tends to lower the
energy of the system.

So even though enthalpy may

increase, the overall energy of
the system can still decrease if
the system becomes more
disordered.
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A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of a
solute that will dissolve in a given solvent at a specific
temperature.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than the
solvent has the capacity to dissolve at a specific
temperature.
A supersaturated solution contains more solute than is
present in a saturated solution at a specific temperature.
Sodium acetate crystals rapidly form when a seed crystal is
added to a supersaturated solution of sodium acetate.
Types of Solutions

• Saturated
 Solvent holds as much
solute as is possible at
that temperature.
 Dissolved solute is in
dynamic equilibrium
with solid solute
particles.

Solutions
 Types of Solutions

• Unsaturated
 Less than the
maximum amount of
solute for that
temperature is
dissolved in the
solvent.

Solutions
 Types of Solutions

• Supersaturated
 Solvent holds more solute than is normally
possible at that temperature.
 These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
usually be stimulated by adding a “seed crystal” or
scratching the side of the flask. Solutions
 Factors Affecting Solubility

• Chemists use the axiom

“like dissolves like”:
 Polar substances tend to
dissolve in polar solvents.
 Nonpolar substances tend
to dissolve in nonpolar
solvents.

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Factors Affecting Solubility

The more similar the

intermolecular
attractions, the more
likely one substance
is to be soluble in
another.

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Factors Affecting Solubility

Glucose (which has

hydrogen bonding)
is very soluble in
water, while
cyclohexane (which
only has dispersion
forces) is not.

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 Factors Affecting Solubility

• Vitamin A is soluble in nonpolar compounds

(like fats).
• Vitamin C is soluble in water.

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Temperature

Generally, the
solubility of solid
solutes in liquid
solvents increases
with increasing
temperature.

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Fractional crystallization is the separation of a mixture of
substances into pure components on the basis of their differing
solubilities.

Suppose you have 90 g KNO3

contaminated with 10 g NaCl.

Fractional crystallization:
1. Dissolve sample in 100 mL of
water at 600C
2. Cool solution to 00C
3. All NaCl will stay in solution
(s = 34.2g/100g)
4. 78 g of PURE KNO3 will
precipitate (s = 12 g/100g).
90 g – 12 g = 78 g
 Gases in Solution

• In general, the
solubility of gases in
water increases with
increasing mass.
• Larger molecules
have stronger
dispersion forces.

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Gases in Solution

• The solubility of
liquids and solids
does not change
appreciably with
pressure.
• The solubility of a
gas in a liquid is
directly proportional
to its pressure.
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 Henry’s Law
Sg = kPg
where
• Sg is the solubility of
the gas;
• k is the Henry’s law
constant for that gas in
that solvent;
• Pg is the partial
pressure of the gas
above the liquid. Solutions
 Temperature

• The opposite is true

of gases:
 Carbonated soft
drinks are more
“bubbly” if stored in
the refrigerator.
 Warm lakes have
less O2 dissolved in
them than cool lakes.

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Ways of Expressing Concentrations of
Solutions

• mass percentage • The

• parts per million (ppm) concentration
• parts per billion (ppb) of a solution is
the amount of
• Mole fraction (X) solute present
• molarity (M) in a given
• molality (m) quantity of
solvent or
solution
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 Mass Percentage
mass of A in solution
Mass % of A =  100
total mass of solution

Mole Fraction (X)

moles of A
XA = total moles in solution

• In some applications, one needs the mole fraction of

solvent, not solute—make sure you find the quantity
you need!
 Parts per Million and
Parts per Billion
Parts per Million (ppm)
mass of A in solution
ppm =  106
total mass of solution

Parts per Billion (ppb)

mass of A in solution
ppb =  109
total mass of solution
 Molarity (M)

mol of solute
M=
L of solution

• You will recall this concentration

measure from Chapter 4.
• Because volume is temperature
dependent, molarity can change with
temperature.
Solutions
 Molality (m)

mol of solute
m=
kg of solvent

Because both moles and mass do not

change with temperature, molality
(unlike molarity) is not temperature
dependent.
Solutions
 Solution Stoichiometry (Chapter 4)
The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute
present in a given quantity of solvent or solution.
moles of solute
M = molarity =
liters of solution

What mass of KI is required to make 500. mL of

a 2.80 M KI solution?
M KI M KI
volume KI moles KI grams KI

1L 2.80 mol KI 166 g KI

500. mL x x x = 232 g KI
1000 mL 1 L soln 1 mol KI
Dilution is the procedure for preparing a less concentrated
solution from a more concentrated solution.

Dilution
Add Solvent

Moles of solute Moles of solute

before dilution (i) = after dilution (f)

MiVi = MfVf
 How would you prepare 60.0 mL of 0.2 M
HNO3 from a stock solution of 4.00 M HNO3?

MiVi = MfVf

Mi = 4.00 Mf = 0.200 Vf = 0.06 L Vi = ? L

MfVf 0.200 x 0.06

Vi = = = 0.003 L = 3 mL
Mi 4.00

3 mL of acid + 57 mL of water = 60 mL of solution

Changing Molarity to Molality

If we know the
density of the
solution, we can
calculate the
molality from the
molarity, and vice
versa.

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 What is the molality of a 5.86 M ethanol (C2H5OH)
solution whose density is 0.927 g/mL?
moles of solute moles of solute
m = M =
mass of solvent (kg) liters of solution

Assume 1 L of solution:
5.86 moles ethanol = 270 g ethanol
927 g of solution (1000 mL x 0.927 g/mL)
mass of solvent = mass of solution – mass of solute
= 927 g – 270 g = 657 g = 0.657 kg

moles of solute 5.86 moles C2H5OH

m = = = 8.92 m
mass of solvent (kg) 0.657 kg solvent
Gravimetric Analysis
1. Dissolve unknown substance in water
2. React unknown with known substance to form a precipitate
3. Filter and dry precipitate
4. Weigh precipitate
5. Use chemical formula and mass of precipitate to determine
amount of unknown ion
Titrations
In a titration a solution of accurately known concentration is
added gradually added to another solution of unknown
concentration until the chemical reaction between the two
solutions is complete.

Equivalence point – the point at which the reaction is complete

Indicator – substance that changes color at (or near) the

equivalence point

Slowly add base

to unknown acid
UNTIL
the indicator
changes color
 What volume of a 1.420 M NaOH solution is
Required to titrate 25.00 mL of a 4.50 M H2SO4
solution?

WRITE THE CHEMICAL EQUATION!

H2SO4 + 2NaOH 2H2O + Na2SO4

M rx M
volume acid moles acid moles base volume base
acid coef. base

4.50 mol H2SO4 2 mol NaOH 1000 ml soln

25.00 mL x x x = 158 mL
1000 mL soln 1 mol H2SO4 1.420 mol NaOH