10

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Q.6. Explain the generations of computers?

generations of Computers. They
are:
There are five
(a) First Generation computers,
(b) Second Generation computers,
(c) Third Generation computers,
(d) Fourth Generation computers,

(e) Fifth Generation computers.

a) First Generation computers: The first generation of
ComputerS used vacuum tubes. They were large and slow, and they

produce lots at heat. The

vacuum tubes tailed trequently, so tirst
generation computers were "down" (not working) much of the time.
nese compulers were
given nstructions in machine language, which
i5 composed entirely of the numbers 0 and 1. Machine language was
aicuitto work with and hard to interpret.
Inthe first generation computers, data and instructions were
input from punched cards and the secondary storage consisted of
magnetic drums which were later on replaced by magnetic tape.

(b) Second Generation computers: A break through in the

computing world occured in the second generation computers. 1he
large, unreliable vacuum tubes were replaced by transistors, These
transistorS are smal1, require very little power and run ettectively.
They are much more reitable. In this
generation, memory was
composed of small magnetic cores. Magnetic disks were developed
tor secondary storage.

The development of high-level languages, which are easier

for people to understand and work with made programming easy.
Second generation computers could communicate with each other
over telephone line5, transmit data from one location to another.
Communication was tairly slow, but a new method of exchanging
data and ideas was now.available.

These second generation computers had some problems. The

input and oulput devices were.s0 slow that the computer itself
sat idle, waiting for cards to be read reporls be
frequently or to

printed
(c) Third Generation computers: The third generation
computers developcd
the concept ot
integrated circuits. These
FANDAMENTALSOF
COMPUTERS
Hardcopy devices are the output devices
which produces the
paper (hard copy). Examples incude
devices will produce the printers. Soft copy
output on a
display screen. The
display sereen is also called as monitor.
The most commonly used
technolog8y in the design of display
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
technolo8y. Other
a

LEDs(Light Emitting Diodes), LCDs (Liquid Crystaltechnologies

Displays),
Plasma panels, Direct view
storage tubes etc.,
Q.2. Define term
computer. Explain
computers. characteristics, features of
A computer is an electronic
device with the ability to
input from users,
process the data and accept
output the results to
user. A
computer will also have the ability to store the user's
data to a
lang xte nt

Characteristics of computers:
The
0)
following is a list of
characterstics of computers
Accuracy (2) Storage Speed (4) Versatility (5)
(3)
1. Diligence.
Accuracy: Computers always process the data with
acuracy. But while computing, due to high
inaccurate human mistakes some
results may occur
2
rarely.
Storage: Computers have large storage
9pes of
storage are generally used in any capacity. Two
(a) Primary computer
memory, b) Secondary memory.
ne contents of secondary memory is
o f primary permanent whereasthe
aSured in memory is voltile. The storage capacity 1s
terms of number of
3. bytes.
Speed The rate at which
called speed of computers
he
Comm Per second is
the P dem.
re computer. Moue
instructions within Micro, Nano and Pico seconds.
I micro second
l
1/10 of asecond
nano second
1/10" of second a

pico second 1/10 of a sud

 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS
2. Memory: The main purpose of memory is to store
information. Basically two types of memories are used in

computer.
(a) Primary memory or main memory

(b) Secondary menory or auxillary memory.

Primary memory is volatile in nature ie, the information

stored on primary memory will be lost when the computer is

switched off.
The information written to a hard disk is permanent.
To improve the performance of the computer several other
virtual memory etc,
memories a r e used such as cache memory,
In technology point of view, 2 types of memory are available.

Semiconductor memory, Magnetic memory.

Semiconductor memory is static, faster, lighter, smaller in size
and consumes less power. Generally this type of memory is used as
main memory.
Magnetic memory is slower but cheaper when compared to
semi conductor memory. It is used as secondary memory and backup
for mass storage of information.
RAM, ROM, EPROM are examples for semiconductor memory.
Hard disk, floppy disk, tape are examples for magnetic memory.
3. Input devices: Information is entered into the computer
through input devices. An input device converts input information
into
suitable binaryisform acceptable to computer. One commonly
a

Other input devices include mouse

used input device keyboard.
Joystick, light pen, touch screen, track balls etc., Now days voice a
input systems are also have been developed.
4. results and other
Output
information
devices: Output
and
devices redieve
them to the users.
from the computer provides The
computer usually sends the information in the form of binary coded
representation. Then output device converts it into user
understandable form and provides the output to the users
Output devices can be broadly classified into two categories
G) Hardcopy devices;
(ii) Softcopy devices.
 UNIT-1: NTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Essay Questions
Q.1. Explain the block diagram of computers ?

The major component of a digital computer are shown in the

tollowing block diagram. They are CPU, memory, input devices and
output deviCes.

The input and output devices are also called as peripherals of

the computer.

Central Processing
Input device V Unit Outputdovice

MEMORY

Block diagram of computer

1. CPU: CPU stands for Central Processing Unit. It is heart
he of the of to
conmputer. The primary function a CP0 is execute
programs. Besides this, it also controls the operation of input output
devices and memory unit. In small computers, a Micro-processor chip
acts as C P .

The CPU again contains sub units. They are: i) Control Unit
CU); (i) Arithmatic and Logic Unit (ALU) ; (ii) Accumulator
Eeneral and special purpose registers.
Control unit generates the timing and control signals that are
or
sary to execute instructions. It controls the entire operation
comput
Suchne function of an ALU is to perform arithmatic operations
Such as addition, subtraction, multiplicao
such as ANID
AND, OR,
also p NOT,
OR, NOt,
EXCLUSIV ertain logic operations
and data
while Registers
are used to store the temporary results
performing certain operations.
FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS
51
2 21 1
2 10 0

251
22
(169)jo- (10101001),
Q.4. What is a Two's complement? Explain subtracting two
binary nunbers using tuwo's complaint.
Two's complement of a given number can be calculated using
following steps.
That
(a) Complement each digit of
the number. is dhange 1 to 0
number 1s said to be ones complement form.
and 0 to 1.1he resultant
(b) Add 1 to the resultant in one's
number complement form to
the corresponding two's complement.
get Two's complement
Subtraction of binary numbers using
followed.
For this the following steps are to be
number to be subtracted
(1) Find the two's complement of the
(subtrahend). Discard any carry
bit
(2) Add the minued and subtrahend.
number.
number of the bits of the original
that extends beyond the method.
Perfom 1011-1010 using two's complement
Example:
Here subtrahend = 1010
subtrahend = 01OI
One's complement of
=0110
0101 + 1
Two's complement of subtrahend
=

subtrahend
of the
two's complement
Add the minuend and

1011

O110
result
10001 Discard carry to get
Answer - 0001.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTE
Q 2 How to conterta binary number into decimal system

Eplain giving example.

In a binary number the positional weights are powers of 2 7
convert a given binary number into decimal we have to multipt
cach binary bit with its positional weight. Ihe positional weigh
are 2",2, 2 etc starting from LSB (Least signiticant Bit).

Given binary number : 1101.

Ezample :

Decimal equivalent 1x2+1/2-02-12

-8+40-1-13
Examples:Convert 101010O1 into decimal system.
Decimal equivalent
Ix27-0212-021+12-02+L2-12
= 128+0+32+0-840+0+1 - 169.

Q.3. How to convert a decimal number into binary system?

Explain giving examples.
To convert a decimal number into binary 5ystem we have t
Tepeatedly divide the given decimal number by 2 and note down the
remainders. This process has to be repeated until the number canno
be divided by 2
anymore
Example:Convert 13 into binary system.

231

(13 (1101),
Example: Convert 169 into binary system.
2 169
2 84 0
2 42 0
 UNIT-1: NUMBER SYSTEM AND COMPUTER CODES
Essay Questions

o.1. Whut is bimary "umber system? What is its

computers.
use in
For binary number
system the base is 2. A bit is the short form
or binary digit. A bit be
can either 0 or 1. For computers the
ystem is best suited binary
as binary numbers can be easily translated into
lectrical impulses.ne binary system can be effectively used to
ncryptmessages. Electronics and computer science
TOdependent binary syste. by using tour binary bits we cantotally
on
count
are

rom 0 to 15 in
decimal. The tollowing table shows these
rcuhumbers and decimal equivalents. binary
Binary Value
Decimal Value
0000
0001

0010
0011
O100
n 0101
h
0110
a O111
1000
1001
1010 0
1011
1100 2
1101
1110 4

1111
FUADAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS
11
d circuits incorporate many transistors and electronic
singe water or chipi
Integrat

rCuits on ilicon. Integrated circuits are

rc aled chips because ot the way they are made.
ategrated circuit technalogy 1s responsible for the computer
ntechnical progress. The third generation
ind mofre memory ana taster
processing.
computers
otte ment of this generation was Another significant
aunching
mmunications satelnte communication stations of earth
on the first
eansmit and receive data to and trom the satellites,
wldwide communicatons Derweern computer systems. enabling
(d) Fourth Generation computers: Creation of tiny
chip gave wayone wora's tirstmicroprocessor. A computer on
icroprocessor chip noas on a singechip the entire control unit and

arithmatic-logic unit ot a computer. 1he technique called very large

ale integration (VLS) used to build
microprocessors enable chip
companies to mass-produce computer chips that contain hundreds of
or even mlons ol transistors.
thousands
Fourth Generation technology is
strong.
pack even more transistors on one chip have led to such
still going Efforts to

Bevelopments as Intel's pentium microprocessors. Although high

level languages are still used extensively, very
languages aPpeared during fourth-generation. A very high-level
high-level
language is way of writing instructions for a complex application
a

program that has a large command set.

Another fourth
d
generation development is the
computer networking, which enables computers tospread
of
high
communicate
and share data. Within organizations, Local Area Networks
ect several dozen or even several hundred commputers within (LAN)
ted geographic area (one building or several a
he. Wide Area Networks (WAN) provide global buildings near each
connections tor
nputers.
ifth
e Generation computers: Major changes are occurringn
swell as hardware. According to experts, the
th trademar
generation will be artificial intelligence (A). Computes
cal
vith h intelligence will have some attributes
associated
espond to nat nce, such as the capabilities to decode and
r language (a human language such as Engisn), to
uraw
Put. interences, and to recognise patterms in sensoy