tiOn or -''l l' ·-

el and iI
~~ Cl ~a ssl
.~fftiC 8::::::
JJJ .;ptlt signal of low lev
cti0f1 ,U.der S
~:!')~;;;;;;;;;;J(~lntrod~u
bS

ls~anc f~C !.,e~te:ms~(M~U~·Sem~~6~·~El?:ectrica (1) AudJo aJDud P • f bigb level. .

S-~~na~ ..,1... io output o as m put clnd
rts the signal on CD
into di ne MAjor pa pro du ce s
8 es
Tj,.is d\apter is divided ~ . nal .required for lo
udspeaker,
(Z) CD prayer :auItdio s1g d to
i s
• to
steJD : It is a system designe
conv ert JJJ
(C) .
(8) 0,m municatfOD sy qnnatron•.
(A) Introduction to ,nit and rec eiv e inf
Operations on
(3) , 1
udion lo Systems rraos
lnC rod Signals
Signals ELEMENTARY s1aNAL ---
S
;;.•-- ---~-----,
....
.W f .2 _______ ,._ ... -·~
·-- s for using st-· .. ; .•• •• •,•• •. ... ... .• an fla fd 'te st ·s ig ni d
PART A ···········- ······-··rea .-': •••

"" -at are the son sis of

.... .... ....

aJs are used for analy.

•
D VJJ I I'
GQ
SIGNALS AN .••• .'••• -••········~~:;~~-~ign
INTRODUCTION TO .I
BasicaJJY stanWaJS,luare aJso called as e emen•tary s1gnats•
SYmHS These sign
. s
ocks for the
only. sed as basic building bl
wo rd "signal" very comm syste m. u
Io our daily life, we
sig nals, TV signals, radio
signalsctc. such signals are lex systems.
ple s mo bil e hanges ing of co mp ysical signals:
For ex am
a ph ysical quantity and it c c. design are used to model many ph-. . .
Basically signa l is
variabl . als
pendant or independent These sign give mdication
with respect to some de th ese signals are used to
ms,
In control syste input sigoaJ. Such signals are
also Used
Sl,m l change in
f. f. f Dtflnldon of sudd en
a. -----------------~--- ''
of of control systems.
·-- --------------------------------- ' analysis and designing
''
n "Signal". _____ ,'' for
OR
: GQ. Define the ten
---------------------rie---------- SIGNAL-S~USED 'F
'-------------------------- t va s with onc or f .:J ELEMENTARY
ity tha • ·"
1
ical qu ~t : '

"A signal is phys

••

''.' ,:,TESTING
·,

.
rries some infonnation"
., .........,
more variables and ca
, r~ ,
pressure, . l-..;_ ,.;-t, ·l .·'
' , ,,,
.........,. .. .., ..... ... -,; ;,~
ation of car, sound,
. • .•
..............................
\:..
Eumples : Acceler r· ·· nals with
1
tivity of heart e~ of ,~ en,.~r y sig
circuit, electrical ac ':' UQ.. Explain ~ny five typ
voltage or current of and graphical pl ot
. - -:
•

' '
mathematical equations
,

(ECG)ctc. ay 18, S M ar ks )
,.' (M U • Q. 1(a), M
Sy stem
a. f. f .2 Deftnfdoa ----- -----·--------·--- ---------·--,' !--
of '' ---,.
d discrete time
ard continuous time an
.
,-- ---·- .. --- --- -- --- - --- -----
, . . • ''
...
So me of the stand
;' GQ. Define the ten -------------------------------- __ _---· signals are as follows :
n "System•. •

·-----------------------ral word. It is defined as follows, 6. A rectangular pu

lse
• Systei;n is a gene . input and I. A de signa l
"I t is a functiona
l block that modifies 7. Exponential signa
ls
output" 2. s·mu soida J signal
produces the required 8. Triangular pulse
syste m is shown in Fig. 1.1. l . 3. U nit ste p signal
• The block diagram of 9. Signum function
u t ~ _ Output 4. Delta or unit impulse function
In p signal 10. Sine function.
signal - ~ 5. Unitramp signal.
nal in. tenns of
Fig. Ll .l : Sysum We will discuss each standard sig
screte time (D.T.)
Examples continuous time (C.T.) signal and di
lows :
ples of system are as fol signaJ.
Some common exam

1. Audio amplifier
2. CD player
stem
3. Communication sy

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no ...(1-5)
(Introduction Classification of Signals and Systems)
....Page

'a./ .3. t DC Slpa l

A de signal is as shown in Fig. l.3. l(a). The signal has
amplitude "A" and it remains const ant independent of time.
(I) Cont inuou s Time (CT) DC signal
(Il) Discrete Time (DT) DC signal .
(A) Grap hical Plot: Refer Fig. 1.3. l(a). (A) GnphJcal Plot : Refer Fig. 1.3. l (b).
A de signal is as shown in Fig. 1.3.l(a). The signal Fig. l.3.l( b) shows the discrete time de signal. It has
has amplitude "A" and it remains constant
independent of time. infinite samples each of amplitude A.

-<X)
·-----
x(t)

A r Amplitude 'A
remain constant'
(I)
The signal is from - oo to + "."·

~-----I I I
'
r'"' I
A
I T T I----~
------ -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
'n
5 ------
- t
0 Fig.1 .3.l(b ): A cllscnte time de signal
Fig. 1.3.l(a) : A de signal
(B) Mathematical equation
-
(B) Mathematical equation
The de signal can be represented mathematically The de signal can be represented mathematically as follow
as
follows: s:
x[n} = A -oo< n<oo ... [ l.3. l(B)}
(t) =A -oo< t<oo ...[l.3. l(A)} Note that 't' is replaced by n.

~.3 .2 Sinusoidal Slpals

... ' ,,_...,..,.. -

( • ":• (I) Cont inuou s Time (CI) ,Sinu sol~I Signals
,_... . ,.
(Il) Discr ete Time (DT) Sinusoidal Wav e
(A) Graphical plot: Refer Fig. l.3.2
(A) Graphical plot: Refer
• The sinusoidal signals means sine and cosine waves. • .A discrete time sinuso Fig. l.3.3
They are as shown in the Fig. 1.3.2. idal waveform is given by,
x [n} = A sin (21tfn) . -.[l.3_3(A)}

Fig. ~.3.3 : Dl<icrete time sinusoidal wavefOl'Dl

(B) Math emat ical Equa tions
(B) Mathematical Equation
Mathematically they can be represented as follows :
• Similarly a discrete time cosine wave is given by
A sine wave : x (t) = A sin (2 1t ft) ...(1.3.2] x (n} = A cos (21tfn) _,.(\.3_3(B)]
A cosine wave : x (t) = A cos (21t ft)
...[1.3.2(A)l

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'a. !,,J.J Unlc Seep Slpal

(I) Continuous Time (CT) Unit Step Signal (II) Discrete Time (DT) Unit Step Signal

Notation : It is dcnOkd by u (t), Notation : A discrete time unit step signal is denoted by
u[n].
(A) Gnphical plot : Refer Fig. 1.3.4 (A) Graphical plot : Refer Fig. 1.3.5
step signal is as shown
• The unit amplitude in Fig. 1.3.4. It bas a • lts value is unity (I) for all positive values of 'n' and
constant of unity (means I) for the zero or =
for n 0. That means its value is one for n 0. But for
positive values of time. But it has a zero ~alue for negative values of n, its value is zero.
negative values of time.
Value is unity for • DT unit step signal is shown in Fig. 1.3.5.
x(t) = u(t) zero and.positive time x[n]

Value Is zero for 1 1 ···ao

Value is unit for n=O
end positive value of 'n'
negaitime } Slep action Amplitude Is
1 ............... .......,........ .......,•···········

-1-
I zero for n<O ••••CIO
0
n
0 1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 1.3:4 : Unit step signal

Fig. 1.3.S : A D.T. unJt step signal

(8) Mathematical equation (B) Mathematical Equation

• The unit step signal is mathematically represented as,
For n:1!:0
u (t) =I For t:1!:0 .. u [n] = {~ Forn<O
... (l.3.4(B)]
=0 For t<O ...[l.3.4(A)]

• =
At 1 O, amplitude of signal suddenly changes from
Oto 1. So it is called as unit step.

a. 1.3.4 C.T. Delta or Unit Impulse Funcdon

(I) Continuous Thoe (CT) Delta or Unit Impulse (Il) Discrete Time (D'Ij ~lta or Unit Impulse '
Function Function

Notation: AC.T. delta function is denoted by~ (t). Notation : A discrete time unit impulse function is denoted
by 6 [n].
.
(A) Graphical Plot: Refer Fig. 1.3.6 .(A) Graphical Plot: Refer Fig. 1.3.7
The delta function is as shown in Fig. 1.3.6. It is The graphical representation of unit sample signal is as
•
present only al t =0. The width of signal tends to Oand shown in Fig. 1.3.7.
=
its amplitude al t 0 is infinitely large. Thus area Amplitude is 1 only
atn = 0
,_ --r~-..- ·-r
is unity. 6{n]
under the pulse

• Since area is unity it is called as a unit impulse

function.
r-r i....J
!
1,
l
1··--1
J
;

!
I
x(t) = 6(1) i .. ln

V-The delta function has width

I·-· l ... 0
J ..... ____-..j
tending to zero and amplitude Fig.1.3.7: Unit sample signal &n]
at t = 0 Is lnltlally large
t
0

Y,g. lJ.6 : Delta rundioo

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(I) C~ntinuous Time (CT) Delta or Unit Impulse (II) Discrete Time (DT) Delta or Unit Impulle
Function Function

(B) Mathematical Equation (B) Matbematkal Equation

6 (t) = 0 For t~O ... [l.3.5(A)) Its amplitude js I only at n = O and for all other values of n;
it is :zero.
I For n=O
6 [n] = 0 { For n~O ...( 1.3.S(B))

'1 1.3.5 Unit Ramp Slpal

(l)Contlnuous Time (CT) Unit.Ramp Signal {II) Discrete Time (DT) Unit Ramp Signal
Notation : It is denoted by r (t). Notation : It is denoted by r (o].
(A) Graphical Plot : Refer Fig. 1.3.8 • (A) Graphical Plot: Refer Fig. 1.3.9
The signal is shown in Fig. 1.3.8. Similar to C.T. unit ramp signal, its amplitude is equal to
r(t) I i ·- / j value of n. Thls signal is shown in Fig. 1.3.9.

-,-t- ,'--T •I
IUnit ramp •./j 1 r(n] I 1
l I I i,,
I
4 ,_ i
• 4 t--~~-----_,__ ..,._....;
3 - -11 -- •• -+·-· ····-·I I I I i
2 ' .
1/ ViI ,_,___ !!
o. !
1 2
I
3 4 ·it

Fig. 1.3.8 : A CT ramp signal r(t)

Fig. 1.3.9 : Unit nmp sipal r{n)
• At t = 0, amplitude of signal is zero. At t = 1,
amplitude is 1. At t = 2, amplitude is 2. This amplitude
of signal is same as value of t.
. I
(B) Mathematical equation (B) Mathematical equation

r (t) = {
t, Fort~O
... [1.3.S(C)] r [n]
= { n, Forn ~O
... [1.3.5(0)]
0, otherwise 0, otherwise

a. 1.3.6 . Rectangular Signals

(I) Continuous Time (CT) Rectangular Signals (II) Discrete Tone (DT) Rectangular Signals

Notation : The notation is A rect ( ~) Notation : It is denoted by A rect [ ]

(A) Graphical plot : Refer Fig. 1.3.1O

(A) Graphical plot : Refer Fig. 1.3.12
• A rectangular pulse of unit amplitude A and duration T • Fig. 1.3.12 shows the discrete time rectangular pulse.
is as shown in Fig. 1.3.10.

-
I

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(I) Continuous Time (C'O Rectanp)ar Signals (ll) l)iwete Time (DT) Rec.tJlngular Signals _
---
Amplitude= x(t) =A reel (t/T) ,-
I
I f
r-
IA I
I

I
r-
I l~ I
t i I
-N/2 J • i N/2 j n
1

-T/2 0 T/2. -----,-----1- I j I l

!--· --~ -- ---- - I - ____j____ ······-;
j._ Duration =.I2 - (-I)
2
=T--iI ! ! I Wdth =(N_,t:!) =N I i I
2 2 I

(a) Rectanplar pulse of unit duntion T and amplitude A

Flg.1.3.10 Fig. 1.3.12 : A OT rectangular pulse

(B) Mathematical equation (B) Mathematical Equation

A rec.[½] = A ... - T / 2 S t ST/ 2 } Areci[~] = A ..... - N/2 S n N/2}

= 0 Otherwise ... (l.3.6(A)) = 0 ...... elsewhere ...[l.3.6(B)]

• In this notation, "t" indicates time and 'T' represents

r
the width of the rectangular pulse, A is the amplitude.
•NOTES•
Variable Is time I

x(t) = A mct [t]

•
L L
Amplllude
Width of the pulse

It is possible to represent the rectangular signal in

frequency domain as follows :

X (f) = Arect[2~]
• It is graphically represented as shqwn in
Fig. J.3.11.

Fig. 1.3.11 : Rectangular signal grap~cally

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a. 1.3. 7 Exponendal Slpaals ·

(I) Continuous Time (Cf) Exponential Signals (II) Discrete 11me (DT) ExponeJJtJa.l SJgn.als

(A) Graphical plot: Refer Fig. 1.3.13 (A) GraphJcal plot: Refer Fig. 1.3.14
There are two types of exponentia1 functions namely,
ri,sing and decaying exponential functions, as shown in the • If a < J then exponentia1 function decays, as shown in
Fig, 1.3.13. Fig. J.3.14.

••~"--
f--<~1;,-.:

·--
1

- -
A•t~~ -~·i'.""'t\-1_
--- Decaying exponen tialLH
Jl -
xfnJ • " j '

-,-
- - - - r a (For a<1)'-
I
r-
1
I.....;.-. turx;tton(e-a) j ;
-r ·. , :- . .;·-· 1j
: o.~78 .....L...
I --r ·-,--- - I ·-1 1 0 1 2 3 4

9 I I 1 I _LL I
11
i _J_J
Fig. 1.3.14: Decaying exponential fooctk,n

(a) Decaying exponential function • If a > I then exponential ftmction rises, as shown in

r 1 I --:-r . .
At orig;n ampfitudO ;, 1 ----.:__ _J(tl~-
1 .
Fig. 1.3.15.
-- - • - - - - , ·- "T -,
~[n) ! a" (For a>f) / • .
1---t-.....---1 Rising exponential 1 ' - i. -·- L--- I ; -· l
-· - .... /. 1 nctl ( ··------, --·-- + - 1-;
-,-
··- ,·- 1-- ;-
- •__ --··-·l ....... -..--t-.. i°n .. _-· ;-r···(·· ..... o.3678 __ .
1
• -t I I 0

(b) Rising exponential function Fig. 1.3.15 : Rising apooential fanction

Fig.1.3.13

(B) Mathematical Equation (B) Mathematical Equations

They ar~ mathematica11y represented as follows : • A discrete time exponential signal is expressed as,
D
I. Decaying exponential function : x (t) = e- at ...(1.3.7) x [n] = a ...(1.3.9)
2. Rising exponential function : x (t) =eat ...(1.3.8) Here 'a' is some real constant
• The decaying or rising nature of exponential function,
depends on va1ue of 'a'.

a. 1.3.8 Triangular Pulse

(I) Continuous Time {CT) Triangu lar~ ·' •

(II) .Qiscrete Time (DT) TrianguJar PuJse
,
(A) Graphical plot : Refer Fig. 1.3.16 (A) Graphical plot : Refer Fig. 1.3.17
It is symmetrical pulse at origin. The maximum
It is shown in Fig. 1.3. I7. The width of signal is N.
amplitude is 'A' at origin. The width of signal is T. It is
shown in Fig. 1.3.16.

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(I) Continuous Time (Cf) Triangular Pulse (II) Discrete Time (DT) TrianguJar' Pulse

x(t) • 1 I·
Maximum 1

_: I I
-I
I
amplitude
-1-1
' I
i

0 N ti
_J_ - - 2 _J_ _ ;

L •· 2
-T O 1
_J__j_2
1
T j t
J ' Width= N •I
I-- Width= T --J Fig.1.3.17: D.T. triangular signal
Fig. l.3.16: C.T. triangular signal

(B) Mathemadcal equation (B) Mathematical equation

2
¢(t+f) For -f~t~O • {-t( n+ ~)
A( T) T ••• [1.3.9(A)] x [n] = ~( !i) ... [I.3.9(B)]
-r N
x (I)=
{ 2 - For O~t~
t- 2 For O~t~ 2 N n- 2 2
a. 1.3.9 Slpam Fancdon
. '
' '
(I) Cootlnuom Time (Cf) Sigmon Function (II) Discrete Time (DT) Signum Function
Notation : It is denoted by sgn (t) Notation : It is denoted by sgn [n].
(A) Grapbkal Plot: Refer Fig. 1.3.18 (A)"Graphical Plot: Refer Fig. 1.3.19.
The signum function is as shown in the Fig. 1.3.18. It contains samples of values + 1 for positive "n" and
Amplitude - 1 for negative "n" as shown in Fig. I.3.19.
1 for t>O 9gn[n)
x(t) = sgn(t)
~•1for~
1 ....... """ ...... .......

- - - - -...-1
Amplitude -1 for t<0 Amplllude -1 for n<O

Fig. lJ,18 : Slpum fancdoo Fig. l.3.19: D.T. signum function

The signum function is an antisymmetric function.

(B) Matbema~ F.quation (B) Mathematical Equation

It is represented mathematically as follows : x [n] = sgn [n] = 1 n O
Signum function : = -1 n<0 ... (1.3.11)
sgn(t) = J Fort>O
= -] Fort<O ...(1.3.JO)
=0 Fort=O

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a. 1.3.10 Sine Function

(I) Continuom Time (CT) Sine Function (II) Discrete Time (DT) Sine FunctJon
For C.T., x = t and for D.T. x = n.
Notation : The sine function is denoted by sine (x). U1C X
· ,,,-V..la1al
(A) Graphical plot : Refer Fig. 1.3.20 1 ,r origin

• The graphical representation of a sine

function is as shown in Fig. 1.3.20.
• Sine function has the shape of a sinewave
and its magnitude goes on decreasing as the
value of lxl increases. Fig. 1.3.20 : sine fnnction

(B) Mathematical Equation

sine function : sin {1t x}

sinc(x) = ...Forx~O ...(1.3.12)
(1t x)
sine (x) = 1 ... Atx=O
and sine (x) = 0 ... At x = ± 1, ± 2, ± 3 ....

&. 1.3.11 Properties of Unit Impulse Slpal Meaning

Unit impulse function is also called as Dirac Delta The term x (to) indicates value of x (t) at t = to-
Function. The properties of unit impulse are as follows :
It is called as shifting property of delta function.

1. I 3 (t) dt = 1 4. Jx ('t) 6 (t - 't) ck = x (t)

Meaning : Thus area under unit impulse is unity.

--
It is called as convolution property or replication
property.
2. / x (t) 3 (t) dt;:: x (0)
Meaning : Convolution of any signal, x (t) with 5 (t)
--
produces the same signal X (t).
Meaning : Here x (0) is the value of x (t) at t = 0.
1
I a (t)
S. 6 (at)= I a
3. f X (t) 6 (t - to) dt = X (to)
Here 'a' is some arbitrary constanL
--
Meaning : The term 6 (at) indicates time scaling of
The term 5'(t - to) is called as shifted unit impulse. It is delta function. It is called as scaling property.
shown in Fig. 1.3.21.
!-:,....__,...!-.....,-,.-·T··1
l
a. 1.3. t 2 .Reladonshlp between Standard
i -··
1 ,

[- l '6(ttto> l Slpals
·--r··- -1. t·· 1--;
'
- --:-J.., , -...-, • Important standard signals are unit impulse 6 (t), unit
' -
t
.J,,..•• -
J
t
I step u (t) and ramp signal r (t).
I , • These signals are related as follows
l ... l o . --~
Fig. 1.3.21 : Shifted unit impulse

Fig. 1.3.22 .

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