Introducere in 1G-4G

The beginning
• Cellular radio is a technique that was developed to increase the
capacity available for mobile radio telephone service.
• Prior to the introduction of cellular communication, mobile radio
telephone service was only provided by a high-power
transmitter/receiver
• A typical system supported about 25 channels with an effective
radius of about 80 km
 The
beginning
1G

• First generation (1G): 1G is an

analog technology for supporting
voice calls. 1G phones had relatively
poor battery life and voice quality,
were about the size of a brick, and
provided little or no security.
2G

 Second generation (2G): 2G

introduced the use of digital
transmission. As with all the other
generations, 2G supports voice. It also
supports data transmission at modest
speeds, so it is suitable only for low-
data-rate applications, such as text
messaging.
3G

 Third generation (3G): Cellular

networks as a versatile technology
appear with 3G. 3G supports much
higher data rates and provides greater
security and reliability than 2G. 3G
enables the use of smartphones for
Internet-related applications such as
web browsing, emailing, video
downloading, and picture sharing.
4G

 Fourth generation (4G): 4G is a

significant advance over 3G in almost all
aspects. Its purpose is to provide
broadband speeds, high quality, and high
capacity to users while improving security
and lowering the cost of voice and data
services, multimedia, and Internet access.
 Applications include improved mobile
web access, IP telephony, gaming
services, high-definition mobile TV, video
conferencing, 3D television, and cloud
computing.
5G

 Fifth generation (5G): 5G is a truly

revolutionary expansion of the
capability of cellular networks. 5G
provides much higher data rates, higher
connection density, and a far broader
range of applications.
5G

5G targets three broad areas of usage.

 Enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB) provides

support for applications demanding very high
data rates, equivalent to what can be achieved
with optical fiber connections.
 Massive machine type communications (mMTC)
provides the ability to support a huge number
of devices in a given geographic area, such as a
large Internet of Things (IoT) deployment.
 Ultra-reliable and low-latency communications
(URLLC) is a form of machine-to-machine
communications that enables delay-sensitive
and mission-critical services that require very
low end-to-end delay, such as tactile Internet,
remote control of medical or industrial robots,
driverless cars, and real-time traffic control.
Cellular Network Concepts
• A cellular network uses multiple low-power transmitters, on the order
of 100 W or less.
• Because the range of such a transmitter is small, an area can be
divided into cells, each one served by its own antenna, typically
located at the center of the cell.
• Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and is served by a base
station, consisting of transmitter, receiver, and control unit.
• Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference
or crosstalk. However, cells sufficiently distant from each other can
use the same frequency band.
• The first design decision to make is the shape of cells to cover an area
Cellular Network Concepts
 Cellular Network Concepts

A wireless cellular system limits the opportunity to use the same

frequency for different communications because the signals, not
being constrained, can interfere with one another even if
geographically separated.
Systems supporting a large number of communications
simultaneously need mechanisms to conserve spectrum.
 Frequency Reuse
In a cellular system, each cell has a base transceiver

The transmission power is carefully controlled to allow communication within the cell using a given
frequency while limiting the power at that frequency that escapes the cell into adjacent cells.

Generally, 10 to 50 frequencies are assigned to each cell, depending on the traffic expected

A key design issue involves determining the minimum separation between two cells using the
same frequency band so that the two cells do not interfere with each other
Frequency Reuse
 Frequency Reuse - problem
A cellular network operator plans to deploy a new 4G LTE network in a suburban area covering 100 square
kilometers (12121 terenuri de fotbal). The operator has a limited spectrum allocation of 30 MHz for this
deployment. To optimize the network's capacity and coverage, the operator decides to use a frequency reuse
pattern based on a hexagonal grid model.
Each cell in the network is hexagonal and will be sectorized into three sectors, with each sector using a
distinct set of frequencies. The expected average traffic demand per sector is estimated to be 0.5 Erlangs,
and each user's average bandwidth requirement is 0.1 Mbps.
Questions:
1.Cell Design: If the operator decides to use a frequency reuse factor of 7, how many cells will the operator
need to cover the entire area? Assume the distance from the center to a vertex of a hexagon (cell radius) is 1
km.
2.Spectrum Allocation: How should the 30 MHz spectrum be allocated across the cells and sectors to ensure
efficient use and minimize interference?
3.Capacity Estimation: Given the traffic demand and user bandwidth requirements, estimate the total
network capacity in terms of the number of simultaneous users that can be supported. Assume the spectral
efficiency of the 4G LTE network is 2 bits/Hz.
 Frequency Reuse - problem
Additional Information:
•Erlang: A unit of traffic density in a telecommunications system.
•Spectral Efficiency: The rate of information transfer over a given bandwidth in a communication system.
 Frequency Reuse – problem - solution
Cell Design
To cover a 100 square kilometer area with hexagonal cells where each cell has a radius of 1 km, we first need to calculate
the area of each cell. The area of a hexagon is given by the formula 𝐴 = 𝑅 , where R is the radius.
R=1 km
3 3
𝐴= 1 = 2.598 𝑘𝑚
2

To find out how many cells are needed to cover the entire area:
Total cover area 100 km2
No of cells = Total area/are of a cell = 100/2.598 = 38.49 -> 39 cells
 Frequency Reuse – problem - solution
Spectrum Allocation
With a 30 MHz spectrum and a frequency reuse factor of 7, the spectrum is divided among 7 different cell groups before
it's reused.
•Spectrum per cell group = 30MHz/7 = 4.29MHz

Each cell is sectorized into 3 sectors, so the spectrum is further divided among the sectors.
Spectrum per cell = 4.29 MHz/3 = 1.43 MHz.
 Frequency Reuse – problem - solution
Capacity Estimation
To estimate the total network capacity in terms of the number of simultaneous users, we use the spectral efficiency and
the spectrum allocated per sector.
•Spectral efficiency = 2 bps/Hz
•Total bits per second per sector= 1.43 ∗ 10 𝐻𝑧 ∗ = 1.86 ∗ 10 𝑏𝑝𝑠

•Given each user requires 0.1 Mbps (or 10 bits/s):

. ∗ /
•Users per sector = 28.6 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑠 → 28 users per sector
/ /
•Given 39 cells each with 3 sectors -> 3276 users
 Frequency Reuse – problem - solution
Capacity Estimation
To estimate the total network capacity in terms of the number of simultaneous users, we use the spectral efficiency and
the spectrum allocated per sector.
•Spectral efficiency = 2 bps/Hz
•Total bits per second per sector= 1.43 ∗ 10 𝐻𝑧 ∗ = 1.86 ∗ 10 𝑏𝑝𝑠

•Given each user requires 0.1 Mbps (or 10 bits/s):

. ∗ /
•Users per sector = 28.6 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑠 → 28 users per sector
/ /
•Given 39 cells each with 3 sectors -> 3276 users
 Increasing Capacity Through Network Densification

In time, as more customers use a cellular system, traffic may build up so that there are not enough frequency bands
assigned to a cell to handle calls.

A number of approaches have been used to cope with this situation, including the following:

Addition of new channels: Typically, when a system is set up in a region, not all of the channels are used, and growth and
expansion can be managed in an orderly fashion by adding new channels.

Frequency borrowing: In the simplest case, frequencies are taken from adjacent cells by congested cells. The frequencies
can also be assigned to cells dynamically.

Cell splitting: In practice, the distribution of traffic and topographic features is not uniform, and this presents
opportunities for capacity increase.
Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells. Generally, the original cells are about 6.5 to 13 km in size. A
radius reduction by a factor of F reduces the coverage area and increases the required number of base stations by a factor
of F2

Also, as the mobile units move, they pass from cell to cell, which requires that the call be transferred from one base
transceiver to another. This process is called a handover
Increasing Capacity Through Network Densification
 Increasing Capacity Through Network Densification

Small cells, or micro cells: As cells become smaller, antennas move from the tops of tall buildings or hills,
to the tops of small buildings or the sides of large buildings, and finally to lamp posts, where they
form picocells. Each decrease in cell size is accompanied by a reduction in the radiated power levels from
the base stations and the mobile units.

Picocells are useful in city streets in congested areas, along highways, and inside large public buildings. If
placed inside buildings, these are called femtocells, and they might be open to all users or only to
authorized users (e.g., only those who work in the building).

If a femtocell is for only a restricted set of users, this is called a closed subscriber group. This process of
increasing capacity by using small cells is called network densification. The large outdoor cells
called macro cells are intended to support high-mobility users.

Mitogating interference:
For example, if two mobile devices are close to their respective base stations, transmit powers could be
greatly reduced for each connection but still provide adequate service. Then the two mobile devicess could
use the same frequencies, even in adjacent cells.
 Increasing Capacity Through Network Densification

Modern systems take advantage of these opportunities through techniques such as inter-cell
interference coordination (ICIC) and coordinated multipoint transmission (CoMP).

These techniques perform various functions, such as warning adjacent cells when interference might be
significant (e.g., a user is near the boundary between two cells) or performing joint scheduling of
frequencies across multiple cells.
Network
System
Elements
Network System Elements
• Base station: A network element in a radio access network responsible for radio
transmission and reception in one or more cells to or from the user equipment. A base
station can have an integrated antenna or can be connected to an antenna by feeder
cables. The base station interfaces the user terminal (through an air interface) to a radio
access network infrastructure.
• Air interface: Wireless interface between user equipment and the base station, also called
a radio interface. The air interface specifies the method for transmitting information over
the air between base stations and mobile units, including protocols, frequency, channel
bandwidth, and the modulation scheme.
• Mobile telecommunications switching office (MTSO): Used by a cellular service provider
for originating and terminating functions for calls to or from end user customers of the
cellular provider. Also known as mobile switching center (MSC).
• Radio access network (RAN): The network that connects radio base stations to the core
network. The RAN provides and maintains radio-specific functions, which may be unique to
a given radio access technology, that allow users to access the core network. RAN
components include base stations and antennas, MTSOs, and other management and
transmission elements.
• Core network: A central network that provides networking services to attached distribution
and access networks.
2nd generation
 Digital traffic channels: The most notable difference between the two generations is that 1G systems are
almost purely analog, whereas 2G systems are digital. In particular, 1G systems are designed to support
voice channels using FM; digital traffic is supported only by the use of a modem that converts the digital
data into analog form. 2G systems provide digital traffic channels. These systems readily support digital
data; voice traffic is first encoded in digital form before transmission.
 Encryption: Because all of the user traffic, as well as control traffic, is digitized in 2G systems, it is a
relatively simple matter to encrypt all of the traffic to prevent eavesdropping. All 2G systems provide this
capability, whereas 1G systems send user traffic in the clear, providing no security.
 Error detection and correction: The digital traffic stream of 2G systems also lends itself to the use of error
detection and correction techniques/ The result can be very clear voice reception.
 Channel access: In 1G systems, each cell supports a number of channels. At any given time, a channel is
allocated to only one user. 2G systems also provide multiple channels per cell, but each channel is
dynamically shared by a number of users using time-division multiple access (TDMA) or code-division
multiple access (CDMA).
2nd generation TDMA
• With TDMA for cellular systems, as with FDMA, each cell is allocated a number of channel—half
reverse channels and half forward channels.
• For full-duplex communication, a mobile unit is assigned capacity on matching reverse and forward
channels. In addition, each physical channel is further subdivided into a number of logical
channels. Transmission is in the form of a repetitive sequence of frames, each of which is divided into
a number of time slots.
• Each slot position across the sequence of frames forms a separate logical channel.
2nd generation TDMA
2nd generation TDMA
In a particular GSM network using TDMA, each frequency channel is divided into eight time slots,
corresponding to the eight users it can serve simultaneously. The network operates in a spectrum with a
bandwidth of 5 MHz. Assume the carrier spacing (the separation between adjacent carrier frequencies) is 200
kHz, and each user is allocated one time slot per TDMA frame.
The GSM network in a small city is experiencing congestion during peak hours. The current configuration
supports 1,000 simultaneous calls. Due to an increase in demand, the network operator wants to increase this
capacity by 50% to accommodate more users.
• Questions:
1. Calculate the number of frequency channels currently used in the network to support 1,000 simultaneous
calls.
2. Determine the total number of frequency channels available in the 5 MHz bandwidth.
3. Based on your calculations, propose a solution to increase the network's capacity by 50% while considering
the available bandwidth and the TDMA structure. Specify any assumptions you make.
4. Discuss the potential impact of your proposed solution on the network's performance and user experience.
2nd generation TDMA
1. Current Channels Used: The network is currently using 125 frequency channels to support 1,000
simultaneous calls, given that each channel supports 8 users (1000 calls / 8 users per channel).
2. Total Channels Available: There are 25 total frequency channels available within the 5 MHz bandwidth,
considering a carrier spacing of 200 kHz (5 MHz / 200 kHz).
3. Additional Channels Required: To increase the network's capacity by 50% (to accommodate 1500
simultaneous calls), the network would require 62.5 additional channels (187.5 channels needed in total -
125 current channels). This is based on the need to support 1,500 simultaneous calls, with each channel
supporting 8 users (1500 calls / 8 users per channel).
2nd generation TDMA
Given this constraint, a direct increase in capacity through additional channels is not feasible. Instead, the
solution may involve:
Reallocating unused spectrum: If there's additional spectrum available that's not currently being utilized
by the network, it could be repurposed to add more channels.
Increasing efficiency: Implementing more efficient voice codecs or compression techniques could allow
more calls to be handled within the existing channels.
Implementing advanced technologies: Techniques like frequency hopping or introducing 3G/4G
technologies in the area could increase the capacity without relying solely on additional TDMA channels.
1. Impact on Network Performance and User Experience:
1. Reallocating unused spectrum might not impact existing users but depends on the availability of such
spectrum.
2. Increasing efficiency could potentially decrease the quality of individual calls if not implemented
carefully.
3. Advanced technologies could significantly improve capacity and call quality but would require
substantial investment and potential changes to user devices.
2nd generation GSM
 2nd generation GSM
Network Subsystem
The network subsystem (NS) provides the link between the cellular network and the public switched telecommunications
networks. The NS controls handoffs between cells in different BSSs, authenticates users and validates their accounts, and
includes functions for enabling worldwide roaming of mobile users. The central element of the NS is the mobile switching
center (MSC). It is supported by four databases that it controls:
 Home location register (HLR) database: The HLR stores information, both permanent and temporary, about each of
the subscribers that “belongs” to it (i.e., for which the subscriber has its telephone number associated with the
switching center).
 Visitor location register (VLR) database: One important, temporary piece of information is the location of the
subscriber. The VLR maintains information about subscribers that are currently physically located in the region
covered by the switching center. It records whether or not the subscriber is active and other parameters associated with
the subscriber. For a call coming to the subscriber, the system uses the telephone number associated with the subscriber
to identify the home switching center of the subscriber. This switching center can find in its HLR the switching center
in which the subscriber is currently physically located. For a call coming from the subscriber, the VLR is used to
initiate the call. Even if the subscriber is in the area covered by its home switching center, it is also represented in the
switching center’s VLR, for consistency.
 2nd generation GSM
Network Subsystem
 Authentication center (AuC) database: This database is used for authentication activities of the system; for example,
it holds the authentication and encryption keys for all the subscribers in both the home and visitor location
registers. The AuC controls access to user data, and it is also used for authentication when a subscriber joins a
network. GSM transmission is encrypted, so it is private. A stream cipher, A5, is used to encrypt transmissions from
subscriber to base transceiver. However, the conversation is in the clear in the landline network. Another key is used for
authentication.
 Equipment identity register (EIR) database: The EIR keeps track of the type of equipment that exists at the mobile
station. It also plays a role in security (e.g., blocking calls from stolen mobile stations and preventing use of the
network by stations that have not been approved).
 3G
The objective of the third-generation (3G) of wireless communication is to provide fairly high-speed wireless
communications to support multimedia, data, and video in addition to voice.
 Voice quality comparable to that of the public switched telephone network
 144 kbps data rate available to users in high-speed motor vehicles over large areas
 384 kbps available to pedestrians standing or moving slowly over small areas
 Support (to be phased in) for 2.048 Mbps for office use
 Symmetrical and asymmetrical data transmission rates
 Support for both packet-switched and circuit-switched data services
 An adaptive interface to the Internet to reflect efficiently the common asymmetry between inbound and
outbound traffic
 More efficient use of the available spectrum in general
 Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment
 Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services and technologies
 • The dominant technology for 3G systems is code-division multiple access
(CDMA).

3G - Code- • CDMA builds on the use of spread spectrum.

• Spread spectrum is a technique in which the information in a signal is spread
Division over a wider bandwidth than necessary by using a spreading code.
Multiple • CDMA is a multiple-access technique in which multiple logical channels have
access to the same frequency band.
Access • The logical channels encode bits in such a way that there is zero or little cross-
correlation, so that such signals are distinguishable even when they share the
same frequency bands and the same time intervals.
• 5G does not employ CDMA, and so this book does not pursue this topic.
3G – Architecture
3G – Architecture
UTRAN
Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) is part of the evolution to packet-switched technology to
support efficient digital data communications. The essential elements of the UTRAN are the Node B and the
radio network controller (RNC). A Node B is equivalent to a traditional base transceiver station (BTS) but is
designed to support high-speed data traffic, using a CDMA-based air interface. Also, a single BTS serves a single
cell, whereas a single Node B can use sector antennas to serve multiple sectors. The RNC is equivalent to a base
station controller (BSC) but designed to support multiple Node Bs.
 3G – Architecture
UMTS Core Network
The UMTS core network consists of a number of functional elements, some in the circuit-switched (CS) domain, some in the
packet-switched (PS) domain, and some shared by both domains. Functional elements in the CS domain are primarily based on
the GSM network entities and carry data in a circuit-switched manner (i.e., a permanent channel for the duration of the
call). These elements are:
 Mobile switching center (MSC): Manages circuit-switched calls. The MSC also includes a visitor location register
(VLR), which controls mobile stations roaming in the MSC area. When a mobile station (MS) enters a new location
area, it starts a registration procedure. An MSC in charge of that area notices this registration and transfers to a
visitor location register the identity of the location area where the MS is situated.
 Gateway MSC (GMSC): The interface to the PTSN and GSM networks.
 3G – Architecture
UMTS Core Network
The elements in the PS domain are:
 Serving GPRS support node (SGSN): This element was first introduced in 2G GSM systems to support packet-switched functionality. It provides
the following functions:
 Mobility management (MM): When user equipment (UE) attaches to the PS domain, the SGSN generates MM information based on the
mobile’s current location.

 Session management: The SGSN manages the data sessions, providing the required quality of service. It also manages the PDP (Packet Data
Protocol) contexts, which are logical connections over which the data packets are sent.

 Billing: The SGSN monitors the flow of data to generate billing information.

 Gateway GPRS support node (GGSN): The GGSN is the central element within the PS domain. It handles
interworking between the UMTS packet-switched network and external packet-switched networks, thus
functioning as a router. In operation, when the GGSN receives data addressed to a specific user, it checks
whether the user is active and then forwards the data to the SGSN serving the particular UE.
4G
 4G
 Be based on an all-IP packet switched network.
 Support peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbps for
high-mobility mobile access and up to approximately 1 Gbps for
low-mobility access such as local wireless access.
 Dynamically share and use the network resources to support
more simultaneous users per cell.
 Support smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks.
 Support high quality of service for next-generation multimedia
applications.
4G
 4G
E-UTRAN
The heart of the E-UTRAN is the base station, designated evolved NodeB (eNodeB). In UMTS, the base station is
referred to as NodeB. The key differences between the two base station technologies are:
 The NodeB station interface with subscriber stations (referred to as user equipment [UE]) is based on CDMA,
whereas the eNodeB air interface is based on OFDMA.
 eNodeB embeds its own control functionality rather than using a radio network controller (RNC), as does a
NodeB. This means that the eNodeB now supports radio resource control, admission control, and mobility
management, which were originally the responsibility of the RNC. The simpler structure without an RNC
results in simpler operation and higher performance.
The X2 interface is used for eNodeBs to interact with each other. The architecture is open so that there can be
interconnections between different manufacturers. There is a control plane X2-C interface that supports mobility
management, handover preparation, status transfer, UE context release, handover cancel, inter-cell interference
coordination, and load management. The X2-U interface is the user plane interface used to transport data during
X2-initiated handover.
 4G
The essential components of the EPC:
 Mobility management entity (MME): The MME deals with control signaling related to mobility and
security. The MME is responsible for the tracking and paging of UE in idle mode.
 Serving gateway (SGW): The SGW deals with user data transmitted and received by UEs in packet form, using
IP. The SGW is the point of interconnect between the radio side and the EPC. As its name indicates, this
gateway serves the UE by routing the incoming and outgoing IP packets. It is the anchor point for the intra-LTE
mobility (i.e., in the case of handover between eNodeBs). Thus packets can be routed from an eNodeB to an
eNodeB in another area via the SGW and can also be routed to external networks such as the Internet (via the
PGW).
 Packet data network gateway (PGW): The PGW is the point of interconnection between the EPC and external
IP networks such as the Internet. The PGW routes packets to and from the external networks. It also performs
various functions, such as IP address/IP prefix allocation and policy control and charging.
 Home subscriber server (HSS): the HSS maintains a database that contains user-related and subscriber-
related information. It also provides support functions in mobility management, call and session setup, user
authentication, and access authorization.
4G FDD and TDD
• FDD systems allocate different frequency
bands for uplink (UL) and downlink (DL)
transmissions. The UL and DL channels are
usually grouped into two blocks of contiguous
channels (paired spectrum) that are
separated by a guard band of a number of
vacant radio-frequency (RF) channels for
interference avoidance.

• For TDD, the UL and DL transmissions

operate in the same band but alternate in the
time domain. Capacity can be allocated more
flexibly than with FDD. It is a simple matter of
changing the proportion of time devoted to UL
and DL within a given channel.
4G Carrier
Aggregation
• Carrier aggregation is used in LTE-
Advanced in order to increase the
bandwidth and thereby increase the
bitrates.
• Carrier aggregation can be used for
both FDD and TDD. Each aggregated
carrier is referred to as a component
carrier (CC). The component carrier
can have a bandwidth of 1.4, 3, 5, 10,
15, or 20 MHz, and a maximum of five
component carriers can be
aggregated; hence, the maximum
aggregated bandwidth is 100 MHz.
4G License-
Assisted Access
• LTE was designed for licensed
spectra where an operator has an
exclusive
license for a certain frequency
range

• Using unlicensed spectra as a

complement to offer higher
data rates and higher capacity in
local areas is of interest.
4G Machine-Type
Communication

• MTC applications can be divided into

two main categories, massive MTC and
ultra-reliable low-latency
communication (URLLC).
• To better support massive MTC, the
3GPP specifications provide two parallel
and complementing technologies—
eMTC and NB-IoT.
4G Machine-Type
Communication
• MTC applications can be divided into
two main categories, massive MTC and
ultra-reliable low-latency
communication (URLLC).
• To better support massive MTC, the
3GPP specifications provide two
parallel and complementing
technologies—eMTC and NB-IoT.
4G D2D Comm

• Cellular systems, such as LTE, are

designed assuming that devices connect
to a base station to communicate.
• However, if the device is interested in
communicating with a neighboring device,
or just detecting whether there is a
neighboring device that is of interest, the
network-centric communication may not
be the best approach.
• To address these situations network-
assisted device-to-device
communication, was introduced, using
parts of the uplink spectrum
4G v2v and v2x

• Examples are vehicle-to-vehicle

communication for safety, for example to
transmit messages to vehicles behind when
the car in front breaks.
• Another example is platooning where
several trucks drive very close to each other
and follow the first
truck in the platoon, thereby saving fuel and
reducing CO2 emissions.
• Communication
between vehicles and infrastructure is also
useful, for example to obtain information
about the traffic situation, weather updates,
and alternative routes in case of congestion