1.

Culture
Classical language status

Adopt a heritage
Impact of Geography on History

1. Himalayas stood as a natural barrier to protect India against invasions.

But, the passes in the northwest mountains such as the Khyber, Bolan,
Kurram and Gomal provided easy routes between India and Central
Asia. Apart from invading armies, missionaries and merchants came to
India using these routes.
2. Nepal is also a small valley under the foot of the Himalayas and it is
accessible from Gangetic plains through a number of passes. The
mountains of northeast India is difficult to cross and many parts of this
region had remained in relative isolation.
3. The city of Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of Son river with
the Ganges. In the ancient period Pataliputra had remained the capital
for the Mauryas, Sungas, Guptas and other kingdoms. Being on the
confluence of so many streams it was an important political and
commercial centre. Pataliputra was also a centre of scientific activities.
Aryabhatta, who was a resident of Pataliputra, observed in 498 AD that
Earth revolves on its own axis and around the Sun.
4. Deccan plateau consists of volcanic rock, which is different from the
northern mountains. As these rocks are easier to cut into, we find a
number of rock-cut monasteries and temples in the Deccan.
5. The Deccan plateau acted as a bridge between the north and south
India. However, the dense forests in the Vindhya Mountains makes this
region isolated from the north. The language and culture in the southern
 peninsula are preserved in tact for a long time due to this geographical
isolation.
6. As the southern peninsula is gifted with a long coastline. A great deal of
trade and commerce went on through the seaways. Apart from trade,
they spread Indian art, religion and culture in these parts of the world.
The commercial contacts between south India and the Greco-Roman
countries flourished along with cultural relations.
7. Inspite of physical barriers, Indians used to travel from one part of the
country to another for trade or pilgrimage. Some regions were joined
together through conquests or by alliance. As a result, people
transmitted cultural habits and thoughts from one part of the country to
the other. Military campaigns too took people from one place to
another.
8. This helped in exchanging ideas. Such contacts have led to the
development of commonness in Indian culture, which has been
maintained throughout our history. Another unifying factor is climate.
Despite geographical diversity and climatic variations India experiences
an inherent unity.

Foreign book for Studying Indian history

1. To India came the Greek, Roman and Chinese visitors, either as

travellers or religious converts, and they left behind account of things
that they saw.
2. Alexander invasion of India find no mention in Indian sources, and it is
entirely on basis of Greek sources we have to construct the history of
his Indian exploits.
3. Some Greek sources mention Chandragupta Maurya which help fixing
his date of accession at 322 BC. This helps as sheet-anchor in Ancient
Indian Chronology.
4. Fragments of Indica, written by Megasthenes, provide valuable
information on Maurya administration, social classes and economic
activities. The existence of a list of 153 kings whose reigns had covered
a period of about 6053 years up till then.
5. Many Greek and Roman sources of 1 AD mention many Indian ports
and enumerate items of trade between Indian and Roman empires. The
 ptolemy’s geography provide valuable data for studying geography.
6. Fahien describes social, religious and economic conditions in the age of
Guptas, and Hiuen-Tsang presents similar account during age of
Harsha.
7. Limitations
1. Indica is not free from exaggerations. Megasthenes had little
understanding of Indian society and social systems. For example,
he mentions that Indian society comprised of seven castes.
2. Most of the Greek writings are based on secondary sources
resulting in errors and contradictions.
3. Except for Megasthenes all others have touched history very
marginally.
4. They were ignorant of the language and the customs of the
country and their information is full of unbelievable facts and
fancies.
5. The works of Megasthenes and other Greeks of those who
accompanied Alexander, have been lost and are available only in
fragments as quoted in later works.
6. Fahien and Hiuen-Tsang have given somewhat exaggerated
account of Buddhism during the period of their visit. For example
Hiuen-Tsang depicts Harsha as a follower of Buddhism but in his
epigraphic records Harsha mentions himself as a devotee of Shiva.
8. Indian rulers always have, like their subjects, been multi-religious
people, it is not difficult for a foreigner to be confused.

Numismatics in reconstruction of history

Indus valley civilisation

1. Grid system: Roads were well cut dividing the town into large
rectangular blocks. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence of
street lightning. The citadel of harappan provides ingredients to the
modern day social structure.
2. Burnt bricks: Elsewhere in contemporary world, mud-bricks were
used. Houses were monotonous - a square courtyard, around which
were a number of rooms were built.
3. Drainage system: The drains connecting from all the houses are
connected to a near by central drain. Drains were made up of mortar,
lime and gypsum and covered with large brick slabs for easy cleaning.
It shows developed sense of health and sanitation.
4. Agriculture: First to produce cotton. Domesticated cattle, dogs and
cats.
5. Commerce: Barter system. Weights and measures (16 was unit of
measure). Bead making existed in Chanhaduro. The trade of lapis
lazuli, cotton and other export and import commodities with
Mesopotamia, Sumerian is origin of modern day commerce. Their
usage of seals and stamps on traded objects to protect them from
tampering also shows present day’s encryption technique.
6. Arts and crafts: Bronze age. Potter's wheel. Seal engravings,
especially those with animals. Red Torso is impressive for its realism.
Bronze image of famous dancing girl.
7. Religious life: No temples are found. Idolatry practised. Pashupati
 Shiva, Mother Goddesses and Priest King. Phallus (lingam) and Yoni
worship. Great bath at Mohenjodaro. Seals having ritual scenes. One-
horned rhinoceros -- unicorn. Fire altars at lothal and kalibangan.
Trees, stones and animals were worshipped. Overall a secular way of
life.
8. Evidence of authority: Uniformity in artefacts -- seals, weights and
bricks. Settlements in strategic locations. Labour was mobilised. "Priest
King" figure. Presence of citadel. Planned settlements.
9. Clustered buildings: The workers building of Harappa resembles to
coolie lines of modern day tea estates in structure.
10. Importance of water and sanity: The strong belief of sanctity of water
by Harappan’s resembles to the belief of south Indians who keep water
tank in temples is a cultural input to modern day civilisation as south
Indian temples are centre of urbanized process.
11. Use of Carpentry, pottery: The use of these elements in harappan
civilisation gives similarity to modern day use of decoration, amulet,
etc.
12. Burials: Recently discovered Brick-lined burials (as opposed to plain
pits) in Rakhigarhi were among the most elaborately constructed
graves, and possibly implied a high social or ritual status.

Rig-vedic society

1. Family: Foundation of social life was family. Eldest member known as

Grihapati exercised full authority. Thus family was patriarchal but
women were not discriminated.
2. Women: No purdah. No child marriage. Freedom in choosing their
husbands. Re-marraige.
3. Varna system: Divided into four varnas. But discriminatory caste
system did not exist.
4. Economic life: Pastoralists. Agriculture was secondary occupation.
Barter system. Nishka coins. Anybody can choose any profession.
5. Political life: Aryans lived in Tribes called Jana. Kingship was not
hereditary. King was elected by the members of Jana. Women were part
of sabha. Sabhas worked on democratic lines. No regular taxation
system. Voluntary tributes. No evidence of bureaucracy and standing
 army.
6. Religious life: Material happiness. Polytheistic. Priestly class was
absent.

Later-Vedic society

1. Society: The Brahmans though continued to be respected in the society

had now lost much of their control on the power of the state. All power
is concentrated in the hands of Kshatriyas. The centre of gravity was
king not priest.
2. Women: Slowly lost their equal position. Not allowed to take part in
political life. Excluded from inheriting property. Practises like Sati,
child marriage, Purdah system crept into society.
3. Varna: More rigid. More or less hereditary.
4. Economic life: Agriculture became the chief occupation. Barley, wheat,
rice and few grains and beans began to be cultivated. Trade was
practised. Guild system. The cow as a unit of value was gradually
replaced. Many cities have sprung up.
5. Political life: Vast empires and Royal power. Monarchy and hereditary.
Elaborate bureaucracy. Regular army.
6. Religious life: Rituals became prominent. Cult of sacrifice. Towards
the end of the period, there was strong resistance against the sacrificial
practises and rituals. Many sects like Ajivikas, Buddhism, Jainism, etc
arose.

Sixth century BCE

1. Mahajanapadas: Evolution of Mahajanapadas comparable to present

day cities was a welcome change given the fact that cities declined with
the end of Harappan civilisation. Cities like Magadha, Kosala were a
major centre of trade, arts, craft etc.
2. Religious ideas: Jainism and Buddhism evolved as an opposition to the
Hinduism which created a social division in the society. People found a
new vent to get out of the clutches of caste oppression.
3. Agricultural developments: Prominent use of iron ploughs and
implements brought about a overhaul by increasing agricultural
 production. Construction of lakes, canals for irrigation purposes also
increased agricultural productivity.
4. Literary development: India got its share of rich literature with the
compilation of Mahabharata, Ramayana, Jatakas, Vedas, Upanishads,
etc.
5. Currency: Enhancement of trade was ushered in by minting coins
made of gold and silver.
6. Specialised craft: The existence of different crafts shows the
specialisation of craft headed by guild. For example, Buddhist work
refers to 18 guilds in rajagriha like needle making, gold smithery,
carpentry, Ivory etc.
7. Cultural dominance: Gangetic valley originates as a region of cultural
dominance in this era.
8. On the whole, 6th century India is worth analysing for the subsequent
repercussions that shaped the life of the people back then. The roots of
many common practices that we follow religiously is also the gift of 6th
Century India.

Magadha

1. Of all the kingdoms of north India, Magadha emerged powerful and

prosperous. It became the nerve centre of political activity in north
India. Magadha was endowed by nature with certain geographical and
strategic advantages which made her to rise to imperial greatness.
2. These were
1. Her strategic position between the upper and lower part of the
Gangetic valley was a great advantage. The Ganga and its
tributaries provided a means of cheap and convenient
communication.
2. Magadha region had a fertile soil, so agriculture was productive.
3. The iron ore in the hills near Rajgir and copper and iron deposits
near Gaya provided resources for tools and weapons.
4. Rajgir was surrounded by a group of five hills, and so it was
rendered impregnable in those days when there were no easy
means of storming citadels such as cannons.
5. Large tracts of forests where Elephants, an important component
of the army, were found.
 6. Also Magadha had ruthless and ambitious kings of whom
Bimbisara, Ajatasatru and Mahapadma Nanda are the best known.
During the reign of Bimbisara and Ajatasatru, the prosperity of
Magadha reached its zenith.

Mauryan art and architecture

1. Before Ashoka the tradition largely consisted of working in wood and

clay. India has the brick ruins of Mohenjodaro. Buildings of Vedic and
Buddhist era were of wood. Before Ashoka wooden pillars were
regularly erected.
2. Ashoka is known to have built 84,000 stupas to commemorate various
events of Buddha’s life. According to Megasthenes, Pataliputra’s
grandeur matched that of the cities of Persia.
3. Ashokan edicts were inscribed on stone pillars that were made of single
columns of polished sandstone and had capitals on their top. The best
preserved of all Ashokan edicts stands at Lauriya Nandangarh
(Bihar). The bull capital from Rampurwa is also another fine example
of Mauryan sculpture. The most famous capital is the one at Sarnath,
which shows four lions and the Dharmachakra.
4. Besides pillars, few Mauryan figures have also come to light. The most
well known of these is the Yakshi from Didarganj. The beauty of these
figures lies in the exactness of their workmanship and in the fact that
they appear to be made from one single stone.
5. Another noteworthy aspect of Mauryan architecture is the rock-cut
caves. The Lomash Rishi and the Sudama caves are examples of such
architecture. These caves cut from solid rock were provided by Ashoka
for non-Buddhist monks. These caves marked the beginning of the rock
cut architecture which was patronised by later rulers too. His rock edicts
were inscribed in the local language and the local script.

Mauryan administration

1. Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta

Maurya. Asoka’s inscriptions mention the southernmost kingdoms such
as Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras as border states.
 Therefore these states remained outside the Mauryan empire.
2. Provinces: The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with
their capitals at Taxila, Ujjain, Suvarnagiri and Kalinga. The provincial
governors were responsible for the maintenance of law and order and
collection of taxes for the empire.
3. District administration: Mauryan state had a well organised civil
service. Provinces were sub-divided into districts and had 3 main
officers. Rajukas, Pradesika, and Yuktas. The district administration
was under the charge of Rajukas, whose position and functions are
similar to modern day collector.
4. Mantri Parishad: Assisting king in day-to-day administration.
Kautilya mentions 27 super-intendents (adyakshas) mostly to regulate
economic activities.
5. Army: The Mauryan army was well organised and it was under the
control of Senapati. It consisted of 60000 infantry, 30000 cavalry, and
900 elephants etc.
6. Revenue administration: Collection of taxes was done by a separate
revenue department. Land revenue was main source of income.
Peasants paid 1/4th of the produce as Bhaga and an extra tax Bali as
tribute.
7. Courts: Kautilya mentions the existence of both civil and criminal
courts. Supreme court was at the top and there were many subordinate
courts at the provincial capitals and districts under Amatyas. The
Dhamma Mahamatras were asked by Ashoka to take steps against
unjust imprisonment.
8. Census collection was regular during the Mauryan period. The village
officials were to number the people along with other details like their
caste and occupation. They were also to count the animals in each
house. The census in the towns was taken by municipal officials to
track the movement of population both foreign and indigenous.

Economic and social conditions during Mauryan period

1. Royal incentives for industries. Industrial arts and crafts proliferated as

a result of swift communication through a network of goods and long
roads.
 2. Employment of slaves in agricultural operations.
3. Formation of Shrenis and guilds. They provided training, raw materials,
and distributed product to merchants. They were provided with high
autonomy because of their high importance in urban economy.
4. Mauryan economy was divided into 7 castes according to
Megasthenes.

Ashoka’s contribution in spread of Buddhism

1. Cultural Contribution: Ashoka sent Buddhist monks and missionaries

on expedition to countries like Sri Lanka, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar,
China, Japan etc. Along with teachings of Buddha, they have made
critical contribution to unfurl Buddhist festivals, cuisine, societal values
etc. and specifically concept of nirvana.
2. Architectural contribution: Ashoka built stupas, viharas, chaityas,
pillars, capitals and also expand the process of inscription writing on
rock edicts.
3. Infusion of Buddhist art: Ashoka provided it a new shape by allowing
direct Buddhist representation known as Mahayana unlike earlier phase
which do not advocate Buddhist representation in art.
4. Musical Contribution: Musical chanting most often in Sanskrit and
Tibet are integral part of Buddhism. Buddhist music prominently
includes Honkyoku, Buddhist chant.
5. Ashoka used local languages and scripts (Pali) on inscriptions to make
them easily understandable for common man and for cultural contact.
6. Helped to develop Mahaviharas such as Nalanda, Taxila.

Ashoka's Dhamma
Achaemenid rule

1. Archimedean vs Asokhan pillars

1. The shaft of Asokan pillars is monolithic whereas the
Archimedean pillars have joints. The shaft of Asokan pillars
tapers from bottom to top whereas Archimedean pillars are
cylindrical. The shaft of Asokan pillars is smooth whereas that of
Archimedean pillars has got grooves.
2. Asokan pillars are erected without any support base whereas
Archimedean pillars have a support base.
3. The bell shaped part of Asokan pillars is at top while that in
Archimedean pillars is at bottom. In reality, the so called bell
shaped part of Asokan pillars is an inverted lotus.
4. The Asokan pillars were not a part of any other structure. The
purpose behind their construction was to engrave instructions. But
Archimidean pillars were part of the palace and their job was to
support the roof.
5. The Asokan pillars have capitals which have sculptures of lions,
elephants and bulls. But the Archimidean pillars have no capitals
and only images of humans are engraved on their shafts.
 2. Achaemenid (Persia) rule and influence
1. Administrative structure of the Mauryan empire was influenced in
some measure by that of the Achaemenid rulers of Persia. The
cultural effects of the contacts with the Persians were also
significant.
2. The Persian scribes brought into India a new style of writing
called kharosthi. It was derived from the Aramaic script, which
was written from right to left. Many of Ashoka’s inscriptions
found in north western India are written in kharosthi.
3. The Persian influence may also be traced in the preamble of
Ashokan edicts.
4. The Mauryan art and architecture were also greatly influenced by
the Persian art. The monolithic pillar edicts of Asoka are
somewhat like the victory pillars of the Achaemenid empire.
5. The Persian influence found in Chandragupta Maurya’s court was
in the form of the ceremonial hair bath taken by the emperor on
his birthday.

Alexander and his influence

1. Achaemenid empire was finally destroyed by the Greeks under

Alexander. Alexander came to North west India and did not come
beyond it because his soldiers feared armies of Nanda’s of Magadha.
Though the contact between the Macedonians (Greek) and ancient
Indians was for a brief period, its impact was fairly wide in range.
2. Alexander’s invasion brought Europe in close contact with India, as sea
and land routes were opened between India and the West. A close
commercial relation was also established. The traders and craftsmen
used to follow these routes.
3. Alexander’s invasion paved the way for political unification of north
western India by conquering the warring tribes of this region.
4. The influence of Greek art is found in the Gandhara School of art.
5. Indians also learnt the art of making gold and silver coins from the
Greeks.
6. The Greeks had some influence on Indian astrology as well. The term
'Horshastra', used for astrology in Sanskrit is derived from Greek term
 'Horoscope'.
7. They also introduced the practise of military governorship. The
Governors were called 'Satraps'.
8. Many ideas and notions of Indian philosophy and religion which
filtered into the Roman empire flowed through the channel opened by
Alexander.
9. Much valuable information about the social and economic condition of
north western India can be known from Greek accounts left by
Megasthenes. Ex: Crafts were developed, trade with outside world.

Buddhism vs Brahmanism

1. Brahmanical view of society derived from Purusha Sukta was primarily

built upon the four fold caste system, with the Brahmans on top and the
Shudras at the bottom. While no such caste system existed in the
Buddhism.
2. Buddhist theory of kingship depicts king as a well wisher of subjects
whose utmost duty is to cherish his children. On the other hand
brahmanical theory explicitly mentions strict norms to be followed by
subjects to king, disobedience of which attract strict punishment. A
clear idea of king as utmost guardian of subjects to provide service to
them as depicted by Buddhist teachings is not seen here.
3. Buddhist ideas tries to attribute king as learned person with human
characters while brahmanical view tends to regard king to more divine
and sublime establishing him as separate entity.
4. According to Buddhist theory kings derives legitimacy from the
consent of people and latter have a right to dethrone him while in
brahmanical view it is considered as treason.

Jainism and Buddhism

1. Reasons why they came

1. The Vedic rituals were expensive and the sacrifices prescribed
were very complicated and had lost their meaning. The
superstitious beliefs and mantras confused the people.
2. The teachings of Upanishads were highly philosophical in nature
 and therefore not understood by all.
3. The rigid caste system prevalent in India generated tensions in the
society. Also, the Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the
priestly class. Both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya
caste.
4. The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic
conditions of the Vaishyas. As a result, they wanted to enhance
their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow
this. Therefore, they began to extend support to Buddhism and
Jainism. It was this merchant class that extended the chief support
to these new religions.
2. Causes for the decline of Buddhism
1. The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrit, the language of the elite.
So masses moved away.
2. After the birth of Mahayana Buddhism, the practice of idol
worship and making offerings led to the deterioration of moral
standards.
3. Rajput rulers were warlike and could not follow the policy of
Ahimsa. Besides, the Kings of the Gupta period patronised
temples in honour of Hindu gods and goddesses. Thus, the lack of
royal patronage brought about the decline of Buddhism.
4. Moreover, the attack of the Huns in 5th and 6th centuries and the
Turkish invaders in 12th century destroyed the monasteries.
5. Buddhism was mainly an urban religion with the rural India
always Hindu. When Islam came to India, it impacted the urban
regions first and thus Buddhism became the first victim.
6. The revival of Brahmanism and the rise of Bhagavatism. In 8th
century AD, Adi Sankara greatly cleaned up Hinduism and
brought a very forward outlook. His efforts were assisted by other
south Indian gems like Ramanujacharya, Madhvacharya, etc.
3. Contribution of Buddhism
1. The concept of ahimsa was its chief contribution. Later, it became
one of the cherished values of our nation.
2. Its contribution to the art and architecture of India was notable.
The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya are wonderful pieces of
architecture. Buddhism takes the credit for the chaityas and
viharas in different parts of India.
 3. It promoted education through residential universities like those at
Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramasila.
4. The language of Pali and other local languages developed through
the teachings of Buddhism.
5. It had also promoted the spread of Indian culture to other parts of
Asia.
4. Religious revolution
1. Simplicity of his teaching of truth connected with masses in such
a manner that Buddhism became a completely new approach to
look at religion and society. It became a new religious and social
order.
2. Explanation of sufferings through 4 simple noble truths and the
the wheel of dhamma was understandable by ordinary people
unlike the scriptures interpreted by priests only.
3. Focus was on ethical living rather than rituals, animal sacrifices,
etc.
4. Authority of Vedas was challenged. Faith was given rational
basis.
5. It preached atheism that is, there is no God that will help us in
Moksha but we ourselves are the makers of our destiny.
5. Social revolution
1. It opposed caste and Varna system, any form of hierarchy and
discrimination.
2. Women were given equal status as men which was against the
Shastras like Manusmriti (social code).
3. Use of Pali language as opposed to Sanskrit which could be read
only by Priests, broke the monopoly over knowledge.
4. Emphasis on ahimsa, avoidance of extremes led to establishment
of peaceful society.
5. Tried to narrow gap between rich and poor by advocating its
followers not to accumulate wealth.
6. Political and economical revolution
1. The rigid four fold varna system prevalent in India generated
tensions in the society. Higher classes enjoyed certain privileges
which were denied to the lower classes.
2. The Kshatriyas had resented the ritualistic domination of the
priestly class. Both Buddha and Mahavira belonged to Kshatriya
 origin.
3. The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic
conditions of the Vaishyas. As a result, they wanted to enhance
their social status but the orthodox Varna system did not allow
this. Therefore they supported Jainism and Buddhism.
4. Vedic practice of killing cattle indiscriminately in sacrifices stood
in progress of new agriculture.
5. Dharmasutras forbade money lending on interest which was
widely practised by Vaishyas.
6. The new religions didn’t attach any importance to varna,
orthodoxy, sacrifice and advocated for peace, equality and non-
violence.

Caves

1. Evolution of Buddhist Cave Architecture

1. Phase-1: It began with the construction of Lomas rishi and
Sudama caves in Barabar hills by Ashoka. These were simple
caves and the cave ran parallel to the rock face after entry. There
was one large rectangular room followed by a smaller circular
room.
2. Phase-2: The second stage (100 BC) showed up at Konditve. The
cave was cut perpendicular to the rock face and the inner room
now contained a stupa and a circumambulatory path around it.
3. Phase-3: The next stage was when rows of pillars were built
parallel to the walls creating a circumbulatory passage right after
entering. Bhaja, Pitalkhora, Bedsa caves are examples.
4. Phase-4: During the Satavahana time, caves got royal patronage
and became more elaborate and ornamented. The basic features of
previous phase continued. A variety of mithun couples were
carved on the gates. Multi-storied caves came up. Double storied
viharas came up at Karle and triple storied at Ajanta. Other
examples are Nasik caves, Junnar, Kanheri caves, Pitalkhora.
2. Jaina Caves vs Buddhist Caves
1. Jaina caves were cut in sandstone which is easy to cut but not
good for sculpting. But Buddhist caves were cut into hard rocks
 and were better for sculpting.
2. The Jaina caves had no congregation halls or rock cut shrines. The
Buddhist caves on the other hand had clear halls and the shrine
area.
3. The Jaina cave cells were cut wherever the rock permitted, there
was no planning. The Buddhist cave structure on the other hand
was well laid out.
4. The Jaina caves were simple and reflected the asceticism of Jaina
monks. The Buddhist caves on the other hand were an elaborate
and spacious affair.
5. In terms of similarities, the sculptures use similar motifs like
animals, plants. The honeysuckle style is similar too. Examples of
such caves are Khandgiri and Udaigiri in Puri.

Stupas

1. The stupa originated as a simple semi circular mound of earth, later

called anda. Gradually, it evolved into a more complex structure,
balancing round and square shapes. Above the anda was the harmika, a
balcony like structure that represented the abode of the gods. Arising
from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a
chhatri or umbrella. Around the mound was a railing, separating the
sacred space from the secular world.
2. The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plain except for the stone
railings, which resembled a bamboo or wooden fence, and the
gateways, which were richly carved and installed at the four cardinal
points. Worshippers walked around the mound in a clockwise direction
keeping the mound on the right, imitating the sun’s course through the
sky.
3. The new stupas had a circumambulatory path, a stone railing around it,
two staircases leading up to it, the summit and a stone umbrella over it.
The entire structure was enclosed in stone railings and toran dwars on
all four sides. Sculpture decoration was found on the railings and the
gateways. Examples are the stupas at Sanchi-II, Bharhut,
Nagarjunkonda, Amravati, etc.
4. Most earlier stupas used to have a solid core. However, a transition was
made towards having a spoke wheel plan at the centre made of bricks
 and the spaces filled with mud. Spoked wheel is a symbol of Buddha’s
first sermon. Bhattiprolu stupa (200 BC) is from intermediate phase
having central wheel plan (no spokes).
5. In AP stupas, at the 4 cardinal points of the raised platform, 5 free
standing pillars were erected. These represent the 5 important events in
Buddha’s life birth, renunciation, enlightenment, first sermon,
death. Jaina stupa is also found in Kankali at Mathura which is called
Devanirmit Stupa.
6. Why did Sanchi survive while Amaravati did not
1. Amaravati was discovered before scholars understood the value of
the finds. Only later on they realised how critical it was to
preserve things where they had been found instead of removing
them from the site.
2. In British times, there was a practice of collecting ancient
sculptures ex-situ by removing them from archaeological sites like
Amaravati. Request of Europeans to take away the eastern
Gateway of Sanchi was refused by Shahjehan Begum. She even
provided money for preservation. No such ruler existed for
Amaravati.

Hill side rock cut caves

1. The Western Ghats topography, with its flat-topped basalt hills, deep
ravines, and sharp cliffs, was suited to the cultural inclinations of
Jainas.
2. As the Buddhist ideology encouraged involvement in trade,
monasteries often became stopovers for inland traders and provided
lodging houses along trade routes.
3. The ascetic nature of these religions inclined their followers to live in
natural caves and grottos in the hillsides, away from the cities, and
these became enhanced and embellished over time.
4. They are less visible and therefore less vulnerable to vandalism as well
as made of more durable material than wood and masonry.
5. The Ajanta caves in Maharashtra, a World Heritage Site, are 30 rock-
cut cave Buddhist temples carved into the sheer vertical side of a gorge
near a waterfall fed pool located in the hills of the Sahyadri mountains.
Like all the locations of Buddhist caves, this one is located near main
 trade routes and spans six centuries beginning in the 2nd or 1st century
BC.

Satavahanas

1. They were successors of the Mauryas in Deccan and the Central India.
Simuka is regarded as the founder of this dynasty. Most important king
was GautamiPutra Satakarni (AD 106-130) who raised the power and
prestige of Satavahanas to great heights.

Social conditions during Satavahana time

1. The Satavahana society was divided into four classes. This division was
based on economic activity and status.
2. Women were honoured. They were given higher education and they
took part in religious func​tions. Some of the rulers even added their
mother’s name to their own name, such as Gautamiputra,
Vashishthiputra, Pulumavi, Kaushakiputra etc.
3. The Satavahanas were Brahmanas. Therefore, Brahmansnism made
 rapid strides under their rule. The Brahmanas were accorded the highest
place. Effort was also made to revive the Varna system.
4. Inter marriages among the Hindus and foreign tribes of the Sakas, the
parthians and the Greeks were freely consummated so that these
foreigners were absorbed forever in the Hindu social order.

Literature

1. The Satavahana King Hala was a poet of high order. He composed

‘Gatha Saptasati' in Prakrit.
2. He also patronized several scholars who lived in his court. Gunadhya,
the great scholar who wrote ‘Brihat Katha’ lived in his court.

Mathura school of art

1. Mathura School of art is purely an indigenous style, which developed

during post Maurya period and reached its peak during the Guptas (AD
325 to 600). The Mathura art is known for its assimilative and
indigenous character and is known for earliest Indian representations of
the Buddha. In its early phase, Buddha was depicted as symbol of either
two footprints or wheel. Later, Buddha images represented in human
form.
2. In Mathura, more stress is given to the inner beauty and facial emotions
rather than bodily gesture or realistic representation. Few examples are,
Buddha image with two attendants. Sakyamuni at Sarnath wearing
Indian dhoti. The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely
decorated unlike the Gandhara Art form.
3. Also, since the development of Mathura art took place indigenously,
wherein it used locally available spotted red sandstone and Buddha
images were modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images.
4. Mathura during the Kushan rule, came under the influence of Gandhara
School. With the increased demand of Gandhar Buddha, some Mathura
sculptures too incorporated many Hellenistic elements, such as the
general idealistic realism, curly hair, and folded
garment. Ex: Sarvatobhadrika image of 4 Jaina’s standing back to
back. Standing Buddhas of the Sarnath and Kausambhi.
5. Thus, Mathura and Gandhara art cross fertilised, and the bulky Mathura
Buddha gradually gave way to the slender elegance of the Gandhara
image. The result of this synthesis refined and purified the Buddha
image that appeared in the Gupta period, which later became the model
for Southeast Asian Buddha images.
6. Sculpting features
1. The Jaina image and indigenous style of Buddha’s image was a
remarkable feature of Mathura art. The Sarvatobhadrika image of
4 Jaina’s standing back to back belongs to the Mathura school.
The Standing Buddhas of the Sarnath and Kausambhi belong to
the Mathura School.
2. In Mathura School, there is boldness in carving the large images.
The first Mathura image makers never intended to sculpt an
anatomically correct human Buddha. Later, the human Buddha
images evolved associated with humanly beauty and heroic ideals.
3. Both sitting and standing posture of Buddha’s statues were carved
out in the Mathura school. Buddha image at Mathura is modelled
on the lines of earlier Yaksha images whereas in Gandhara it has
Hellenistic features.
4. The early images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattva are happy,
fleshy figures with little spirituality about them. The garments of
the body are clearly visible and they cover the left shoulder.
5. In the second century AD, images got sensual with increased
rotundness and became flashier. The extreme fleshiness was
reduced by the third century AD and the surface features also got
refined. The halo around the head of Buddha was profusely
decorated.
7. Mathura vs Sarnath School of art
1. In north India, Mathura, remained the main art production site
whereas Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged as important centres
of art production. Many Buddha images in Sarnath have plain
transparent drapery covering both shoulders, and the halo around
the head has very little ornamentation whereas the Mathura
images continue to depict folds of the drapery in the Buddha
images and the halo around the head is profusely decorated.
2. Sarnath introduces not only a delicacy and refinement of form but
also a relaxed attitude by bending the body in the case of the
standing figure thus imparting to it a certain litheness and
movement in contrast to the rigidity of similar Mathura works.
Even in the case of the seated figure, the slender physiognomy
conveys a feeling of movement.
Gupta Period

1. The Gupta period witnessed a tremendous progress in the field of art,

science and literature and on account of this it has been called a golden
age. A few scholars even call this period a period of renaissance. The
cultural progress witnessed during the Gupta period may be called the
culmination of Indian intellectual activities.
2. Achievements
1. Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art evolved during this
period. The most famous examples of Gupta art that still remain
are the numerous seated and standing images of Buddha from
Sarnath and Mathura.
2. Metallurgy had also made a wonderful progress during the Gupta
period. The craftsmen were efficient in the art of casting metal
statues and pillars. The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is
 still free from rust.
3. The paintings of the Gupta period are seen at Bagh caves and
Ajanta. They illustrate the life of the Buddha as depicted in the
Jataka stories. The paintings at Sigiriya in Sri Lanka were highly
influenced by the Ajantha style.
4. The Gupta coinage was also remarkable. Samudragupta issued
eight types of gold coins. The figures inscribed on them are
illustrative of the skill and greatness of Gupta numismatic art.
5. The Sanskrit language became prominent during the Gupta
period. Numerous Epics, lyrics, drama and prose were written in
Sanskrit. Poetry and drama flourished at the court of
Vikramaditya, at his new capital of Ujjain who kept the Nine
Gems, at his court. His court included Kalidasa, whose plays are
some of the most famous works of Indian literature.
6. The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant activity in the sphere of
mathematics, astronomy, astrology and medicine. Aryabhatta
explained scientifically the occurrence of solar and lunar eclipses
and accurately described the earth as a sphere. Chandragupta II
sponsored work on medicine especially Sushruta Samhita also
dates to this period.
3. Gupta administration
1. Gupta kings adopted pompous titles such as 'Parameshwar',
'Maharajadhiraja', which signify they ruled over lesser kings in
their empire. Element of divinity in kingship was present.
2. Council of ministers existed. The empire was divided into 'Bhukti'
(province) placed under the charge of an 'Uparika' (viceroy),
Bhuktis were divided into districts, placed under the charge of
'vishyapati'. The sub-districts were called 'Peth' and the village
was under 'Gramika'.
3. Guptas did not maintain vast bureaucracy like that of Mauryas.
Kumaramatyas were most important officers in Provinces.
4. A large part of the empire was administered by feudatories. Fiscal
and administrative concessions to priests and administrators.
5. Civil and criminal laws were clearly demarcated.
6. They issued large number of gold coins in ancient India called
'dirun' and silver coins called 'rupayaka'.
4. Social conditions
 1. Brahman supremacy continued.
2. Religious functionaries were granted land called agrahara, free of
taxes for ever. They were authorised to collect taxes in those
lands.
3. Though women were idolised in literature, mother goddess were
worshipped, they were accorded lower position. Gupta era saw
child-marraiges, denial of education, etc. The first examples of
sati also came from this period.
4. Position of shudras improved, but number of untouchables and
out-castes increased. The practise of untouchability intensified.
5. Gupta Art
1. Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute
(Veena).
2. 2 metre high bronze image of Buddha belonging to the Mathura
school. The Buddha sitting in his Dharma Chakra mudra at
Sarnath belongs to Gupta period. Buddhas at Bamiyan.
3. Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha (Ananta), Dashavatara
Temple 5th century.
4. Padmapani paintings at Ajanta paintings and Paintings at Bagh
belong to this time. The Colossal trimurti at the Elephanta Caves.
5. Images of vishnu, Shiva and other Gods were created first in this
time.
6. Nalanda university.
6. Gupta literature
1. Love stories: Meghdoot and Abhigyana Shakuntalam by
Kalidasa. Mrichhkatikam by Shudraka. It is love story.
2. Erotic literature: Kamasutra by Vatsayana.
3. Inspiring literature: Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma.
4. Religious literature: Similarly the Puranas, the Mahabharata and
the Manusmriti were recast in their present form in the Gupta
period.
5. Buddhism: In addition to these the important Buddhist books
Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa were also compiled in the Gupta Age.
6. Development of Kavya style. Sanskrit now as a secular literature.
Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali was developed.
7. Science and technology during Gupta age
 1. Aryabhatta wrote Suryasiddhanta and Aryabhatiya. His most
valuable contribution to Mathematics is the theory of zero and the
decimal place value system. He also discovered the earth was
spherical, it rotates on its axis causing day and night, reason
for eclipses, etc.
2. Brahmagupta was a great mathematician. He wrote
Brahmasphutic Siddhanta in which he hinted at law of gravitation.
He also discovered the area of cyclic quadrilateral.
3. Medical science also flourished during this period. The highly
specialised science of transplantation of internal organs was
knows to the Guptas. Susruta was known as father of surgery.
Highly specialised surgical Instruments were in use. Dhanvantri
was famous for Ayurveda knowledge.
4. Veterinary science and treatment had also developed. A book
named Hastyayurved was written in this period.
8. Gupta sculpture
1. Gupta period witnessed the culmination of all the artistic trends
practiced until then. Thus Gupta art is an outcome of the earlier
arts of Amravati, Mathura and Bhahrut, although completely
different in its own way.
2. The focus now moved to the female figure, making human as a
pivot of Gupta sculpture. The art of sculpture making reached
perfection. Deities of Hindu and Buddhist faiths were now
perfectly sculpted along with other images to be placed in shrines
and temples.
3. The excellence of Gupta sculpture lies in not merely in the
amalgamation of all previous arts but in attaining a balance
between major schools of art. Poise and grace are visible in all of
the sculptures. To mention a few, a relief of Goddess Ganga from
Besanagar, variety of sculptures from Bhumra, gandharva couple
from Sondani etc.
4. The finest examples of the Gupta sculpture is unmistakably the
seated Buddha from Sarnath. The standing Buddha from Mathura
and the colossal copper statue of Buddha some more superior
examples of the Gupta sculpture.
5. The standing statue of Sakyamuni is now clothed in a monastic
robe, with a carved halo around the Buddha’s head.
Harshavardhana

1. He wrote 3 dramas. Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda.

Banabhata wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari.

Parthians
Temple architecture

1. The temple building architecture reflects a synthesis of arts, ideals of

dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism.
Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, etc., are different styles of temple
architecture. Pallavas (7th century-9th century) and Cholas (9th
century-11th century) were the major kingdoms which epitomized the
Dravidian architecture. Chalukyas (7th century-11th century) followed
Vesara style of architecture in the Karnataka region. Chalukya art was
followed by Hoysala art (13th century).
2. Nagara style
1. The style of temple architecture followed in North Indian temples.
The Nagara style has its origin in the structural temples of the
Gupta period, especially the Dashavtara temple of Deogarh and
the brick temple of Bhitargaon (UP). The Lingaraj temple, dating
from the 11th century, is one of the grandest and is regarded as a
gem of Nagara architectural style.
2. The plan is square with a number of gradual projections in the
middle of each side.
3. It exhibits a curving shikhara. Earliest temples had only one
shikhara, but in the later periods multiple shikharas came.
4. The entire temple is built on a stone platform with steps leading
up to it.
5. The garbhagriha is located directly under the tallest tower.
3. Dravidian style
1. Dravida architectural features go back to Gupta period.
2. Unlike the nagara temple, the dravida temple is enclosed within a
compound wall.
3. The front wall has an entrance gateway in its centre, which is
known as Gopura/Gopuram.
4. The shape of the main temple tower is known as Vimana
(pyramidal). The vimana is like a stepped pyramid that rise up
geometrically rather than the curving shikhara of north India.
5. A large water reservoir or a temple tank enclosed in the complex
is general in south Indian temples.
6. Pillars and pilasters are vastly used in this architectural style.
4. Nagara vs Dravida vs Vesara